Beetlesareinsectsthat form theorderColeoptera(/koʊliːˈɒptərə/), in the superorderHolometabola.Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases,elytra,distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species;[2]new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. However, the number of beetle species is challenged by the number of species indipterans(flies) andhymenopterans(wasps).
| Beetle | |
|---|---|
| |
| Clockwise from top left: female golden stag beetle (Lamprima aurata),rhinoceros beetle(Megasomasp.), long nose weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus), cowboy beetle (Chondropyga dorsalis), and a species ofAmblytelus | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Clade: | Coleopterida |
| Order: | Coleoptera Linnaeus,1758 |
| Suborders[1] | |
Found in almost every habitat except the sea and thepolar regions,they interact with theirecosystemsin several ways: beetles often feed on plants andfungi,break down animal and plant debris, and eat otherinvertebrates.Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as theColorado potato beetle,while others such asCoccinellidae(ladybirds or ladybugs) eataphids,scale insects,thrips,and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops. Some others also have unusual characteristics, such asfireflies,which use a light-emitting organ for mating and communication purposes.
Beetles typically have a particularly hardexoskeletonincluding theelytra,though some such as therove beetleshave very short elytra whileblister beetleshave softer elytra. The generalanatomyof a beetle is quite uniform and typical of insects, although there are several examples of novelty, such as adaptations inwater beetleswhich trap air bubbles under the elytra for use while diving. Beetles areholometabolans,which means that they undergo completemetamorphosis,with a series of conspicuous and relatively abrupt changes in body structure between hatching and becoming adult after a relatively immobilepupalstage. Some, such asstag beetles,have a markedsexual dimorphism,the males possessing enormously enlargedmandibleswhich they use to fight other males. Many beetles areaposematic,with bright colors and patterns warning of their toxicity, while others are harmlessBatesian mimicsof such insects. Many beetles, including those that live in sandy places, have effectivecamouflage.
Beetles are prominentin human culture,from thesacred scarabsofancient Egypttobeetlewingart and use aspetsorfighting insectsfor entertainment and gambling. Many beetle groups are brightly and attractively colored making them objects of collection and decorative displays. Over 300 species areused as food,mostly aslarvae;species widely consumed includemealwormsandrhinoceros beetlelarvae. However, the major impact of beetles on human life is as agricultural, forestry, and horticulturalpests.Serious pest species include theboll weevilof cotton, theColorado potato beetle,thecoconut hispine beetle,themountain pine beetle,and many others. Most beetles, however, do not cause economic damage and some, such as numerous species oflady beetles,are beneficial by helping to control insect pests. The scientific study of beetles is known ascoleopterology.
Etymology
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The name of the taxonomic order, Coleoptera, comes from theGreekkoleopteros(κολεόπτερος), given to the group byAristotlefor theirelytra,hardened shield-like forewings, fromkoleos,sheath, andpteron,wing. The English name beetle comes from theOld Englishwordbitela,little biter, related tobītan(to bite),[3][4]leading toMiddle Englishbetylle.[5]Another Old English name for beetle isċeafor,chafer, used in names such ascockchafer,from the Proto-Germanic *kebrô( "beetle"; compare GermanKäfer,Dutchkever,Afrikaanskewer).[6]
Distribution and diversity
editBeetles are by far the largest order of insects: the roughly 400,000 species make up about 40% of all insect species so far described, and about 25% of all animal species.[1][7][8][9][10][11]A 2015 study provided four independent estimates of the total number of beetle species, giving a mean estimate of some 1.5 million with a "surprisingly narrow range"[12]spanning all four estimates from a minimum of 0.9 to a maximum of 2.1 million beetle species. The four estimates made use of host-specificity relationships (1.5 to 1.9 million), ratios with other taxa (0.9 to 1.2 million), plant:beetle ratios (1.2 to 1.3), and extrapolations based on body size by year of description (1.7 to 2.1 million).[12][13]
This immense diversity led the evolutionary biologistJ. B. S. Haldaneto quip, when sometheologiansasked him what could be inferred about the mind of theChristian Godfrom the works of His Creation, "An inordinate fondness for beetles".[14]
However, the ranking of beetles as most diverse has been challenged. Multiple studies posit that Diptera (flies) and/or Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants and bees) may have more species.[15][16][17]
Beetles are found in nearly all habitats, including freshwater and coastal habitats, wherever vegetative foliage is found, from trees and their bark to flowers, leaves, and underground near roots - even inside plants in galls, in every plant tissue, including dead or decaying ones.[18]Tropical forest canopies have a large and diverse fauna of beetles,[19]includingCarabidae,[20]Chrysomelidae,[21]andScarabaeidae.[22]
The heaviest beetle, indeed the heaviest insect stage, is thelarvaof thegoliath beetle,Goliathus goliatus,which can attain a mass of at least 115 g (4.1 oz) and a length of 11.5 cm (4.5 in). Adult male goliath beetles are the heaviest beetle in its adult stage, weighing 70–100 g (2.5–3.5 oz) and measuring up to 11 cm (4.3 in).[23]Adultelephant beetles,Megasoma elephasandMegasoma actaeonoften reach 50 g (1.8 oz) and 10 cm (3.9 in).[24]
The longest beetle is theHercules beetleDynastes hercules,with a maximum overall length of at least 16.7 cm (6.6 in) including the very longpronotalhorn. The smallest recorded beetle and the smallest free-living insect (as of 2015[update]), is thefeatherwing beetleScydosella musawasensiswhich may measure as little as 325μmin length.[25]
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Titan beetle,Titanus giganteus,a tropicallonghorn,is one of the largest and heaviest insects in the world. -
Scydosella musawasensis,the smallest known beetle: scale bar (right) is 50 μm. -
Hercules beetle,Dynastes hercules ecuatorianus,the longest of all beetles. -
IridescentProtaetia cupreafeeding on thistle.
Evolution
editLate Paleozoic and Triassic
edit
The oldest known beetle isColeopsis,from the earliest Permian (Asselian) of Germany, around 295 million years ago.[26]Early beetles from the Permian, which are collectively grouped into the "Protocoleoptera"are thought to have beenxylophagous(wood eating) andwood boring.Fossils from this time have been found in Siberia and Europe, for instance in the red slate fossil beds of Niedermoschel near Mainz, Germany.[27]Further fossils have been found in Obora, Czech Republic and Tshekarda in the Ural mountains, Russia.[28]However, there are only a few fossils from North America before themiddle Permian,although both Asia and North America had been united toEuramerica.The first discoveries from North America made in theWellington Formationof Oklahoma were published in 2005 and 2008.[29][30]The earliest members of modern beetle lineages appeared during theLate Permian.In thePermian–Triassic extinction eventat the end of the Permian, most "protocoleopteran" lineages became extinct. Beetle diversity did not recover to pre-extinction levels until theMiddle Triassic.[31]
Jurassic
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During theJurassic(210 to 145mya), there was a dramatic increase in the diversity of beetle families,[29]including the development and growth of carnivorous and herbivorous species. TheChrysomeloideadiversified around the same time, feeding on a wide array of plant hosts fromcycadsandconiferstoangiosperms.[32]Close to the Upper Jurassic, the Cupedidae decreased, but the diversity of the early plant-eating species increased. Most recent plant-eating beetles feed on flowering plants or angiosperms, whose success contributed to a doubling of plant-eating species during theMiddle Jurassic.However, the increase of the number of beetle families during the Cretaceous does not correlate with the increase of the number of angiosperm species.[33]Around the same time, numerous primitive weevils (e.g.Curculionoidea) and click beetles (e.g.Elateroidea) appeared. The first jewel beetles (e.g.Buprestidae) are present, but they remained rare until the Cretaceous.[34][35][36]The first scarab beetles were not coprophagous but presumably fed on rotting wood with the help of fungus; they are an early example of amutualisticrelationship.
There are more than 150 important fossil sites from the Jurassic, the majority in Eastern Europe and North Asia. Outstanding sites includeSolnhofenin UpperBavaria,Germany,[37]Karatau in SouthKazakhstan,[38]the Yixian formation inLiaoning,North China,[39]as well as the Jiulongshan formation and further fossil sites inMongolia.In North America there are only a few sites with fossil records of insects from the Jurassic, namely the shell limestone deposits in the Hartford basin, the Deerfield basin and the Newark basin.[29][40]
Cretaceous
editTheCretaceoussaw the fragmenting of the southern landmass, with the opening of the southern Atlantic Ocean and the isolation of New Zealand, while South America, Antarctica, and Australia grew more distant.[32]The diversity of Cupedidae andArchostematadecreased considerably. Predatory ground beetles (Carabidae) and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) began to distribute into different patterns; theCarabidaepredominantly occurred in the warm regions, while theStaphylinidaeandclick beetles(Elateridae) preferred temperate climates. Likewise, predatory species ofCleroideaandCucujoideahunted their prey under the bark of trees together with thejewel beetles(Buprestidae). The diversity of jewel beetles increased rapidly, as they were the primary consumers of wood,[41]whilelonghorn beetles(Cerambycidae) were rather rare: their diversity increased only towards the end of the Upper Cretaceous.[29]The first coprophagous beetles are from the Upper Cretaceous[42]and may have lived on the excrement of herbivorous dinosaurs.[43]The first species where both larvae and adults are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle are found. Whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae) were moderately diverse, although other early beetles (e.g. Dytiscidae) were less, with the most widespread being the species ofCoptoclavidae,which preyed on aquatic fly larvae.[29] A 2020 review of the palaeoecological interpretations of fossil beetles from Cretaceous ambers has suggested thatsaproxylicitywas the most common feeding strategy, withfungivorousspecies in particular appearing to dominate.[44]
Many fossil sites worldwide contain beetles from the Cretaceous. Most are in Europe and Asia and belong to the temperate climate zone during the Cretaceous.[39]Lower Cretaceous sites include the Crato fossil beds in the Araripe basin in theCeará,North Brazil, as well as overlying Santana formation; the latter was near the equator at that time. In Spain, important sites are nearMontsecandLas Hoyas.In Australia, the Koonwarra fossil beds of the Korumburra group,South Gippsland,Victoria, are noteworthy. Major sites from the Upper Cretaceous include Kzyl-Dzhar in South Kazakhstan and Arkagala in Russia.[29]
Cenozoic
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Beetle fossils are abundant in the Cenozoic; by theQuaternary(up to 1.6 mya), fossil species are identical to living ones, while from theLate Miocene(5.7 mya) the fossils are still so close to modern forms that they are most likely the ancestors of living species. Thelarge oscillations in climateduring the Quaternary caused beetles to change their geographic distributions so much that current location gives little clue to the biogeographical history of a species. It is evident that geographic isolation of populations must often have been broken as insects moved under the influence of changing climate, causing mi xing of gene pools, rapid evolution, and extinctions, especially in middle latitudes.[46]
Phylogeny
editThe very large number of beetle species poses special problems forclassification.Some families contain tens of thousands of species, and need to be divided into subfamilies and tribes.Polyphagais the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, includingrove beetles(Staphylinidae), scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae),blister beetles(Meloidae),stag beetles(Lucanidae) and true weevils (Curculionidae).[10][47]These polyphagan beetle groups can be identified by the presence of cervicalsclerites(hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders.[48] Adephagacontains about 10 families of largely predatory beetles, includesground beetles(Carabidae), water beetles (Dytiscidae) andwhirligig beetles(Gyrinidae). In these insects, thetestesare tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of theexoskeleton) is divided by the hindcoxae(the basal joints of the beetle's legs).[49] Archostematacontains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, includingreticulated beetles(Cupedidae) and thetelephone-pole beetle.[50] The Archostemata have an exposed plate called the metatrochantin in front of the basal segment or coxa of the hind leg.[51]Myxophagacontains about 65 described species in four families, mostly very small, includingHydroscaphidaeand the genusSphaerius.[52]The myxophagan beetles are small and mostly alga-feeders. Their mouthparts are characteristic in lacking galeae and having a mobile tooth on their left mandible.[53]
The consistency of beetlemorphology,in particular their possession ofelytra,has long suggested that Coleoptera ismonophyletic,though there have been doubts about the arrangement of thesuborders,namely theAdephaga,Archostemata,MyxophagaandPolyphagawithin thatclade.[54][32][55][56][57]The twisted-wing parasites,Strepsiptera,are thought to be a sister group to the beetles, having split from them in theEarly Permian.[56][58][59][60]
Molecular phylogenetic analysis confirms that the Coleoptera are monophyletic. Duane McKenna et al. (2015) used eight nuclear genes for 367 species from 172 of 183 Coleopteran families. They split the Adephaga into 2 clades, Hydradephaga and Geadephaga, broke up the Cucujoidea into 3 clades, and placed the Lymexyloidea within the Tenebrionoidea. The Polyphaga appear to date from the Triassic. Most extant beetle families appear to have arisen in the Cretaceous.[60]Thecladogramis based on McKenna (2015).[60]The number of species in each group (mainly superfamilies) is shown in parentheses, and boldface if over 10,000.[61]English common names are given where possible. Dates of origin of major groups are shown in italics in millions of years ago (mya).[61]
| Coleoptera |
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| 285 mya |
External morphology
edit
Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hardexoskeletonand hard forewings (elytra) not usable for flying. Almost all beetles have mandibles that move in a horizontal plane. The mouthparts are rarely suctorial, though they are sometimes reduced; the maxillae always bear palps. The antennae usually have 11 or fewer segments, except in some groups like the Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) and the Rhipiceridae (cicada parasite beetles). The coxae of the legs are usually located recessed within a coxal cavity. The genitalic structures are telescoped into the last abdominal segment in all extant beetles. Beetle larvae can often be confused with those of other holometabolan groups.[51]The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, calledsclerites,separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The generalanatomyof a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs andappendagesvary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.[8]Because there are so many species, identification is quite difficult, and relies on attributes including the shape of the antennae, thetarsal formulae[a]and shapes of these small segments on the legs, the mouthparts, and the ventral plates (sterna, pleura, coxae). In many species accurate identification can only be made by examination of the unique male genitalic structures.[62]
Head
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The head, having mouthparts projecting forward or sometimes downturned, is usually heavilysclerotizedand is sometimes very large.[7]The eyes arecompoundand may display remarkable adaptability, as in the case of the aquatic whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae), where they are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. A fewLonghorn beetles(Cerambycidae) and weevils as well as some fireflies (Rhagophthalmidae)[63]have divided eyes, while many have eyes that are notched, and a few haveocelli,small, simpleeyesusually farther back on the head (on thevertex); these are more common in larvae than in adults.[64]The anatomical organization of the compound eyes may be modified and depends on whether a species is primarily crepuscular, or diurnally or nocturnally active.[65]Ocelli are found in the adult carpet beetle (as a single central ocellus inDermestidae), some rove beetles (Omaliinae), and theDerodontidae.[64]
Beetleantennaeare primarily organs of sensory perception and can detect motion, odor and chemical substances,[66]but may also be used to physically feel a beetle's environment. Beetle families may use antennae in different ways. For example, when moving quickly, tiger beetles may not be able to see very well and instead hold their antennae rigidly in front of them in order to avoid obstacles.[67] Certain Cerambycidae use antennae to balance, and blister beetles may use them for grasping. Some aquatic beetle species may use antennae for gathering air and passing it under the body whilst submerged. Equally, some families use antennae during mating, and a few species use them for defense. In the cerambycidOnychocerus albitarsis,the antennae have venom injecting structures used in defense, which is unique amongarthropods.[68]Antennae vary greatly in form, sometimes between the sexes, but are often similar within any given family. Antennae may beclubbed,threadlike,angled,shaped like a string of beads,comb-like(either on one side or both, bipectinate), ortoothed.The physical variation of antennae is important for the identification of many beetle groups. The Curculionidae have elbowed or geniculate antennae. Feather like flabellate antennae are a restricted form found in the Rhipiceridae and a few other families. The Silphidae have a capitate antennae with a spherical head at the tip. The Scarabaeidae typically have lamellate antennae with the terminal segments extended into long flat structures stacked together. The Carabidae typically have thread-like antennae. The antennae arises between the eye and the mandibles and in the Tenebrionidae, the antennae rise in front of a notch that breaks the usually circular outline of the compound eye. They are segmented and usually consist of 11 parts, the first part is called the scape and the second part is the pedicel. The other segments are jointly called the flagellum.[66][69][70]
Beetles havemouthpartslike those ofgrasshoppers.Themandiblesappear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (seedefence,below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages, the maxillary and labial palpi, are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. In many species, the mandibles are sexually dimorphic, with those of the males enlarged enormously compared with those of females of the same species.[7]
Thorax
editThe thorax issegmentedinto the two discernible parts, the pro- and pterothorax. The pterothorax is the fused meso- and metathorax, which are commonly separated in other insect species, although flexibly articulate from the prothorax. When viewed from below, the thorax is that part from which all three pairs of legs and both pairs of wings arise. The abdomen is everything posterior to the thorax.[8]When viewed from above, most beetles appear to have three clear sections, but this is deceptive: on the beetle's upper surface, the middle section is a hard plate called thepronotum,which is only the front part of the thorax; the back part of the thorax is concealed by the beetle'swings.This further segmentation is usually best seen on the abdomen.[citation needed][71]
Legs
editThe multisegmentedlegsend in two to five small segments called tarsi. Like many other insect orders, beetles have claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs have been variously adapted for other uses. Aquatic beetles including theDytiscidae (diving beetles),Haliplidae,and many species ofHydrophilidae,the legs, often the last pair, are modified for swimming, typically with rows of long hairs. Male diving beetles have suctorial cups on their forelegs that they use to grasp females.[72]Other beetles havefossoriallegs widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, andclown beetles(Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such asflea beetles(within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), have enlarged femurs that help them leap.[73]
Wings
edit
The forewings of beetles are not used forflight,but form elytra which cover the hind part of the body and protect the hindwings. The elytra are usually hard shell-like structures which must be raised to allow the hindwings to move for flight.[74]However, in the soldier beetles (Cantharidae), the elytra are soft, earning this family the name of leatherwings.[75]Other soft wing beetles include thenet-winged beetleCalopteron discrepans,which has brittle wings that rupture easily in order to release chemicals for defense.[76]
Beetles' flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and stored below the elytra. A fold (jugum) of the membrane at the base of each wing is characteristic.[74]Some beetles have lost the ability to fly. These include some ground beetles (Carabidae) and some true weevils (Curculionidae), as well as desert- and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families, both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, as in theglow-worms(Phengodidae), where the femalesresemble larvaethroughout their lives.[77]The presence of elytra and wings does not always indicate that the beetle will fly. For example, thetansy beetlewalks between habitats despite being physically capable of flight.[78]
Abdomen
editTheabdomenis the section behind the metathorax, made up of a series of rings, each with a hole for breathing and respiration, called aspiracle,composing three different segmented sclerites: the tergum, pleura, and the sternum. The tergum in almost all species is membranous, or usually soft and concealed by the wings and elytra when not in flight. The pleura are usually small or hidden in some species, with each pleuron having a single spiracle. The sternum is the most widely visible part of the abdomen, being a more or less sclerotized segment. The abdomen itself does not have any appendages, but some (for example,Mordellidae) have articulating sternal lobes.[79]
Anatomy and physiology
edit
Digestive system
editThedigestive systemof beetles is primarily adapted for a herbivorous diet. Digestion takes place mostly in the anteriormidgut,although in predatory groups like theCarabidae,most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In theElateridae,the larvae are liquid feeders that extraorally digest their food by secreting enzymes.[8]The alimentary canal basically consists of a short, narrowpharynx,a widened expansion, the crop, and a poorly developedgizzard.This is followed by the midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount ofcecum,and the hindgut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to sixMalpighian tubules.[7]
Nervous system
editThenervous systemin beetles contains all the types found in insects, varying between different species, from three thoracic and seven or eight abdominal ganglia which can be distinguished to that in which all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a composite structure.[8]
Respiratory system
edit
Like most insects, beetles inhale air, for theoxygenit contains, and exhalecarbon dioxide,via atracheal system.Air enters the body throughspiracles,and circulates within the haemocoel in a system oftracheaeand tracheoles, through whose walls the gases can diffuse.[8]
Diving beetles, such as theDytiscidae,carry a bubble of air with them when they dive. Such a bubble may be contained under the elytra or against the body by specializedhydrophobichairs. The bubble covers at least some of the spiracles, permitting air to enter the tracheae.[8]The function of the bubble is not only to contain a store of air but to act as aphysical gill.The air that it traps is in contact with oxygenated water, so as the animal's consumption depletes the oxygen in the bubble, more oxygen can diffuse in to replenish it.[80]Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than either oxygen or nitrogen, so it readily diffuses out faster than in. Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the bubble, and the least soluble, so it constitutes a relatively static component of the bubble and acts as a stable medium for respiratory gases to accumulate in and pass through. Occasional visits to the surface are sufficient for the beetle to re-establish the constitution of the bubble.[81]
Circulatory system
editLike other insects, beetles haveopen circulatory systems,based onhemolymphrather than blood. As in other insects, a segmented tube-like heart is attached to the dorsal wall of thehemocoel.It has paired inlets orostiaat intervals down its length, and circulates the hemolymph from the main cavity of the haemocoel and out through the anterior cavity in the head.[82]
Specialized organs
editDifferent glands are specialized for different pheromones to attract mates. Pheromones from species ofRutelinaeare produced fromepithelial cellslining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments; amino acid-based pheromones ofMelolonthinaeare produced from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones.Dermestidsproduceesters,and species ofElateridaeproducefatty acid-derived aldehydesandacetates.[8]To attract a mate, fireflies (Lampyridae) use modified fat body cells with transparent surfaces backed with reflective uric acid crystals to produce light bybioluminescence.Light production is highly efficient, by oxidation ofluciferincatalyzed by enzymes (luciferases) in the presence ofadenosine triphosphate(ATP) and oxygen, producingoxyluciferin,carbon dioxide, and light.[8]
Tympanal organsor hearing organs consist of a membrane (tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurons, are found in two families.[83]Several species of the genusCicindela(Carabidae) have hearing organs on the dorsal surfaces of their first abdominal segments beneath the wings; two tribes in theDynastinae(within theScarabaeidae) have hearing organs just beneath their pronotal shields or neck membranes. Both families are sensitive to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence indicating they function to detect the presence of bats by their ultrasonic echolocation.[8]
Reproduction and development
editBeetles are members of thesuperorderHolometabola,and accordingly most of them undergo completemetamorphosis.The typical form of metamorphosis in beetles passes through four main stages: theegg,thelarva,thepupa,and theimagoor adult.[84]The larvae are commonly calledgrubsand the pupa sometimes is called the chrysalis. In some species, the pupa may be enclosed in a cocoon constructed by the larva towards the end of its finalinstar.Some beetles, such as typical members of the familiesMeloidaeandRhipiphoridae,go further, undergoinghypermetamorphosisin which the first instar takes the form of atriungulin.[85]
Mating
edit
Some beetles have intricate mating behaviour.Pheromonecommunication is often important in locating a mate. Different species use different pheromones.Scarab beetlessuch as theRutelinaeuse pheromones derived fromfatty acid synthesisand others use pheromones from organic compounds, while other scarabs such as theMelolonthinaeuseamino acidsand terpenoids. Another way beetles find mates is seen in thefireflies(Lampyridae) which arebioluminescent,with abdominal light-producing organs. The males and females engage in a complex dialog before mating; each species has a unique combination of flight patterns, duration, composition, and intensity of the light produced.[8]
Before mating, males and females may stridulate, or vibrate the objects they are on. In the Meloidae, the male climbs onto the dorsum of the female and strokes his antennae on her head, palps, and antennae. InEupompha,the male draws his antennae along his longitudinal vertex. They may not mate at all if they do not perform the precopulatory ritual.[8]This mating behavior may be different amongst dispersed populations of the same species. For example, the mating of aRussianpopulation oftansy beetle(Chrysolina graminis) is preceded by an elaborate ritual involving the male tapping the female's eyes, pronotum and antennae with its antennae, which is not evident in the population of this species in theUnited Kingdom.[86]
In another example, theintromittent organof malethistle tortoise beetlesis a long, tube-like structure called theflagellumwhich is thin and curved. When not in use, the flagellum is stored inside theabdomenof the male and can extend out to be longer than the male when needed. During mating, this organ bends to the complex shape of the femalereproductive organ,which includes a coiled duct that the male must penetrate with the organ. Furthermore, these physical properties of the thistle tortioise beetle have been studied because the ability of a thin, flexible structure to harden without buckling or rupturing is mechanically challenging and may have important implications for the development of microscopiccathetersin modern medicine.[87]
Competitioncan play a part in the mating rituals of species such asburying beetles(Nicrophorus), the insects fighting to determine which can mate. Many male beetles areterritorialand fiercely defend their territories from intruding males. In such species, the male often has horns on the head or thorax, making its body length greater than that of a female. Copulation is generally quick, but in some cases lasts for several hours. During copulation,sperm cellsare transferred to the female tofertilizethe egg.[7]
Life cycle
edit
Egg
editEssentially all beetles lay eggs, though somemyrmecophilousAleocharinaeand someChrysomelinaewhich live in mountains or the subarctic areovoviviparous,laying eggs which hatch almost immediately.[84]Beetle eggs generally have smooth surfaces and are soft, though theCupedidaehave hard eggs. Eggs vary widely between species: the eggs tend to be small in species with many instars (larval stages), and in those that lay large numbers of eggs. A female may lay from several dozen to several thousand eggs during her lifetime, depending on the extent of parental care. This ranges from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf, to the parental care provided byscarab beetles,which house, feed and protect their young. TheAttelabidaeroll leaves and lay their eggs inside the roll for protection.[8][88]
Larva
editThelarvais usually the principal feeding stage of the beetlelife cycle.Larvae tend to feed voraciously once they emerge from their eggs. Some feed externally on plants, such as those of certain leaf beetles, while others feed within their food sources. Examples of internal feeders are mostBuprestidaeand longhorn beetles. The larvae of many beetle families are predatory like the adults (ground beetles, ladybirds, rove beetles). The larval period varies between species, but can be as long as several years. The larvae ofskin beetlesundergo a degree of reversed development when starved, and later grow back to the previously attained level of maturity. The cycle can be repeated many times (seeBiological immortality).[89]Larval morphology is highly varied amongst species, with well-developed and sclerotized heads, distinguishable thoracic and abdominal segments (usually the tenth, though sometimes the eighth or ninth).[7]
Beetle larvae can be differentiated from other insect larvae by their hardened, often darkened heads, the presence of chewing mouthparts, andspiraclesalong the sides of their bodies. Like adult beetles, the larvae are varied in appearance, particularly between beetle families. Beetles with somewhat flattened, highly mobile larvae include the ground beetles and rove beetles; their larvae are described as campodeiform. Some beetle larvae resemble hardened worms with dark head capsules and minute legs. These are elateriform larvae, and are found in theclick beetle(Elateridae) anddarkling beetle(Tenebrionidae) families. Some elateriform larvae of click beetles are known as wireworms. Beetles in theScarabaeoideahave short, thick larvae described as scarabaeiform, more commonly known as grubs.[90]
All beetle larvae go through severalinstars,which are the developmental stages between eachmoult.In many species, the larvae simply increase in size with each successive instar as more food is consumed. In some cases, however, more dramatic changes occur. Among certain beetle families or genera, particularly those that exhibit parasitic lifestyles, the first instar (theplanidium) is highly mobile to search out a host, while the following instars are more sedentary and remain on or within their host. This is known ashypermetamorphosis;it occurs in theMeloidae,Micromalthidae,andRipiphoridae.[91]The blister beetleEpicauta vittata(Meloidae), for example, has three distinct larval stages. Its first stage, thetriungulin,has longer legs to go in search of the eggs of grasshoppers. After feeding for a week it moults to the second stage, called the caraboid stage, which resembles the larva of acarabid beetle.In another week it moults and assumes the appearance of ascarabaeid larva—the scarabaeidoid stage. Its penultimate larval stage is the pseudo-pupa or the coarcate larva, which will overwinter and pupate until the next spring.[92]
The larval period can vary widely. A fungus feeding staphylinidPhanerota fasciataundergoes three moults in 3.2 days at room temperature whileAnisotomasp. (Leiodidae) completes its larval stage in the fruiting body of slime mold in 2 days and possibly represents the fastest growing beetles. Dermestid beetles,Trogoderma inclusumcan remain in an extended larval state under unfavourable conditions, even reducing their size between moults. A larva is reported to have survived for 3.5 years in an enclosed container.[8]
Pupa and adult
edit
As with all holometabolans, beetle larvae pupate, and from thesepupaeemerge fully formed, sexually mature adult beetles, orimagos.Pupae never have mandibles (they areadecticous). In most pupae, the appendages are not attached to the body and are said to beexarate;in a few beetles (Staphylinidae, Ptiliidae etc.) the appendages are fused with the body (termed asobtectpupae).[7]
Adults have extremely variable lifespans, from weeks to years, depending on the species.[7][51]Some wood-boring beetles can have extremely long life-cycles. It is believed that when furniture or house timbers are infested by beetle larvae, the timber already contained the larvae when it was first sawn up. Abirchbookcase 40 years old released adultEburia quadrigeminata(Cerambycidae), whileBuprestis aurulentaand otherBuprestidaehave been documented as emerging as much as 51 years after manufacture of wooden items.[93]
Behaviour
editLocomotion
edit
The elytra allow beetles to both fly and move through confined spaces, doing so by folding the delicate wings under the elytra while not flying, and folding their wings out just before takeoff. The unfolding and folding of the wings is operated by muscles attached to the wing base; as long as the tension on the radial and cubital veins remains, the wings remain straight.[8]Some beetle species (manyCetoniinae;someScarabaeinae,CurculionidaeandBuprestidae) fly with the elytra closed, with the metathoracic wings extended under the lateral elytra margins.[94]The altitude reached by beetles in flight varies. One study investigating the flight altitude of the ladybird speciesCoccinella septempunctataandHarmonia axyridisusing radar showed that, whilst the majority in flight over a single location were at 150–195 m above ground level, some reached altitudes of over 1100 m.[95]
Many rove beetles have greatly reduced elytra, and while they are capable of flight, they most often move on the ground: their soft bodies and strong abdominal muscles make them flexible, easily able to wriggle into small cracks.[96]
Aquatic beetles use several techniques for retaining air beneath the water's surface. Diving beetles (Dytiscidae) hold air between the abdomen and the elytra when diving. Hydrophilidae have hairs on their under surface that retain a layer of air against their bodies. Adult crawlingwater beetlesuse both their elytra and their hindcoxae(the basal segment of the back legs) in air retention, whilewhirligig beetlessimply carry an air bubble down with them whenever they dive.[97]
Communication
editBeetles have a variety of ways to communicate, including the use ofpheromones.Themountain pine beetleemits a pheromone to attract other beetles to a tree. The mass of beetles are able to overcome the chemical defenses of the tree. After the tree's defenses have been exhausted, the beetles emit an anti-aggregation pheromone. This species canstridulateto communicate,[98]but others may use sound to defend themselves when attacked.[99]
Parental care
edit
Parental care is found in a few families[100]of beetle, perhaps for protection against adverse conditions and predators.[8]The rove beetleBledius spectabilislives insalt marshes,so the eggs and larvae are endangered by the risingtide.The maternal beetle patrols the eggs and larvae, burrowing to keep them from flooding andasphyxiating,and protects them from the predatory carabid beetleDicheirotrichus gustaviiand from theparasitoidalwaspBarycnemis blediator,which kills some 15% of the larvae.[101]
Burying beetlesare attentive parents, and participate in cooperative care and feeding of their offspring. Both parents work to bury small animal carcass to serve as a food resource for their young and build a brood chamber around it. The parents prepare the carcass and protect it from competitors and from early decomposition. After their eggs hatch, the parents keep the larvae clean of fungus and bacteria and help the larvae feed by regurgitating food for them.[102]
Somedung beetlesprovide parental care, collecting herbivore dung and laying eggs within that food supply, an instance ofmass provisioning.Some species do not leave after this stage, but remain to safeguard their offspring.[103]
Most species of beetles do not display parental care behaviors after the eggs have been laid.[104]
Subsociality, where females guard their offspring, is well-documented in two families of Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae and Chrysomelinae.[105][106][107][108][109]
Eusociality
editEusocialityinvolves cooperative brood care (including brood care of offspring from other individuals), overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups.[110]Few organisms outsideHymenopteraexhibit this behavior; the only beetle to do so is the weevilAustroplatypus incompertus.[111]ThisAustralianspecies lives in horizontal networks of tunnels, in theheartwoodofEucalyptustrees. It is one of more than 300 species of wood-boringAmbrosia beetleswhich distribute the spores of ambrosia fungi.[112]The fungi grow in the beetles' tunnels, providing food for the beetles and their larvae; female offspring remain in the tunnels and maintain the fungal growth, probably never reproducing.[112][111]Cooperative brood care is also found in the bess beetles (Passalidae) where the larvae feed on the semi-digested faeces of the adults.[113]
Feeding
edit
Beetles are able to exploit a wide diversity of food sources available in their many habitats. Some areomnivores,eating both plants and animals. Other beetles are highly specialized in their diet. Many species of leaf beetles, longhorn beetles, and weevils are very host-specific, feeding on only a single species of plant.Ground beetlesandrove beetles(Staphylinidae), among others, are primarily carnivorous and catch and consume many otherarthropodsand small prey, such as earthworms and snails. While most predatory beetles are generalists, a few species have more specific prey requirements or preferences.[114]In some species, digestive ability relies upon asymbioticrelationship withfungi- some beetles have yeasts living their guts, including some yeasts previously undiscovered anywhere else.[115]
Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species. This can range fromdung,which is consumed bycoprophagousspecies (such as certainscarab beetlesin theScarabaeidae), to dead animals, which are eaten bynecrophagousspecies (such as thecarrion beetles,Silphidae). Some beetles found in dung and carrion are in fact predatory. These include members of theHisteridaeandSilphidae,preying on the larvae ofcoprophagousandnecrophagousinsects.[116]Many beetles feed under bark, some feed on wood while others feed on fungi growing on wood or leaf-litter. Some beetles have specialmycangia,structures for the transport of fungal spores.[117]
Ecology
edit
Anti-predator adaptations
editBeetles, both adults and larvae, are the prey of many animalpredatorsincludingmammalsfrombatstorodents,birds,lizards,amphibians,fishes,dragonflies,robberflies,reduviid bugs,ants,other beetles, andspiders.[118][119]Beetles use a variety ofanti-predator adaptationsto defend themselves. These includecamouflageandmimicryagainst predators that hunt by sight, toxicity, and defensive behaviour.
Camouflage
editCamouflage is common and widespread among beetle families, especially those that feed on wood or vegetation, such asleaf beetles(Chrysomelidae, which are often green) andweevils.In some species, sculpturing or various colored scales or hairs cause beetles such as theavocadoweevilHeilipus apiatusto resemble bird dung or other inedible objects.[118]Many beetles that live in sandy environments blend in with the coloration of that substrate.[120]
Mimicry and aposematism
edit
Somelonghorn beetles(Cerambycidae) are effectiveBatesian mimicsofwasps.Beetles may combine coloration with behavioural mimicry, acting like the wasps they already closely resemble. Many other beetles, includingladybirds,blister beetles,andlycid beetlessecrete distasteful or toxic substances to make them unpalatable or poisonous, and are oftenaposematic,where bright or contrastingcolorationwarn off predators; many beetles and other insects mimic these chemically protected species.[121]
Chemical defense is important in some species, usually being advertised by bright aposematic colors. SomeTenebrionidaeuse their posture for releasing noxious chemicals to warn off predators. Chemical defenses may serve purposes other than just protection from vertebrates, such as protection from a wide range of microbes. Some species sequester chemicals from the plants they feed on, incorporating them into their own defenses.[120]
Other species have special glands to produce deterrent chemicals. The defensive glands of carabid ground beetles produce a variety ofhydrocarbons,aldehydes,phenols,quinones,esters,andacidsreleased from an opening at the end of the abdomen. African carabid beetles (for example,Anthia) employ the same chemicals as ants:formic acid.[121]Bombardier beetleshave well-developed pygidial glands that empty from the sides of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers, one forhydroquinonesandhydrogen peroxide,the other holding hydrogen peroxide andcatalaseenzymes. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, reaching a temperature of around 100 °C (212 °F), with the breakdown of hydroquinone to hydrogen, oxygen, and quinone. The oxygen propels the noxious chemical spray as a jet that can be aimed accurately at predators.[8]
Other defenses
editLarge ground-dwelling beetles such asCarabidae,therhinoceros beetleand the longhorn beetles defend themselves using strongmandibles,or heavily sclerotised (armored) spines or horns to deter or fight off predators.[120]Many species of weevil that feed out in the open on leaves of plants react to attack by employing a drop-off reflex. Some combine it withthanatosis,in which they close up their appendages and "play dead".[122]The click beetles (Elateridae) can suddenly catapult themselves out of danger by releasing the energy stored by a click mechanism, which consists of a stout spine on the prosternum and a matching groove in the mesosternum.[118]Some species startle an attacker by producing sounds through a process known asstridulation.[99]
Parasitism
editA few species of beetles areectoparasiticon mammals. One such species,Platypsyllus castoris,parasitises beavers (Castorspp.). This beetle lives as a parasite both as a larva and as an adult, feeding on epidermal tissue and possibly on skin secretions and wound exudates. They are strikingly flattened dorsoventrally, no doubt as an adaptation for slipping between the beavers' hairs. They are wingless and eyeless, as are many other ectoparasites.[123]Others are kleptoparasites of other invertebrates, such as thesmall hive beetle(Aethina tumida) that infestshoney beenests,[124]while many species are parasiticinquilinesorcommensal in the nests of ants.[125]A few groups of beetles are primaryparasitoidsof other insects, feeding off of, and eventually killing their hosts.[126]
Pollination
edit
Beetle-pollinated flowers are usually large, greenish or off-white in color, and heavily scented. Scents may be spicy, fruity, or similar to decaying organic material. Beetles were most likely the first insects to pollinate flowers.[127]Most beetle-pollinated flowers are flattened or dish-shaped, with pollen easily accessible, although they may includetrapsto keep the beetle longer. The plants' ovaries are usually well protected from the biting mouthparts of their pollinators. The beetle families that habitually pollinate flowers are theBuprestidae,Cantharidae,Cerambycidae,Cleridae,Dermestidae,Lycidae,Melyridae,Mordellidae,NitidulidaeandScarabaeidae.[128]Beetles may be particularly important in some parts of the world such as semiarid areas of southern Africa andsouthern California[129]and the montane grasslands ofKwaZulu-Natalin South Africa.[130]
Mutualism
edit
2: Larva feeds on fungus, which digests wood, removing toxins, to mutual benefit.
3: Larva pupates.
Mutualismis well known in a few beetles, such as theambrosia beetle,which partners with fungi to digest the wood of dead trees. The beetles excavate tunnels in dead trees in which they cultivate fungal gardens, their sole source of nutrition. After landing on a suitable tree, an ambrosia beetle excavates a tunnel in which it releases spores of its fungalsymbiont.The fungus penetrates the plant's xylem tissue, digests it, and concentrates the nutrients on and near the surface of the beetle gallery, so the weevils and the fungus both benefit. The beetles cannot eat the wood due to toxins, and uses its relationship with fungi to help overcome the defenses of its host tree in order to provide nutrition for their larvae.[131]Chemically mediated by a bacterially produced polyunsaturated peroxide,[132]this mutualistic relationship between the beetle and the fungus iscoevolved.[131][133]
Tolerance of extreme environments
edit
About 90% of beetle species enter a period of adultdiapause,a quiet phase with reduced metabolism to tide unfavourable environmental conditions. Adult diapause is the most common form of diapause in Coleoptera. To endure the period without food (often lasting many months) adults prepare by accumulating reserves of lipids, glycogen, proteins and other substances needed for resistance to future hazardous changes of environmental conditions. This diapause is induced by signals heralding the arrival of the unfavourable season; usually the cue isphotoperiodic.Short (decreasing) day length serves as a signal of approaching winter and induces winter diapause (hibernation).[134]A study of hibernation in the Arctic beetlePterostichus brevicornisshowed that the body fat levels of adults were highest in autumn with thealimentary canalfilled with food, but empty by the end of January. This loss of body fat was a gradual process, occurring in combination with dehydration.[135]
All insects arepoikilothermic,[136]so the ability of a few beetles to live in extreme environments depends on their resilience to unusually high or low temperatures. Thebark beetlePityogenes chalcographuscan survive−39°Cwhilst overwintering beneath tree bark;[137]the Alaskan beetleCucujusclavipes puniceusis able to withstand−58°C;its larvae may survive−100°C.[138]At these low temperatures, the formation of ice crystals in internal fluids is the biggest threat to survival to beetles, but this is prevented through the production of antifreeze proteins that stop water molecules from grouping together. The low temperatures experienced byCucujus clavipescan be survived through their deliberate dehydration in conjunction with the antifreeze proteins. This concentrates the antifreezes several fold.[139]Thehemolymphof the mealworm beetleTenebrio molitorcontains severalantifreeze proteins.[140]The Alaskan beetleUpis ceramboidescan survive −60 °C: itscryoprotectantsarexylomannan,a molecule consisting of asugarbound to afatty acid,[141]and the sugar-alcohol,threitol.[142]
Conversely, desert dwelling beetles are adapted to tolerate high temperatures. For example, theTenebrionidbeetleOnymacris rugatipenniscan withstand50°C.[143]Tiger beetles in hot, sandy areas are often whitish (for example,Habroscelimorpha dorsalis), to reflect more heat than a darker color would. These beetles also exhibits behavioural adaptions to tolerate the heat: they are able to stand erect on their tarsi to hold their bodies away from the hot ground, seek shade, and turn to face the sun so that only the front parts of their heads are directly exposed.[144]
The fogstand beetle of theNamib Desert,Stenocara gracilipes,is able tocollect water from fog,as its elytra have a textured surface combininghydrophilic(water-loving) bumps and waxy,hydrophobictroughs. The beetle faces the early morning breeze, holding up its abdomen; droplets condense on the elytra and run along ridges towards their mouthparts. Similar adaptations are found in several other Namib desert beetles such asOnymacris unguicularis.[145]
Some terrestrial beetles that exploit shoreline and floodplain habitats have physiological adaptations for surviving floods. In the event of flooding, adult beetles may be mobile enough to move away from flooding, but larvae and pupa often cannot. Adults ofCicindela togataare unable to survive immersion in water, but larvae are able to survive a prolonged period, up to 6 days, ofanoxiaduring floods. Anoxia tolerance in the larvae may have been sustained by switching to anaerobic metabolic pathways or by reducing metabolic rate.[146]Anoxia tolerance in the adult carabid beetlePelophilia borealiswas tested in laboratory conditions and it was found that they could survive a continuous period of up to 127 days in an atmosphere of 99.9% nitrogen at 0 °C.[147]
Migration
editMany beetle species undertake annual mass movements which are termed as migrations. These include the pollen beetleMeligethes aeneus[148]and many species ofcoccinellids.[149]These mass movements may also be opportunistic, in search of food, rather than seasonal. A 2008 study of an unusually large outbreak of Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) inBritish Columbiafound that beetles were capable of flying 30–110 km per day in densities of up to 18,600 beetles per hectare.[150]
Relationship to humans
editIn ancient cultures
edit
| ||
| Scarabee inhieroglyphs | ||
|---|---|---|
| Gardiner:L1 | ||
Several species of dung beetle, especially the sacred scarab,Scarabaeus sacer,were revered inAncient Egypt.[151][152]The hieroglyphic image of the beetle may have had existential, fictional, or ontologic significance.[153]Images of the scarab in bone,ivory,stone,Egyptian faience,and precious metals are known from the Sixth Dynasty and up to the period of Roman rule. The scarab was of prime significance in the funerary cult of ancient Egypt.[154]The scarab was linked toKhepri,the god of the risingsun,from the supposed resemblance of the rolling of the dung ball by the beetle to the rolling of the sun by the god.[151]Some of ancient Egypt's neighbors adopted the scarab motif forsealsof varying types. The best-known of these are the JudeanLMLK seals,where eight of 21 designs contained scarab beetles, which were used exclusively to stamp impressions on storage jars during the reign ofHezekiah.[155]Beetles are mentioned as a symbol of the sun, as in ancient Egypt, inPlutarch's 1st centuryMoralia.[156]TheGreek Magical Papyriof the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD describe scarabs as an ingredient in a spell.[157]
Pliny the Elderdiscusses beetles in hisNatural History,[158]describing thestag beetle:"Some insects, for the preservation of their wings, are covered with an erust (elytra)—the beetle, for instance, the wing of which is peculiarly fine and frail. To these insects a sting has been denied by Nature; but in one large kind we find horns of a remarkable length, two-pronged at the extremities, and forming pincers, which the animal closes when it is its intention to bite. "[159][160]The stag beetle is recorded in a Greek myth byNicanderand recalled byAntoninus Liberalisin whichCerambus[b]is turned into a beetle: "He can be seen on trunks and has hook-teeth, ever moving his jaws together. He is black, long and has hard wings like a great dung beetle".[161]The story concludes with the comment that the beetles were used as toys by young boys, and that the head was removed and worn as a pendant.[160][162]
As pests
edit
About 75% of beetle species are phytophagous in both the larval and adult stages. Many feed on economically important plants and stored plant products, including trees, cereals, tobacco, and dried fruits.[7]Some, such as theboll weevil,which feeds on cotton buds and flowers, can cause extremely serious damage to agriculture. The boll weevil crossed theRio GrandenearBrownsville,Texas,to enter theUnited StatesfromMexicoaround 1892,[163]and had reached southeasternAlabamaby 1915. By the mid-1920s, it had entered all cotton-growing regions in the US, traveling 40 to 160 miles (60–260 km) per year. It remains the most destructive cotton pest in North America.Mississippi State Universityhas estimated, since the boll weevil entered the United States, it has cost cotton producers about $13 billion, and in recent times about $300 million per year.[163]
Thebark beetle,elm leaf beetleand the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis)[164]are among the species that attackelmtrees. Bark beetles (Scolytidae) carryDutch elm diseaseas they move from infected breeding sites to healthy trees. The disease has devastated elm trees across Europe and North America.[165]
Some species of beetle have evolved immunity to insecticides. For example, theColorado potato beetle,Leptinotarsa decemlineata,is a destructive pest of potato plants. Its hosts include other members of theSolanaceae,such asnightshade,tomato,eggplantandcapsicum,as well as the potato. Different populations have between them developed resistance to all major classes of insecticide.[166]The Colorado potato beetle was evaluated as a tool ofentomological warfareduringWorld War II,the idea being to use the beetle and its larvae to damage the crops of enemy nations.[167]Germany tested its Colorado potato beetle weaponisation program south ofFrankfurt,releasing 54,000 beetles.[168]
Thedeath watch beetle,Xestobium rufovillosum(Ptinidae), is a serious pest of older wooden buildings in Europe. It attackshardwoodssuch asoakandchestnut,always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. The actual introduction of the pest into buildings is thought to take place at the time of construction.[169]
Other pests include the coconut hispine beetle,Brontispa longissima,which feeds on youngleaves,seedlingsand maturecoconuttrees, causing serious economic damage in thePhilippines.[170]Themountain pine beetleis a destructive pest of mature or weakenedlodgepole pine,sometimes affecting large areas of Canada.[171]
As beneficial resources
edit
Beetles can be beneficial to human economics by controlling the populations of pests. The larvae and adults of some species oflady beetles(Coccinellidae) feed onaphidsthat are pests. Other lady beetles feed onscale insects,whiteflyandmealybugs.[172]If normal food sources are scarce, they may feed on smallcaterpillars,youngplant bugs,orhoneydewandnectar.[173]Ground beetles(Carabidae) are commonpredatorsof many insect pests, including fly eggs, caterpillars, and wireworms.[174]Ground beetles can help to controlweedsby eating their seeds in the soil, reducing the need forherbicidesto protect crops.[175]The effectiveness of some species in reducing certain plant populations has resulted in the deliberate introduction of beetles in order to control weeds. For example, the genusCalligraphais native to North America but has been used to controlParthenium hysterophorusin India andAmbrosia artemisiifoliain Russia.[176][177]
Dung beetles(Scarabidae) have been successfully used to reduce the populations of pestilent flies, such asMusca vetustissimaandHaematobia exiguawhich are serious pests of cattle inAustralia.[178]The beetles make the dung unavailable to breeding pests by quickly rolling and burying it in the soil, with the added effect of improving soil fertility, tilth, and nutrient cycling.[179]TheAustralian Dung Beetle Project(1965–1985), introduced species of dung beetle to Australia from South Africa and Europe to reduce populations ofMusca vetustissima,following successful trials of this technique inHawaii.[178]TheAmerican Institute of Biological Sciencesreports that dung beetles, such asEuoniticellus intermedius,save the United States cattle industry an estimated US$380 million annually through burying above-ground livestock feces.[180]
TheDermestidaeare often used intaxidermyand in the preparation of scientific specimens, to clean soft tissue from bones.[181]Larvae feed on and remove cartilage along with other soft tissue.[182][183]
As food and medicine
edit
Beetles are the most widely eaten insects, with about 344 species used as food, usually at the larval stage.[184]Themealworm(the larva of thedarkling beetle) and therhinoceros beetleare among the species commonly eaten.[185]A wide range of species is also used infolk medicineto treat those suffering from a variety of disorders and illnesses, though this is done without clinical studies supporting the efficacy of such treatments.[186]
As biodiversity indicators
editDue to their habitat specificity, many species of beetles have been suggested as suitable as indicators, their presence, numbers, or absence providing a measure of habitat quality. Predatory beetles such as the tiger beetles (Cicindelidae) have found scientific use as an indicator taxon for measuring regional patterns of biodiversity. They are suitable for this as their taxonomy is stable; their life history is well described; they are large and simple to observe when visiting a site; they occur around the world in many habitats, with species specialised to particular habitats; and their occurrence by species accurately indicates other species, both vertebrate and invertebrate.[187]According to the habitats, many other groups such as the rove beetles in human-modified habitats, dung beetles in savannas[188]and saproxylic beetles in forests[189]have been suggested as potential indicator species.[190]
In art and adornment
edit
Many beetles have durable elytra that has been used as material in art, withbeetlewingthe best example.[191]Sometimes, they are incorporated into ritual objects for their religious significance. Whole beetles, either as-is or encased in clear plastic, are made into objects ranging from cheap souvenirs such as key chains to expensive fine-art jewellery. In parts of Mexico, beetles of the genusZopherusare made intoliving broochesby attaching costume jewelry and golden chains, which is made possible by the incredibly hard elytra and sedentary habits of the genus.[192]
In entertainment
editFighting beetles are usedfor entertainment and gambling.This sport exploits the territorial behavior and mating competition of certain species of large beetles. In theChiang Maidistrict of northern Thailand, maleXylotrupesrhinoceros beetles are caught in the wild and trained for fighting. Females are held inside a log to stimulate the fighting males with their pheromones.[193]These fights may be competitive and involve gambling both money and property.[194]InSouth KoreatheDytiscidaespeciesCybister tripunctatusis used in a roulette-like game.[195]
Beetles are sometimes used as instruments: the Onabasulu ofPapua New Guineahistorically used the "hugu"weevilRhynchophorus ferrugineusas a musical instrument by letting the human mouth serve as a variableresonance chamberfor the wing vibrations of the live adult beetle.[194]
As pets
editSome species of beetle are kept aspets,for example diving beetles (Dytiscidae) may be kept in a domestic fresh water tank.[196]
InJapanthe practice of keeping horned rhinoceros beetles (Dynastinae) and stag beetles (Lucanidae) is particularly popular amongst young boys.[197]Such is the popularity in Japan thatvending machinesdispensing live beetles were developed in 1999, each holding up to 100 stag beetles.[198][199]
As things to collect
editBeetle collecting became extremely popular in theVictorian era.[200]The naturalistAlfred Russel Wallacecollected (by his own count) a total of 83,200 beetles during the eight years described in his 1869 bookThe Malay Archipelago,including 2,000 species new to science.[201]
As inspiration for technologies
editSeveral coleopteran adaptations have attracted interest inbiomimeticswith possible commercial applications. Thebombardier beetle's powerful repellent spray has inspired the development of a fine mist spray technology, claimed to have a low carbon impact compared to aerosol sprays.[202]Moisture harvesting behavior by the Namib desert beetle (Stenocara gracilipes) has inspired a self-filling water bottle which utiliseshydrophilicandhydrophobicmaterials to benefit people living in dry regions with no regular rainfall.[203]
Living beetles have been used ascyborgs.ADefense Advanced Research Projects Agencyfunded project implanted electrodes intoMecynorhina torquatabeetles, allowing them to be remotely controlled via a radio receiver held on its back, as proof-of-concept for surveillance work.[204]Similar technology has been applied to enable a human operator to control the free-flight steering and walking gaits ofMecynorhina torquataas well as graded turning, backward walking and feedback control ofZophobas morio.[205][206][207][208][209]
Research published in 2020 sought to create a robotic camera backpack for beetles. Miniature cameras weighing 248 mg were attached to live beetles of theTenebrionidgeneraAsbolusandEleodes.The cameras filmed over a 60° range for up to 6 hours.[210][211]
In conservation
editSince beetles form such a large part of the world's biodiversity, their conservation is important, and equally, loss of habitat and biodiversity is essentially certain to impact on beetles. Many species of beetles have very specific habitats and long life cycles that make them vulnerable. Some species are highly threatened while others are already feared extinct.[212]Island species tend to be more susceptible as in the case ofHelictopleurus undatusof Madagascar which is thought to have gone extinct during the late 20th century.[213]Conservationists have attempted to arouse a liking for beetles with flagship species like the stag beetle,Lucanus cervus,[214]and tiger beetles (Cicindelidae). In Japan the Genji firefly,Luciola cruciata,is extremely popular, and in South Africa the Addo elephant dung beetle offers promise for broadeningecotourismbeyond thebig five tourist mammal species.Popular dislike of pest beetles, too, can be turned into public interest in insects, as can unusual ecological adaptations of species like the fairy shrimp hunting beetle,Cicinis bruchi.[215]
Notes
editSee also
editReferences
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- McHugh, Joseph V.; Liebherr, James K. (2009). "Coleoptera". In Vincent H. Resh; Ring T. Cardé (eds.).Encyclopedia of Insects(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp.183–201.ISBN978-0-12-374144-8.
Further reading
edit- Beckmann, Poul (2001).Living Jewels: The Natural Design of Beetles.Prestel.ISBN978-3-7913-2528-6.
- Cooter, J.;M. V. L. Barclay,eds. (2006).A Coleopterist's Handbook.Amateur Entomological Society.ISBN978-0-900054-70-9.
- Beetle Larvae of the World.Entomological Society of America.December 1994.ISBN978-0-643-05506-3.
- Grimaldi, David;Michael S. Engel(May 16, 2005).Evolution of the Insects.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-82149-0.
- Harde, K. W. (1984).A Field Guide in Color to Beetles.Octopus Books. pp.7–24.ISBN978-0-7064-1937-5.
- White, R. E. (1983).Beetles.Houghton Mifflin.ISBN978-0-395-91089-4.
External links
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- Coleopterafrom theTree of Life Web Project
- (in German)Käfer der Welt
- Coleoptera AtlasArchivedJanuary 6, 2014, at theWayback Machine
- Beetles – Coleoptera