Wikipedia

Chrysanthemum

For other uses, seeChrysanthemum (disambiguation).

Chrysanthemums(/krɪˈsænθəməmz/kriss-AN-thə-məmz), sometimes calledmumsorchrysanths,[5]areflowering plantsof thegenusChrysanthemumin the familyAsteraceae.[4]They arenativetoEast Asiaandnortheastern Europe.Most species originate from East Asia, and thecenter of diversityis inChina.[6]Countless horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.

Chrysanthemum
Chrysanthemum indicum
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Subfamily: Asteroideae
Tribe: Anthemideae
Genus: Chrysanthemum
L.
Type species
Chrysanthemum indicum
Synonyms[3][4]
  • Chrysanthemumsubsect.Dendranthema(DC.) DC. ex Kitam.
  • NeuractisCass.
  • Pyrethrumsect.DendranthemaDC.
  • Leucanthemum(Tourn.) L.
  • Dendranthema(DC.) Des Moul.
Chrysanthemum
The Chinese character for "chrysanthemum"
Chinese name
ChineseCúc hoa
Literal meaning"chrysanthemum-flower"
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinjúhuā
Wade–Gileschü2-hua1
IPA[tɕy̌.xwá]
Wu
Suzhounesejioh-ho
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanizationgūk-fāa
Jyutpingguk1-faa1
IPA[kʊk̚˥fa˥]
Southern Min
HokkienPOJkak-hue (col.)
kiok-hue (lit.)
Korean name
Hangul국화
HanjaCúc hoa
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationGukhwa
McCune–ReischauerKukhwa
Japanese name
KanjiCúc hoa
Hiraganaきくか
Transcriptions
Romanizationkiku ka

Description

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Historical painting of chrysanthemums from theNew International Encyclopedia,1902
Pollen

ThegenusChrysanthemumareperennialherbaceousflowering plants,sometimessubshrubs.Theleavesare alternate, divided into leaflets and may bepinnatisect,lobed, orserrate(toothed) but rarely entire; they are connected to stalks withhairybases.[7]

The compoundinflorescenceis an array of severalflower heads,or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers ofphyllaries.The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow.Pollen grainsare approximately 34 microns.[citation needed]

The fruit is a ribbedachene.[8][7]

Etymology

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The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from theAncient Greek:χρυσόςchrysos(gold) andἄνθεμονanthemon(flower).[9][10]

Taxonomy

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The genusChrysanthemumwas first formally described byLinnaeusin 1753, with 14species,and hence bears his name (L.) as thebotanical authority.[11]The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago[when?]into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genusDendranthema.The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of theInternational Botanical Congressin 1999 changed thedefining speciesof the genus toChrysanthemum indicum,restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genusChrysanthemum.[citation needed]

Genera now separated fromChrysanthemumincludeArgyranthemum,Glebionis,Leucanthemopsis,Leucanthemum,Rhodanthemum,andTanacetum.

Species

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As of February 2020,Plants of the World Onlineaccepted the following species:[4]

Former species include:

Ecology

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Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. They are also known as a flower associated with the month of November.[12]

Cultivation

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A chrysanthemum market in Japan, 1914

Chrysanthemums (Chinese:Cúc hoa;pinyin:Júhuā) were first cultivated in China as a floweringherbas far back as the 15th centuryBCE.[13]Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630.[8]By 2014, it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China.[14]The plant is renowned as one of theFour Gentlemen(Tứ quân tử) inChineseandEast Asian Art.The plant is particularly significant during theDouble Ninth Festival.[citation needed]

Chrysanthemum cultivation in Japan began during theNaraandHeian periods(early 8th to late 12th centuries) and gained popularity in theEdo period(early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes. They were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity.[15][16]In addition, from theMeiji period(late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over20 centimetres (7+7⁄8in) in diameter, called theOgiku(lit., great chrysanthemum) style, were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums.[15]TheImperial Seal of Japanis a chrysanthemum, and the institution of the monarchy is also called theChrysanthemum Throne.A number of festivals and shows take place throughout Japan in autumn when the flowers bloom.Chrysanthemum Day(Cúc の tiết câu,Kiku no Sekku)is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show.[citation needed]

Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 whenColonel John Stevensimported acultivated varietyknown as Dark Purple from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions withinElysian FieldsinHoboken, New Jersey.[17]

Uses

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Ornamental uses

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C. indicum
Different colors ofChrysanthemum x morifolium
Example of a Japanesebonsaichrysanthemum

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are usually brighter and more striking than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, likepomponsorbuttons.This genus contains manyhybridsand thousands ofcultivarsdeveloped for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid isChrysanthemum×morifolium(syn.C.×grandiflorum), derived primarily fromC. indicum,but also involving other species.[citation needed]

Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit(confirmed 2017).[18]

In Japan, a form ofbonsaichrysanthemum was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. Another method is to use pieces of dead wood and the flower grows over the back along the wood to give the illusion from the front that the miniature tree blooms.

Culinary uses

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Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the speciesC. morifoliumare boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply aschrysanthemum tea(CúcHoaTrà,pinyin:júhuā chá,in Chinese). In Korea, arice wineflavored with chrysanthemum flowers is calledgukhwaju(국화주).

Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such asmixianin broth or thick snakemeat soup ( xà canh ) to enhance the aroma. They are commonly used inhot potand stir fries. In Japanese cuisine, small chrysanthemums are used as garnish forsashimi.

Insecticidal uses

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Pyrethrum(Chrysanthemum[orTanacetum]cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source ofinsecticide.The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, calledpyrethrins,which occur in theachenes,are extracted and sold in the form of anoleoresin.This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of allinsects,and inhibit femalemosquitoesfrom biting. In sublethal doses, they have aninsect repellenteffect.[citation needed]They are harmful tofish,but are far less toxic tomammalsandbirdsthan many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, beingbiodegradable,and alsodecomposeeasily on exposure to light.Pyrethroidssuch aspermethrinare synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such asleafminer fliesincludingL. trifolii.[19]

Persian powderis an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.

Environmental uses

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Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduceindoor air pollutionby theNASA Clean Air Study.[20]

In culture

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In some European countries (e.g., France,Belgium,Italy, Spain,Poland,Hungary,Croatia), incurve chrysanthemums symbolizedeathand are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism;[citation needed]similarly, in China, Japan, andKoreaof East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty.[better source needed][21]In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful,[22]with New Orleans as a notable exception.[23]

In theVictorianlanguage of flowers,the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love.[24]The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.[25]

East Asia

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China

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Ming dynastyredlacquerwaredish with carved chrysanthemums and dragons
  • The chrysanthemum is the city flower ofBeijingandKaifeng.The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to theJürchensin 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year.[26]
  • The chrysanthemum is one of the "Four Gentlemen"(Tứ quân tử) of China (the others being theplum blossom,theorchid,andbamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored byTao Qian,an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers.
  • A chrysanthemum festival is held each year inTongxiang,nearHangzhou,China.[27]
  • Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China.[28]
  • The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movieCurse of the Golden Floweris a chrysanthemum.
  • "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā ménCúc hoa môn), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum ( cúc hoa ), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations).[29]
  • An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
  • The plant is particularly significant during the ChineseDouble Ninth Festival.
  • In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties.[30]Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire.
  • Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of Chinalisted two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.[31]

Japan

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Imperial Standard of the Emperor of Japan
Thescabbardof awakizashiwith chrysanthemums painted usingmaki-e,a decoration technique ofJapanese lacquerware.18th century,Edo period.
OuterKimonofor a Young Woman (Uchikake). Motif: Chrysanthemums and fences.

Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of China in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme ofwaka(Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in theHeian period,andKokin Wakashūis the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during theKamakura period,when the RetiredEmperor Go-Tobaadopted it as themon (family crest)of theImperial family,it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During theEdo periodfrom the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums,cherry blossoms,Japanese iris,morning glory,etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and manychrysanthemum exhibitionswere held. From theMeiji periodin the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation ofogikustyle cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular.[32][15][33]

In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at theShinjuku Gyo-en,Meiji ShrineandYasukuni ShrineinTokyo.The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine ( quan quốc tệ xã,kankokuheisha) has adopted the chrysanthemum crest.[34]Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditionalJapanese artslikeporcelain,lacquerwareandkimono.[32]

Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by manyJapanese peoplewho enter prize plants in contests.[32]Chrysanthemum "dolls", often depicting fictional characters from both traditional sources likekabukiand contemporary sources like Disney, are displayed throughout the fall months, and the city ofNihonmatsuhosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin ofNihonmatsu Castle.[35]They are also grown intochrysanthemum bonsaiforms.

  • In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of theEmperorand theImperial family.In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" ( cúc hoa văn chương,kikukamonshōorkikkamonshō), i.e. amonof chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include:
    • TheImperial Seal of Japanis used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern.[36]
    • TheChrysanthemum Throneis the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne.
    • The SupremeOrder of the Chrysanthemumis a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of theJapanese government.
    • In Imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor.[37]
  • TheNagoya CastleChrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is forbonsaiflowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes.
  • Chrysanthemum crest on thebattleshipMikasa
  • Maki-eSakeEwer with Chrysanthemums andPaulownia Crestsin Alternating Fields. early 17th century,Azuchi–Momoyama period.
  • Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns.
  • "Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005)
  • Chrysanthemums in the JapaneseOgiku(lit., great chrysanthemum) style.
19th-century Korean painting

Korea

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Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as theMasan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival.

The flower is found extensively in ancient inlaidGoreyo wareand reproduced in stamp form inBuncheong wares.Several twentieth century potters, especially Kim Se-yong, created double-wall wares featuring each individual petal painted in white clay against aceladonbackground. A vase produced using this technique and presented in 1999 toQueen Elizabeth IIcan be found in theRoyal Collection.[38]

West Asia

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Iran

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In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.[39]

Oceania

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Australia

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In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.[40]

North America

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United States

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Europe

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Italy

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Italian composerGiacomo PucciniwroteCrisantemi(1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friendAmedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta.InItaly(and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at thecemeteryand is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with theDay of the Dead (2 November).

Poland

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Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead duringAll Saints' DayandAll Souls' DayinPoland.[46]

United Kingdom

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TheUK National Collectionof hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens nearWarwick.[47]

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  • Bud of a garden chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthemum×morifolium'Tokyo'
  • Purple Chrysanthemum
  • pinkChrysanthemum×morifolium
  • Red chrysanthemum
  • Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthemum×morifolium'Vesuvius'
  • Chrysanthemum zawadskii
  • Chrysanthemum indicum
  • Chrysanthemum japonensevar.ashizuriense
  • A peach coloured chrysanthemum
  • Tiger Tail chrysanthemum
  • Leaves of chrysanthemum plant
  • A chrysanthemum show
  • Yellow Chrysanthemum.
  • Purple Chrysanthemum
  • Chrysanthamums, mixed, part of a display at Hampton Court Flower Show.

See also

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References

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  1. ^Nicolson, Dan H. (May 1999). "Report of the General Committee: 8".Taxon.48(2): 373–378.doi:10.2307/1224444.JSTOR1224444.
  2. ^"Chrysanthemum L."Tropicos.
  3. ^"Flann, C (ed) 2009+ Global Compositae Checklist".Archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2014.Retrieved31 October2021.
  4. ^abc"ChrysanthemumL. "Plants of the World Online.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Retrieved24 February2020.
  5. ^"Chrysanthemums: Rethinking a Fast-Food Flower".17 September 2019.
  6. ^Liu, Ping-Li; Wan, Qian; Guo, Yan-Ping; Yang, Ji; Rao, Guang-Yuan (1 November 2012)."Phylogeny of the Genus Chrysanthemum L.: Evidence from Single-Copy Nuclear Gene and Chloroplast DNA Sequences".PLOS ONE.7(11): e48970.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748970L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048970.PMC3486802.PMID23133665.
  7. ^abOberprieler et al 2007.
  8. ^abChrysanthemum.Flora of China. eFloras.
  9. ^David Beaulieu."Chrysanthemums and Hardy Mums – Colorful Fall Flowers".About.Archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2012.
  10. ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Chrysanthemum".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  11. ^Linnaeus 1753.
  12. ^"Flower of the Month: Chrysanthemums".CityFlowersIndia.Archived fromthe originalon 6 March 2016.
  13. ^"History of the Chrysanthemum".National Chrysanthemum Society, USA.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2013.
  14. ^The Scientific World Journal Volume 2014,Article ID 625658
  15. ^abcHistory of chrysanthemums.Odawara City
  16. ^Chrysanthemum exhibitionHiroshima Botanical Garden
  17. ^The New York Botanical Garden,Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume XBronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797
  18. ^"AGM Plants – Ornamental"(PDF).Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 19.Retrieved24 January2018.
  19. ^"American serpentine leafminer - Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess)".entnemdept.ufl.edu.Retrieved20 November2019.
  20. ^B. C. Wolverton; Rebecca C. McDonald; E. A. Watkins, Jr."Foliage Plants for Removing Indoor Air Pollutants from Energy-efficient Homes"(PDF).Retrieved27 December2013.
  21. ^Flower Meaning.Retrieved 22 September 2007.Archived12 October 2007 at theWayback Machine
  22. ^"Chrysanthemum (Mums) Flower Meaning & Symbolism".Teleflora.
  23. ^"Metairie Cemetery".PBase.
  24. ^"Flower Meanings, Flower Sentiments".Language of Flowers.Archived fromthe originalon 24 November 2016.Retrieved26 November2016.
  25. ^"Birth Month Flower of November – The Chrysanthemum – Flowers, Low Prices, Same Day Delivery".1st in Flowers!. 27 October 2008.Retrieved27 March2010.
  26. ^"Trung Quốc Khai Phong cúc hoa hội hoa thay tên vì Trung Quốc Khai Phong cúc hoa văn hóa tiết _ tân lãng tin tức".news.sina.cn.Retrieved29 November2017.
  27. ^"Remarkable Investment Attraction Result of Tongxiang City".Zhe gian g Foreign Frade and Economic Cooperation Bureau. Archived fromthe originalon 16 December 2003.Retrieved17 July2009.
  28. ^2010 năm 0 ngày 27 tháng 3 thứ bảy hai tháng mười hai canh dần ( hổ ) năm."Quốc học 365- Trung Quốc lịch đại cúc hoa thơ 365 đầu".Guoxue.Retrieved27 March2010.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  29. ^Chao, E. (2009).Niubi: the real Chinese you were never taught in school.Plume.
  30. ^"Chinese Symbols." The British Museum, 2008. Accessed 4 October 2017.
  31. ^Tang, Weici; Eisenbrand, Gerhard (1992).Chinese Drugs of Plant Origin: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Use in Traditional and Modern Medicine.Springer Berlin / Heidelberg. p. 302.ISBN9783642737398.
  32. ^abcBuckley, Sandra (2002).Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture.Routledge.
  33. ^LOVE OF FLOWERS."Sketches of Japanese manners and customs" Jacob Mortimer Wier Silver, 1867
  34. ^Inoue, Nobutaka (2 June 2005)."Shinmon".Encyclopedia of Shinto.Retrieved17 November2008.
  35. ^"Nhị bổn tùng の cúc hình người".City.nihonmatsu.lg.jp. Archived fromthe originalon 23 July 2011.Retrieved27 March2010.
  36. ^Jones, Colin."Badges of honor: what Japan's legal lapel pins really mean".The Japan Times.Retrieved26 February2015.
  37. ^"Markings on Japanese Arisaka Rifles and Bayonets of World War II".oldmilitarymarkings.
  38. ^"Kim Se-Yong (b.1946) - Vase".rct.uk.Retrieved15 March2024.
  39. ^Modi, Jivanji J. (1937).Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees.Bombay: M.J.Karani. p. 375.OCLC3009874.
  40. ^"Flowering Plants and Shrubs".Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2011.
  41. ^abLa Peninsula, xlii (1)
  42. ^Chrysanthemum: The Official Flower of Chicago.Chicago Public Library.
  43. ^City of Salinas Permit Center.Archived5 October 2013 at theWayback MachineCity of Salinas Community Development Department.
  44. ^"Phi Mu Alpha".ou.edu.
  45. ^"Sigma Alpha, University of California, Davis chapter".
  46. ^"All Saints' Day".Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  47. ^"UK: National Plant Collection to preserve chrysanthemums".Floral Daily.10 March 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 14 October 2017.Retrieved13 October2017.

Bibliography

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Books
Articles
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  1. ^Linnaeus 1753.
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