Wikipedia

Columbus Day

For other uses, seeColumbus Day (disambiguation).

Columbus Dayis a national holiday in many countries of theAmericasand elsewhere, and afederal holiday in the United States,which officially celebrates the anniversary ofChristopher Columbus'sarrival in the Americas.He went ashore atGuanahaní,an island in theBahamas,on October 12, 1492 [OS].[a]On his return in 1493, he moved his coastal base of operations 70 miles east to the island ofHispaniola,what is now theDominican Republicand established the settlement ofLa Isabela,the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas.

Columbus Day
First Landing of Columbus on the Shores of the New World;painting byDióscoro Puebla(1862)
Observed byVarious countries in the Americas, Italy, Spain, variousLittle Italysaround the world.
TypeHistorical
Significance
DateOctober 12 (actual/traditional); second Monday in October (observed in the United States);
2023 dateOctober 9 (United States)
2024 dateOctober 14 (United States)
2025 dateOctober 13 (United States)
2026 dateOctober 12 (United States)
FrequencyAnnual

Columbus (Italian:Cristoforo Colombo[kriˈstɔːforokoˈlombo]) was an Italian explorer[b]fromGenoawho led a Spanish maritime expedition to cross theAtlantic Oceanin search of an alternative route to theFar East.Columbus believed he sailed his crew to the East Indies, but Europeans realized years later that his voyages landed them in theNew World.His first voyage to the New World was made on the Spanish shipsNiña,Pinta,andSanta Maríaand took about three months. The crew's arrival in the New World initiated thecolonization of the Americasby Spain, followed in the ensuing centuries by other European powers, as well as the transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and technology between the New andOld Worlds,an event referred to by some late 20th‐century historians as theColumbian exchange.[2]

The landing is celebrated as Columbus Day in the United States, but the name varies internationally. In someLatin Americancountries, October 12 is known asDía dela Razaor "Day of the Race". This was the case forMexico,until it renamed it to "Day of the Pluricultural Nation" (still calledDia de la Razalocally). Some countries such asSpainrefer to the holiday as the Day of Hispanicity orDía de la Hispanidadand is also Spain's National Day orFiesta Nacional de España,where it coincides with thereligious festivityofLa Virgen del Pilar.Since 2009,Peruhas celebratedDía de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural( "Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day" ).[3]BelizeandUruguaycelebrate it asPan American DayandDía de las Américas( "Day of the Americas" ). The day is also commemorated in Italy, asGiornata Nazionale di Cristoforo ColomboorFesta Nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo,and in theLittle Italysaround the world.[4][5]

American observance

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History

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Christopher Columbus(Italian:Cristoforo Colombo), posthumous portrait byRidolfo Ghirlandaio,c.1520

The first Columbus Day celebration took place on October 12, 1792, when the Columbian Order of New York, better known asTammany Hall,held an event to commemorate the 300th anniversary of the historic landing.[6]TheColumbus Obeliskin Baltimore was erected in 1792.

ManyItalian Americansobserve Columbus Day as a celebration of their heritage and not of Columbus himself, and the day was celebrated in New York City on October 12, 1866.[7]The day was first enshrined as a legal holiday in the United States through the lobbying of Angelo Noce, a first-generation American, in Denver.[8]The first statewide holiday was proclaimed by Colorado governor Jesse F. McDonald in 1905, and it was made astatutoryholiday in 1907.[9][10](Colorado replaced Columbus Day withFrances Xavier CabriniDay in 2020, though that holiday is observed a week earlier.)[11]

For the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1892, followinglynchings in New Orleans,where a mob had murdered 11 Italian immigrants, PresidentBenjamin Harrisondeclared Columbus Day as a one-time national celebration.[12][13]The proclamation was part of a wider effort after the lynching incident to placate Italian Americans and ease diplomatic tensions with Italy.[12]During the anniversary in 1892, teachers, preachers, poets, and politicians used rituals to teach ideals of patriotism. These rituals took themes such as citizenship boundaries, the importance of loyalty to the nation, and the celebration ofsocial progress,included among them was thePledge of AllegiancebyFrancis Bellamy.[14][15][16]

Stylized graphic from theUnited States Department of Defense

In 1934, as a result of lobbying by theKnights of Columbusand New York City Italian leaderGeneroso Pope,Congress passed a statute stating: "The President is requested to issue each year a proclamation (1) designating October 12 as Columbus Day; (2) calling on United States government officials to display the flag of the United States on all government buildings on Columbus Day; and (3) inviting the people of the United States to observe Columbus Day, in schools and churches, or other suitable places, with appropriate ceremonies that express the public sentiment befitting the anniversary of the discovery of America."[9][17][18]PresidentFranklin Delano Rooseveltresponded by making such a proclamation. This proclamation did not lead to the modern federal holiday; it was similar to language regarding Thomas Jefferson's birthday and Gold Star Mothers Day. In1941, Italian Americans were internedand lost rights as "enemy aliens"due to a belief they would be loyal to Italy and not America in World War II; in 1942, Franklin Roosevelt had the removal of the designation of Italian Americans as" enemy aliens "announced on Columbus Day along with a plan to offer citizenship to 200,000 elderly Italians living in the United States who had been unable to acquire citizenship due to a literacy requirement, but the implementation of the announcement was not completed until those interned in camps were released after Italy's surrender to the Allies on September 8, 1943.[19][20]

In 1966, Mariano A. Lucca, fromBuffalo, New York,founded the National Columbus Day Committee, which lobbied to make Columbus Day a federal holiday.[21]These efforts were successful and legislation to create Columbus Day as afederal holidaywas signed by President Lyndon Johnson on June 28, 1968, to be effective beginning in 1971.[22][23]

Since 1971, when Columbus Day became an officially recognized federal holiday in the United States, it has been observed on the second Monday in October, as commemorated by annual Presidential proclamation noting Columbus' achievements.[24][25]It is generally observed by banks, thebond market,theU.S. Postal Service,other federal agencies, most state government offices, many businesses, and most school districts. Some businesses and some stock exchanges remain open, and some states and municipalities abstain from observing the holiday.[26]The traditional date of the holiday also adjoins the anniversary of theUnited States Navy(founded October 13, 1775), and thus both occasions are customarily observed by the Navy and theMarine Corpswith either a 72- or 96-hour liberty period.[27]

The observance on the second Monday in October means it coincides with the Canadian holiday ofThanksgiving.

Localization

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Columbus Day inSalem, Massachusetts,in 1892
Columbus Day Parade in New York City, 2009

Actual observance varies in different parts of the United States, ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete nonobservance. Most states do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official state holiday.[28]Some mark it as a "Day of Observance" or "Recognition”. Most states that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others operate as normal.[29]

San Francisco claims the nation's oldest continuously existing celebration with theItalian-Americancommunity's annual Columbus Day Parade, which was established by Nicola Larco in 1868,[30]while New York City boasts the largest, with over 35,000 marchers and one million viewers around 2010.[31][32][33]

As in the mainland United States, Columbus Day is a legal holiday in theU.S. territoryofPuerto Rico.In theUnited States Virgin Islands,the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and "Puerto Rico Friendship Day".[34]

Virginiaalso celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at theSiege of Yorktownin theRevolutionary War.[35]

Nonobservance

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Despite Columbus Day being a national holiday and a celebration of Italian heritage, the celebration of Columbus Day in the United States began to decline at the end of the 20th century, although Americans continue to celebrate it.[36][37][38]TheDistrict of Columbia[39]and the states ofColorado,[11]Hawaii,[40][41]Alaska,[42][43]Vermont,[44]South Dakota,[45]New Mexico,[46]Maine,[47]Minnesota,[48]and parts ofCalifornia,including, for example,Los Angeles County,[49]do not recognize it and have each replaced it with celebrations ofIndigenous Peoples' Day(in Hawaii, "Discoverers' Day", in South Dakota, "Native American Day"[38]) or other holidays. In the states ofDelaware,OregonandWashington,Columbus Day is not an official holiday.[50][51]

Iowa and Nevada do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official holiday, but the states' respective governors are "authorized and requested" by statute to proclaim the day each year.[52]Several states have removed the day as a paid holiday for state government workers, while maintaining it either as a day of recognition, or as a legal holiday for other purposes, including California and Texas.[53][54][55][56][57][excessive citations]

The practice of U.S. cities eschewing Columbus Day to celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day began in 1992 withBerkeley, California.The list of cities that have followed suit as of 2018 includesAustin,Boise,Cincinnati,Denver,Los Angeles,Mankato,Philadelphia,Portland,San Francisco,Santa Fe,Seattle,Saint Paul,Phoenix,Tacoma,and "dozens of others".[37][58][59][60][54][61][62][63][64][65][66]

Columbus, Ohio,has chosen to honorveteransinstead of Christopher Columbus, and removed Columbus Day as a city holiday in 2018.Various tribal governments in Oklahomadesignate the day as Native American Day, or name it after their own tribe.[67]

In 2017, the city council ofAkron, Ohio,became split along racial lines with the decision to replace Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples' Day, creating pushback from the city's Italian-American community. In 2018, a compromise was reached, with the city council voting to name the first Monday of October as North American First People's Day while keeping Columbus Day, and in 2020, Columbus Day was renamed Italian-American Heritage and Culture Day.[68][69]

Latin American observance

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The formerChristopher Columbus MonumentalongPaseo de la Reformain Mexico

The date Columbus arrived in the Americas is celebrated in some countries of Latin America. The most common name for the celebration in Spanish (including some Latin American communities[70]in the United States) is theDía de la Raza( "day of the race" or the "day of the [Hispanic] people" ), commemorating the first encounters of Europeans and theNative Americans.The day was first celebrated in Argentina in 1917, in Venezuela and Colombia in 1921, inChilein 1922, and in Mexico, it was first celebrated in 1928. The day was also celebrated under this title in Spain until 1957, when it was changed to theDía de la Hispanidad( "Hispanicity Day" ), and in Venezuela, it was celebrated under this title until 2002, when it was changed to theDía de la Resistencia Indígena(Day of Indigenous Resistance). Originally conceived of as a celebration of Hispanic influence in the Americas, as evidenced by the complementary celebrations in Spain and Latin America,Día de la Razahas come to be seen by nationalist activists throughout Latin America as a counter to Columbus Day – a celebration of the native races and cultures and their resistance to the arrival of Europeans in the Americas.[citation needed]

In the United States,Día de la Razahas served as a time of mobilization for panethnicLatinoactivists, particularly since the 1960s. Since then,La Razahas served as a periodic rallying cry for Hispanic activists. The first Hispanic March on Washington occurred on Columbus Day in 1996. The name was used by the largest Hispanic social justice organization in the nation,UnidosUS,which was known as the National Council of La Raza from 1968 to 2017.[14]

On October 10, 1992,Pope John Paul IIvisited theDominican Republicto celebrate the 500th anniversary of the discovery of the Americas and the arrival ofChristianityin the "New World".His visit ended with amassin the nation'scathedral,the first cathedral in the Western Hemisphere.[71]

Argentina

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Plaza de Mayo in Argentina "Día de la Raza", with an image of Christopher Columbus, 1929.
Argentine government poster from 1947 including the concept of la Raza.

The Day of the Race was established inArgentinain 1916 by a decree of PresidentHipólito Yrigoyen.The name was changed to "Day of Respect of Cultural Diversity" by a presidential decree in 2010 issued by PresidentCristina Kirchner.[72]The statue of Columbus was removed from its original position near theCasa Rosadaand replaced by one ofJuana Azurduy,a patriot and leader in the struggle for independence who had indigenous ancestors.[citation needed]

Colombia

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Colombia,whose name originated from Columbus himself, celebratesEl día de la Raza y de la Hispanidad(meaning "Day of the Race and Hispanicity" ), and is taken as an opportunity to celebrate the encounter of "the two worlds" and to reflect on the richness that the racial diversity has brought to the culture. In 2021 the Ministry of Culture changed the name of the holiday to ‘Día de la Diversidad Étnica y Cultural de la Nación Colombiana (meaning "Day of Ethnical and Cultural Diversity of the Colombian nation" ).[73]

Peru

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In Peru, it was known asDía del descubrimiento de América( "Day of the discovery of America" ). Since 2009, it has been celebrated asDía de los pueblos originarios y el diálogo intercultural(Indigenous Peoples and Intercultural Dialogue Day).[74]

Venezuela

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Between 1921 and 2002,VenezuelacelebratedDía de la Razaalong with many other Latin American nations. The original holiday was officially established in 1921 under PresidentJuan Vicente Gómez.In 2002, under PresidentHugo Chávez,the holiday was changed toDía de la Resistencia Indígena(Day of Indigenous Resistance) to commemorate theIndigenouspeoples' resistance to European settlement.[75]

On October 12, 2004, a crowd of progovernment activists toppled a statue of Christopher Columbus byRafael de la CovainCaracas.The activists also sprayed allusivegraffitiover its pedestal. The walk where the statue had stood was renamed in 2008 "Indigenous Resistance Walk". Later, a statue of an indigenous leader,Guaicaipuro,was erected on the plinth.[75]

Costa Rica

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On September 21, 1994,Costa Ricachanged the official holiday fromDía de la RazatoDía del Encuentro de las Culturas(Day of the Encounter of Cultures) to recognize the mix of European, Native American (autochthonous populations),AfricanandAsiancultures that constitute modern Costa Rican (andLatin American) culture and ethnicity. In accordance to the Costa Rican labor law, the holiday is observed on October 12. Should this date coincide with a Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, or Friday, the employer shall agree that said holiday be postponed to the following Monday.[76]In 2020, Costa Ricans eliminated this holiday, which was under debate in years prior. Hence, in exchange Costa Rica now celebrates the 'Military Abolition Day' on December 1.[77]

El Salvador

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In June 1915, the official holiday of 'Fiesta de la Raza'was established, with October 12 being the date of the national holiday. Presently, since October 12, 2021, the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador abolished the previous nationalFiesta de la Razaholiday, "[to] vindicate the origin and identity of indigenous peoples who were forgotten by previous governments, who for decades celebrated Race Day as a positive event and who never adopted mechanisms to enhance human rights".[78]The holiday is no longer celebrated officially.

Mexico

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In Mexico, the date was known as Columbus Day or Day of the Race. On December 18, 2020, by decree of PresidentAndrés Manuel López Obrador,the name of October 12 was changed to "Day of the Pluricultural Nation".[79][80]The statue of Columbus along Mexico City'sPaseo de la Reformawas removed and replaced with a replica ofThe Young Woman of Amajac,a sculpture depicting anIndigenous woman.[81][82]

Caribbean observance

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Only a handful ofCaribbeancountries observe holidays related to Columbus Day. In Belize, October 12 is celebrated as Day of the Americas orPan American Day.[83][84][85]In theBahamas,it was formerly known asDiscovery Day,until 2001 when it was replaced byNational Heroes Day.In 1937, Cuban PresidentFederico Laredo Brú(1936–1940) spoke to the nation and countries of America in Cuba on October 12 commemorating Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World. Federico Laredo Brú spoke about Columbus's impact on the land and the future of its settlement. He ended his speech with venerating Christopher Columbus's efforts to colonize and establish settlements along the new front and the pride of one's nation. He added "Por mi raza hablo mi espiritu,"which translates to" For my race my spirit called, "to support the political infrastructure at the time.[86]

Columbus's legacy

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TheColumbus LighthouseinSanto Domingo Este,Dominican Republic

In December 1937, Cuban president Federico Laredo Brú andDominican RepublicpresidentRafael Trujilloordered a crew of aviators to travel through Latin America collecting funds from large capital cities for a monumental light house in the Dominican Republic. The explorationEscuadrilla Binacional Pro Faro de Colónwas inspired by Columbus's journey across theNorth Atlantic Oceanto America. The expedition consisted of threeStinson Reliant SR-9sborrowed from theCuban Air Force– namedSanta María,NiñaandPintaafter the vessels commanded by Columbus – and aCurtiss Wright CW-19Rfrom theDominican militaryaviation namedColonafter Columbus. On December 15, after visiting a majority of South America, their flight to the Peruvian capitalLimawas hampered by an unexpected sandstorm. Two planes (ColonandLa Pinta) were forced to land inPiscoandNiñadisappeared in the storm. TheSanta Mariawas the only plane to reach Lima as planned, landing atLas Palmason the day of the storm. After extensive searches,Niñaradioed their whereabouts after their radio was damaged in the storm. The aircraft restrategized in Las Palmas, and on December 29 their expedition took off from El Techo airport inBogotáen route to El Guabito airport inCali.Later that day, the crew flew into an unexpected storm over the Valley of Cauca. With minimal visibility and poor navigation,Niña,La Pinta,andSanta Mariacrashed into high mountains, whileColon,unaware of the other aircraft, flew over the storm and safely made it to Panama City. The plane is preserved today as remembrance of the bravery of the crew and Christopher Columbus's journey.[87]

In 1992, in remembrance of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, theColumbus Lighthouse,inSanto Domingo Estewas inaugurated. The monument is both amausoleumand amuseumshowcasing objects including a boat from Cuba and Colombian jewelry. Constructed ofconcrete,the monument is 680 feet (210 m) long.[88]Its architecture is cross-shaped and represents the Christianization of the Americas. According to Dominican authorities, Columbus' remains are sheltered at the lighthouse. Spanish authorities proved through DNA tests that remains in theCathedral of Sevillewere his and Dominican authorities have not allowed the same, so whether the sets are related remains unknown.[89][90]

European observance

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Italy

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Monument to Christopher Columbus inGenoa,Italy

Since the 18th century, many Italian communities in the Americas have observed theDiscovery of the New Worldas a celebration of their heritage, despite Italy not existing as a unified country when Columbus was born, and despite his public renunciation of his Genovese nationality to swear allegiance to theKing of Spain.[91]

In Italy, Columbus Day has been officially celebrated since 2004.[5]It is officially namedGiornata nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo( "National Christopher Columbus Day" ).

The "Lega Navale Italiana" has created aRegata di Colombo( "ColumbusRegatta") as a celebration of the Columbus achievement.[92]Italians have celebrated Christopher Columbus (Italian:Cristoforo Colombo[kriˈstɔːforokoˈlombo]) naming after him many civilian and military ships, like the ocean linerSSCristoforo Colombo.

Spain

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See also:National Day of Spain
Statue of Christopher Columbus in Barcelona

The first celebration of the Discovery of the Américas by Columbus in Spain was as early as 1642 when the city ofZaragozadesignated the Virgen del Pilar (Our Lady of the Pillar) as symbol of theHispanidad(Hispanicity) on the date of the Spanish expedition's arrival to the New World.[93]This holiday was declared a religious feast day throughout theSpanish Empirein 1730.[94] In 1892, the 12 of October was declared a one-time national day in commemoration of the 4th centenary of the Discovery of America and the perpetuation of the festivity was then first considered. The Spanish government suggested other nations (Hispanic American countries, Italy and the United States of America) to join the celebration, which was followed with enthusiasm by them, with a few exceptions.[94][95] The Discovery of America and the Hispanicity has been celebrated as a national day since 1918 under different names like "Día de la Hispanidad" or "Dia de la Raza", due to changes of political regimes in the 20th century. The national day emphasises Spain's ties with theHispanidad,the international Hispanic community and Spanish legacy to the world.[96]In 1981 a royal decree established theFiesta Nacional y Día de la Hispanidadas a national holiday.[96]In 1987 the name was changed again toFiesta Nacionaland October 12 became one of two national celebrations, along withConstitution Dayon December 6, as part of a compromise between conservatives, who wanted to emphasize the status of the monarchy and Spain's history, and Republicans, who wanted to commemorate Spain's burgeoning democracy with an official holiday.[97]Since 2000, October 12 has also been Spain'sDay of the Armed Forces,celebrated each year with a military parade inMadrid.[97]The holiday is widely celebrated in Spain with official and cultural events throughout the country. Shops and businesses are closed as with other bank holidays. The observation is enhanced with thefeast dayofOur Lady of the Pillar(Fiestas del Pilar), the so-called Mother ofHispanidad,[97]and ofOur Lady of Guadalupe in Extremadura(Santa María de Guadalupe) (appointed Queen of Hispanicity in 1928 by the Vatican) fromGuadalupe,Caceres,whoseMonasterywas the venue in June 1492 for the decisive meeting between theCatholic Monarchsand Columbus to start organizing the travel and where the latter came back in 1493, right after returning from his first voyage, to thankHerfor his success.

Opposition

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See also:Monument and memorial controversies in the United States § Christopher Columbus (2017),andMonument and memorial controversies in the United States § Murals of Columbus (2019)
Engraving byTheodor de Bry,depicting the account byBartolomé de las Casasof theBrevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias,1552.

For years after the first Columbus Day celebration in 1892, opposition to Columbus Day recognized the suffering inflicted on American Indians with westward expansion.[98]

It also originated fromanti-immigrantnativistKnow Nothingpolitical movement, who sought to eliminate its celebration because of its association withimmigrantsfrom theCatholic countriesof Ireland and Italy, and the American Catholic fraternal organization, theKnights of Columbus.[99]Someanti-Catholics,notably including theKu Klux Klanand theWomen of the Ku Klux Klan,opposed celebrations of Columbus or monuments about him because they thought that it increasedCatholicinfluence in the United States, which was largely a Protestant country.[99]

In the summer of 1990, 350 representatives from American Indian groups from all over the hemisphere met inQuito,Ecuador, at the first Intercontinental Gathering of Indigenous People in the Americas, to mobilize against the 500th anniversary (quin-centennial) celebration of Columbus Day planned for 1992. The following summer, inDavis, California,more than a hundred Native Americans gathered for a follow-up meeting to the Quito conference. They declared October 12, 1992, to be "International Day of Solidarity withIndigenous People".[100]

More recently, mainly since the 1990s, more people oppose Columbus's and other Europeans' actions against the indigenous populations of the Americas. This opposition was initially led by Native Americans and was expanded upon byleft-wingpolitical parties.[101][102][103]Various holidays commemorating Columbus have now been abolished, with various Latin American countries altering the holidays to now recognise indigenous populations.

Two surveys, conducted in 2013 and 2015 byRasmussen Reports,found 26% to 38% of American adults are not in favor of celebrating Columbus Day. A similar survey by Catholic Marist Polls showed 26% opposition[104][105]

Statueless plinth in Caracas in 2006. A statue of Christopher Columbus, which formerly occupied the plinth, was knocked down by activists in 2004.[106]

There are many interrelated strands of criticism. One refers primarily to the treatment of theindigenous populationsduring theEuropean colonization of the Americas,which followed Columbus'sdiscovery.Some groups, such as theAmerican Indian Movement,have argued that the ongoing actions and injustices against Native Americans are masked by Columbus myths and celebrations.[107]AmericananthropologistJack Weatherfordsays that on Columbus Day, Americans celebrate the greatest waves ofgenocide of the American Indians[broken anchor]known in history.[108]

A second strain of criticism of Columbus Day focuses on the character of Columbus himself. In time for the 2004 observation of the day, the final volume of a compendium of Columbus-era documents was published by theUniversity of California, Los Angeles' Medieval and Renaissance Center. It stated that Columbus, while a brilliant mariner, exploited and enslaved the indigenous population.[109]

Spelman CollegehistorianHoward Zinndescribed some of the details in his book,A People's History of the United States,of how Columbus personally ordered the enslavement and mutilation of the nativeArawakpeople in a bid to repay his investors.[110]

Journalist and media criticNorman Solomonreflects, inColumbus Day: A Clash of Myth and History,that many people choose to hold on to the myths instead of reality in the events surrounding Columbus. He disputes the idea that the Spaniards' arrival was beneficial towards the Indians by quotingHistory of the Indiesby the Catholic priestBartolomé de las Casas,who observed the region where Columbus was governor. Las Casas writes that the Spaniards were driven by "insatiable greed" as they killed and tortured native populations with "the strangest and most varied new methods of cruelty" and laments that "my eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write".[111]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^This date is according to theJulian Calendar;it would have been October 21, 1492, on theProleptic Gregorian calendar,which extends theGregorian calendarto dates prior to its adoption on October 4, 1582.
  2. ^Though the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of the termItalianhad been in use for natives of the region since antiquity; most scholars believe he was born in theRepublic of Genoa.[1]

References

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