This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(October 2023) |
Theculture of Egypthas thousands of years ofrecorded history.Ancient Egyptwas among the earliestcivilizationsin the world. For millennia,Egyptdeveloped strikingly unique, complex and stable cultures that influenced other cultures ofEurope,Africaand theMiddle East.[1]
Languages
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Arabicis currently Egypt's official language. It came to Egypt in the 7th century,[2]and it is the formal and official language of the state which is used by the government and newspapers. Meanwhile, theEgyptian Arabicdialect orMasriis the official spoken language of the people. Of the manyvarieties of Arabic,the Egyptian dialect is the most widely spoken and the most understood, due to the great influence ofEgyptian cinemaand the Egyptian media throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Today many foreign students tend to learn it throughoutEgyptian songsand movies, and the dialect is usually labelled by the general public as one of the easiest and fastest to learn, mainly due to the huge amount of accessible sources (movies, series, TV shows, books, etc.) that contribute to its learning process.[citation needed]Egypt's position in the heart of the Arabic speaking world has made it the centre of culture and its widespread dialect has had a huge influence on almost all neighbouring dialects, having so many Egyptian sayings in their daily lives.[citation needed]
TheEgyptian language,which formed a separate branch among the family ofAfro-Asiatic languages,was among the first written languages and is known from thehieroglyphicinscriptions preserved on monuments and sheets ofpapyrus.TheCoptic language,the most recent stage of Egyptian written in mainlyGreek Alpha betwith seven demotic letters, is today theliturgical languageof theCoptic Orthodox Church.[3]
The "Koiné" dialect of theGreek languagewas important in Hellenistic Alexandria, and was used in the philosophy and science of that culture, and was later studied by Arabic scholars.[4]
In the upper Nile Valley, southern Egypt, aroundKom Omboand south ofAswan,there are about 300,000 speakers ofNubian languages;mainlyNoubi,but also Kenuzi-Dongola. In Siwa Oasis, there is also theSiwi languagethat is spoken by about 20,000 speakers. Other minorities include roughly two thousandGreekspeakers inAlexandriaandCairoas well as roughly 5,000Armenianspeakers.[citation needed]
Literature
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ManyEgyptiansbelieved that when it came to a death of their Pharaoh, they would have to bury the Pharaoh deep inside the Pyramid. The ancient Egyptian literature dates back to theOld Kingdom,in the third millennium BC. Religious literature is best known for itshymnsto and its mortuary texts. The oldest extant Egyptian literature is thePyramid Texts:the mythology and rituals carved around the tombs of rulers. The later, secular literature of ancient Egypt includes the "wisdom texts", forms of philosophical instruction. TheInstruction of Ptahhotep,for example, is a collation of moral proverbs by an Egto (the middle of the second millennium BC) seem to have been drawn from an elite administrative class, and were celebrated and revered into theNew Kingdom(to the end of the second millennium). In time, the Pyramid Texts becameCoffin Texts(perhaps after the end of the Old Kingdom), and finally, the mortuary literature produced its masterpiece, theBook of the Dead,during the New Kingdom.[citation needed]
TheMiddle Kingdomwas the golden age of Egyptian literature. Some texts include the Tale of Neferty, the Instructions ofAmenemhat I,theTale of Sinuhe,the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Story of the Eloquent Peasant.Instructionsbecame a popular literary genre of theNew Kingdom,taking the form of advice on proper behavior. TheStory of Wenamunand theInstruction of Anyare examples from this period.[5][6]
During theGreco-Roman period(332 BC − AD 639), Egyptian literature was translated into other languages, and Greco-Roman literature fused with native art into a new style of writing. From this period comes theRosetta Stone,which became the key to unlocking the mysteries of Egyptian writing to modern scholarship. The city ofAlexandriaboasted itsLibraryof almost half a million handwritten books during the third century BC. Alexandria's center of learning also produced the Greek translation of theHebrew Bible,theSeptuagint.
During the first few centuries of the Christian era, Egypt was a source of a great deal of ascetic literature in theCoptic language.Egyptian monasteries translated manyGreekandSyriacwords, which are now only extant in Coptic. UnderIslam,Egypt continued to be a great source of literary endeavor, now in theArabic language.In 970,al-Azhar Universitywas founded in Cairo, which to this day remains the most important center ofSunni Islamiclearning. In 12th-century Egypt, the JewishTalmudicscholarMaimonidesproduced his most important work.
In contemporary times, Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic-language literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. The first modern Egyptian novelZaynabbyMuhammad Husayn Haykalwas published in 1913 in theEgyptian vernacular.Egyptian novelistNaguib Mahfouzwas the first Arabic-language writer to win theNobel Prize in Literature.Many Egyptian books and films are available throughout theMiddle East.Other Egyptian writers includeNawal El Saadawi,known for herfeministworks and activism, andAlifa Rifaatwho also wrote about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is said to be the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented byBayram el-Tunsi,Ahmed Fouad Negm(Fagumi),Salah JaheenandAbdel Rahman el-Abnudi.
An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes ofPan-Arabismis the work ofAziz Pasha Abaza.He came fromAbaza familywhich produced notable Arabic literary figures including Ismail Pasha Abaza,Fekry Pasha Abaza,novelistTharwat Abaza,and Desouky Bek Abaza, among others.[7][8]
Religion
editAbout 85-95% percent of Egypt's population isMuslim,with aSunnimajority. About 5- 15% percent of the population isCoptic Christian;other religions and other forms ofChristianitycomprise the remaining three percent.[9] Sunni Islamsees Egypt as an important part of its religion due to not only Quranic verses mentioning the country, but also due to the Al-Azhar University, one of the earliest of the world universities. It was created as a school for religion studies and works.[citation needed]
Visual art
editEgyptian art in antiquity
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The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements inart.Thewall paintingdone in the service of thePharaohsfollowed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Early Egyptian art is characterized by the absence oflinear perspective,which results in a seemingly flat space. These artists tended to create images based on what they knew, and not as much on what they saw. Objects in these artworks generally do not decrease in size as they increase in distance and there is little shading to indicatedepth.Sometimes, distance is indicated through the use oftiered space,where more distant objects are drawn higher above the nearby objects, but in the same scale and with no overlapping of forms. People and objects are almost always drawn in profile.
Painting achieved its greats height inDynasty XVIIIduring the reigns ofTuthmose IVandAmenhotep III.The Fragmentary panel of the Lady Thepu, on the right, dates from the time of the latter king.[10]
Early Egyptian artists did have a system for maintaining dimensions within artwork. They used a grid system that allowed them to create a smaller version of the artwork, and then scale up the design based upon proportional representation in a larger grid.
Egyptian art in modern times
editModernandcontemporaryEgyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene. Some well-known names includeMahmoud Mokhtar,Abdel Hadi Al Gazzar,Farouk Hosny,Gazbia Sirry,Kamal Amin,Hussein El Gebaly,Sawsan Amerand many others. Many artists in Egypt have taken on modern media such as digital art and this has been the theme of many exhibitions inCairoin recent times. There has also been a tendency to use the World Wide Web as an alternative outlet for artists and there is a strong Art-focused internet community on groups that have found origin in Egypt.
Architecture
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There have been many architectural styles used in Egyptian buildings over the centuries, includingAncient Egyptian architecture,Greco-Roman architecture,Islamic architecture,andmodern architecture.
Ancient Egyptian architecture is best known for its monumentaltemplesand tombs built in stone, including its famouspyramids,such as thepyramids of Giza.These were built with a distinctive repertoire of elements includingpylon gateways,hypostylehalls,obelisks,andhieroglyphicdecoration. The advent of GreekPtolemaic rule,followed byRoman rule,introduced elements of Greco-Roman architecture into Egypt, especially in the capital city ofAlexandria.After this cameCoptic architecture,includingearly Christian architecture,which continued to follow ancient classical andByzantineinfluences.
Following theMuslim conquest of Egyptin the 7th century, Islamic architecture flourished. A new capital,Fustat,was founded; it became the center of monumental architectural patronage thenceforth, and through successive new administrative capitals, it eventually became the modern city ofCairo.Early Islamic architecture displayed a mix of influences, including classical antiquity and new influences from the east such as theAbbasid stylethat radiated from theAbbasid Caliphate's heartland inMesopotomia(present-dayIraq) during the 9th century. In the 10th century, Egypt became the center of a new empire, theFatimid Caliphate.Fatimid architectureinitiated further developments that influenced the architectural styles of subsequent periods.Saladin,who overthrew the Fatimids and founded theAyyubid dynastyin the 12th century, was responsible for constructing theCairo Citadel,which remained the center of government until the 19th century. During theMamluk period(13th–16th centuries), a wealth of monumental religious and funerary complexes were built, constituting much of Cairo's medieval heritage today. TheMamluk architectural stylecontinued to linger even after theOttoman conquest of 1517,when Egypt became anOttoman province.
In the early 19th century,Muhammad Alibegan to modernize Egyptian society and encouraged a break with traditional medieval architectural traditions, initially by emulating lateOttoman architecturaltrends. Under the reign of his grandsonIsma'il Pasha(1860s and 1870s), reform efforts were pushed further, theSuez Canalwas constructed (inaugurated in 1869), and a newHaussmann-influenced expansion of Cairo began. European tastes became strongly evident in architecture in the late 19th century, though there was also a trend of reviving what were seen as indigenous or "national" architectural styles, such as the manyNeo-Mamlukbuildings of this era. In the 20th century, some Egyptian architects pushed back against dominant Western ideas of architecture. Among them,Hassan Fathywas known for adapting indigenous vernacular architecture to modern needs. Since then, Egypt continues to see new buildings erected in a variety of styles and for various purposes, ranging from housing projects to more monumental prestige projects like theCairo Tower(1961) and theBibliotheca Alexandrina(2002).Science
editEgypt's cultural contributions have included great works ofscience,art,andmathematics,dating fromantiquityto modern times.
Technology
editImhotep
editConsidered to be the first engineer, architect and physician in history known by name,Imhotepdesigned thePyramid of Djoser(theStep Pyramid) atSaqqarainEgyptaround2630–2611 BC,and may have been responsible for the first known use ofcolumnsinarchitecture.The Egyptian historianManethocredited him with inventing stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, though he was not the first to actually build with stone. Imhotep is also believed to have foundedEgyptian medicine,being the author of the world's earliest known medical document, theEdwin Smith Papyrus.
Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt
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The silk road led straight through ancient Alexandria. Also, theRoyal Library of Alexandriawas once the largest in the world. It is usually assumed to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC during the reign ofPtolemy II of Egyptafter his father had set up theTemple of the MusesorMuseum.The initial organization is attributed toDemetrius Phalereus.The Library is estimated to have stored at its peak 400,000 to 700,000scrolls.
One of the reasons so little is known about the Library is that it was lost centuries after its creation. All that is left of many of the volumes are tantalizing titles that hint at all the history lost due to the building's destruction. Few events in ancient history are as controversial as the destruction of the Library, as the historical record is both contradictory and incomplete. Its destruction has been attributed by some authors to, among others,Julius Caesar,Augustus,and Catholic zealots during the purge of the Arian heresy, Not surprisingly, the Great Library became a symbol of knowledge itself, and its destruction was attributed to those who were portrayed as ignorantbarbarians,often for purely political reasons.
Anew librarywas inaugurated in 2003 near the site of the old library.
TheLighthouse of Alexandria,one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World,designed bySostratus of Cnidusand built during the reign ofPtolemy I Soterserved as the city's landmark, and later, lighthouse.
Mathematics and technology
editAlexandria,being the center of the Hellenistic world, produced a number of great mathematicians, astronomers, and scientists such asCtesibius,Pappus,andDiophantus.It also attracted scholars from all over the Mediterranean such asEratosthenesofCyrene.
Ptolemy
editPtolemyis one of the most famous astronomers and geographers from Egypt, famous for his work inAlexandria.Born Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαίος;c. 85– c. 165), he was ageographer,astronomer,andastrologer.[12]
Ptolemy was the author of two important scientific treatises. One is the astronomical treatise that is now known as theAlmagest(in GreekΗ μεγάλη Σύνταξις,"The Great Treatise" ). In this work, one of the most influential books of antiquity, Ptolemy compiled the astronomical knowledge of the ancient Greek andBabylonianworld. Ptolemy's other main work is hisGeography.This too is a compilation, of what was known about the world'sgeographyin the Roman Empire in his time.
In hisOptics,a work which survives only in an Arabic translation, he writes about properties oflight,includingreflection,refractionandcolour.His other works includePlanetary Hypothesis,PlanisphaeriumandAnalemma.Ptolemy's treatise on astrology, theTetrabiblos,was the most popularastrologicalwork of antiquity and also enjoyed great influence in theIslamicworld and themedievalLatinWest.
Ptolemy also wrote influential work Harmonics on music theory. After criticizing the approaches of his predecessors, Ptolemy argued for basing musical intervals on mathematical ratios (in contrast to the followers of Aristoxenus) backed up by empirical observation (in contrast to the over-theoretical approach of the Pythagoreans). He presented his own divisions of the tetrachord and the octave, which he derived with the help of a monochord. Ptolemy's astronomical interests appeared in a discussion of the music of the spheres.
Tributes to Ptolemy include Ptolemaeus crater on the Moon and Ptolemaeus crater on Mars.
Medieval Egypt
editAbu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam
editIbn Yunus
editModern Egypt
editAhmed Zewail
editAhmed Zewail(Arabic:أحمد زويل) (born February 26, 1946) is an Egyptianchemist,and the winner of the 1999Nobel Prize in Chemistryfor his work onfemtochemistry.Born inDamanhur(60 km south-east ofAlexandria) and raised inDisuq,he moved to theUnited Statesto complete his PhD at theUniversity of Pennsylvania.He was awarded a faculty appointment atCaltechin 1976, where he has remained since.
Zewail's key work has been as the pioneer offemtochemistry.He developed a method using a rapidlasertechnique (consisting ofultrashortlaser flashes), which allows the description of reactions at theatomiclevel. It can be viewed as a highly sophisticated form offlash photography
In 1999, Zewail became the third Egyptian to receive theNobel Prize,followingAnwar Sadat(1978 in Peace) andNaguib Mahfouz(1988 in Literature). In 1999, he received Egypt's highest state honor, theGrand Collar of the Nile.
Egyptology
editIn modern times,archaeologyand the study of Egypt's ancient heritage as the field ofEgyptologyhas become a major scientific pursuit in the country itself. The field began during theMiddle Ages,and has been led by Europeans and Westerners in modern times. The study of Egyptology, however, has in recent decades been taken up by Egyptian archæologists such asZahi Hawassand theSupreme Council of Antiquitieshe leads.
The discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a tablet written in ancient Greek, EgyptianDemoticscript, and Egyptian hieroglyphs, has partially been credited for the recent stir in the study of Ancient Egypt.Greek,a well-known language, gave linguists the ability to decipher the mysterious Egyptian hieroglyphic language. The ability to decipher hieroglyphics facilitated the translation of hundreds of the texts and inscriptions that were previously indecipherable, giving insight into Egyptian culture that would have otherwise been lost to the ages. The stone was discovered on July 15, 1799, in the port town ofRosetta,Egypt, and has been held in theBritish Museumsince 1802.
Sport
editFootballis the most popular sport in Egypt. Egyptian football clubs, especiallyZamalekandAl Ahlyare known throughout Africa. TheEgyptian national football teamwon theAfrican Cup of Nationsa record 7 times (in 1957, 1959, 1986, 1998, 2006 (on home soil), 2008 and 2010). Egypt was the first African country to joinFIFA,but it has only made it to theFIFA World Cupthree times, in 1934, 1990 and 2018. Egypt also won theWorld Military Cupfive times and finished as runners-up twice.[citation needed]
Other popular sports in Egypt arebasketball,handball,squash,andtennis.[citation needed]
TheEgyptian national basketball teamholds the record for best performance at theBasketball World Cupand at theSummer Olympicsin Middle East and Africa.[13][14]Egypt hosted the2017 FIBA Under-19 Basketball World Cupand is the only African country to host an official basketball world cup at junior or senior level.[citation needed]Further, the country hosted the officialAfrican Basketball Championshipon six occasions. Egypt also hosted multiple continental youth championships including the 2020FIBA Africa Under-18 Championshipand the 2020FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship for Women.[15]The Pharaohs,as they are commonly known, won 16 medals at theAfrican Championship.[citation needed]
Since the early 1990s, theEgyptian national handball teamhas won regional and continental tournaments as well as reaching fourth place internationally in 2001. The Junior national handball team won the world title in 1993 and it hosted the tournament in 2010.[citation needed]
In the 1930s and 1940s, Egypt was a powerhouse inweightlifting,bo xing,andwrestlingwith several Olympic and world championship medals.[citation needed]
Roller hockeyis also a popular sport in Egypt. The Egyptian national roller hockey team has taken part in many world competitions, but didn't win any as of now.[citation needed]
Local sports clubs receive financial support from the local governments, and many sporting clubs are financially and administratively supported by the government.[citation needed]
Media
editCinema
edit
In 1940,[19]Egyptian cinema has flourished since the 1930s.[20]As a result, the Egyptian capital has been dubbed the "Hollywood of the Middle East", where the world-renownedCairo International Film Festivalis held every year. The festival has been rated by theInternational Federation of Film Producers Associationsas being among the 11 top-class film festivals worldwide.[21]
The Egyptian film industry is the largest & most developed within Arabic-speaking cinema.[20]
Music
edit| External videos | |
|---|---|
 Turkish-Egyptian Dance Troupe Al Rakasaat's "Alexandria" Choreographed by Karen Custer Thurston |
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous Egyptian and Western influences.
As early as4000 BC,ancient Egyptians were playingharpsandflutes,as well as two indigenous instruments: theneyand theoud.However, there is a little notation of Egyptian music before the 7th century AD, when Egypt became part of theMuslim world.Percussionand vocal music became important at this time and has remained an important part of Egyptian music today.[citation needed]
ContemporaryEgyptian musictraces its beginnings to the creative work of Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz, Sayed Mikkawi, and Mahmud Osman, who were all patronized byKhedive Ismailand who influenced the later work ofSayed Darwish,Umm Kulthum,Mohammed Abdel Wahab,Abdel Halim Hafezand other Egyptian musicians.[citation needed]
From the 1970s onwards, Egyptianpop musichas become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, particularly among the large youth population of Egypt. Egyptianfolk musicis also popular, played during weddings and other festivities. In the last quarter of the 20th century, Egyptian music was a way to communicatesocialandclassissues. The most popular Egyptian pop singers areAmr Diab,Tamer Hosny,Mohamed Mounir,AnghamandAli El Haggar.Electronic musiccomposers,Halim El-Dabh,is an Egyptian.[22]
Belly dance,orRaqs Sharqi(literally: oriental dancing) may have originated in Egypt.[23]
The Arabic musical discipline known as "maqam," or chanting has both secular and religious uses. Maqams are almost always sung by men in the region, where women who perform music or sing publicly are often viewed as promiscuous. The members of Alhour, Egypt's first all-female Muslim recitation choir, are challenging deep-rooted taboos about women singing in public or reciting from the Quran in the socially conservative country. Alhour choir was launched in 2017.[24]
Clothing
editThehijabbecame more unpopular with educated women, including devout Muslims, in the early 20th century as the British authorities discouraged it and as women sought to gain modern positions of power. The hijab became more popular in the 1970s, with women choosing to adopt it due to the surge of pan-Arabism (especially its islamically rooted side) and Wahabbism as a result of the returning Egyptian migrants from Gulf Arab countries who got influenced by their beliefs & cultural set during their stay there.[25]
In 2012, Misr International Films was producing a television series based on the novelZaatbySonallah Ibrahim.Filming of scenes set atAin Shams Universitywas scheduled to occur that year. However,Muslim Brotherhoodstudent members and some teachers at the school protested, stating that the 1970s era clothing worn by the actresses was indecent and would not allow filming unless the clothing was changed. Gaby Khoury, the head of the film company, stated that the engineering department head, Sherif Hammad, "insisted that the filming should stop and that we would be reimbursed... explaining that he was not able to guarantee the protection of the materials or the artists."[26]
Cuisine
editEgyptian cuisine consists of local culinary traditions such asFul medames,Falafel,Kushari,andMolokhia.It also shares similarities with food found throughout the eastern Mediterranean likeKebabandShawarma.
See also
edit
Notes
edit- ^"Egyptian Identity".ucl.ac.uk.Retrieved2021-03-04.
- ^ʻAbd al-Ḥamīd Yūsuf 2003,p. vii.
- ^"Afro-Asiatic languages | Semitic, Berber & Cushitic | Britannica".britannica.2024-11-29.Retrieved2025-01-16.
- ^"Ancient Greek Language".obo.Retrieved2025-01-16.
- ^Mark, Joshua J."The Report of Wenamun: Text & Commentary".World History Encyclopedia.Retrieved2024-05-22.
- ^Lichtheim, Miriam(2006).Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom(2006 ed.).University of California Press.ISBN9780520933064.
- ^"مكتبة البوابة: أهم 10 كتب للأديب المصري ثروت أباظة | البوابة".article.albawaba.net(in Arabic).Retrieved2024-05-14.
- ^سمير, رانيا (2024-01-03)."عائلة أباظة: تاريخ طويل وأثر عميق في مصر".صوت القبائل العربية والعائلات المصرية(in Arabic).Retrieved2024-05-14.
- ^Numbers vary widely. The 1996 census, the last for which public info on religion exists has 5.6% of the population as Christian (down from 8.3% in 1927). However the census may be undercounting Christians. The government Egyptian Demographic and Health Survey (2008) of around 16,500 women aged 15 to 49 showed about 5% of the respondents were Christian. According toAl-Ahram newspaper,one of the main government owned national newspapers in Egypt, estimated the percentage between 10% - 15% (2017). QScience Connect in 2013 using 2008 data estimated that 5.1% of Egyptians between the ages of 15 and 59 were Copts. The Pew Foundation estimates 5.1% for Christians in 2010. The CIA Fact Book estimates 10% (2012) while the Washington Report on Middle East Affairs states in 1997, "Estimates of the size of Egypt's Christian population vary from the low government figures of 6 to 7 million to the 12 million reported by some Christian leaders. The actual numbers may be in the 9 to 9.5 million range, out of an Egyptian population of more than 60 million" which yields an estimate of about 10-20% then. Several sources give 10-20%. The British Foreign Office gives a figure of 9%. The Christian Post in 2004 quotes the U.S. Copt Association as reporting 15% of the population as native Christian.
- ^Bothmer, Bernard (1974).Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art.Brooklyn, NH: Brooklyn Museum. p. 48.
- ^Behrens-Abouseif 1989,pp. 58–62.
- ^Martin Bernal (1992). "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science",Isis83(4), p. 596-607 [602, 606]
- ^"1950 World Championship for Men".FIBA. 9 June 2012.Retrieved9 June2012.
- ^"Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men".FIBA. 9 June 2012.Retrieved9 June2012.
- ^"Egypt confirmed as hosts for men's and women's FIBA U18 African Championships 2020".FIBA.15 September 2020.Retrieved6 November2020.
- ^Tadros, Gina (2022-01-26)."The 9 Best Soad Hosny Films to Watch on the Late Egyptian Actor's Birthday".Vogue Arabia.Retrieved2024-09-14.
- ^Yousry, Omar (2022-06-21)."7 Things You Didn't Know About Egypt's Cinderella Soad Hosny".Scoop Empire.Retrieved2024-09-14.
- ^Jalal, Maan."Soad Hosny: Remembering the Cinderella of Arab cinema".The National.Retrieved2024-09-14.
- ^"LAFF – History of Cinema: Egypt".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-09-24.Retrieved2013-09-24.
- ^abEgyptian State Information Service (SIS) - Cinema In EgyptArchived2008-04-19 at theWayback Machine
- ^Film Festivals."Find out more about the Cairo International Film Festival".ukhotmovies.Archived fromthe originalon 8 December 2011.Retrieved21 February2015.
- ^Writer, ByStaff."The Father of Electronic Music: A Brief History of Egyptian Composer Halim El Dabh".SceneArabia.Retrieved2023-05-09.
- ^"Birth of Modern Raqs Sharqi, Baladi and Ghawazee (Late 1800s to 1930s) and Belly Dance (5.2)".World Dance Heritage.Retrieved2023-06-14.
- ^"Egypt's First All-Women Islamic Choir Defies Gender Taboos".Global Citizen.Retrieved2021-09-14.
- ^O'Donnell, Erin (September–October 2011)."The Veil's Revival".Harvard Magazine.Retrieved2021-09-13.
- ^"Islamists halt filming of Egyptian TV series."Daily News Egypt.Thursday, February 9, 2012.NewsBankRecord Number: 17587021. "[...]and teachers were against it, because of the clothing worn by the actresses," he said. The series, adapted from the novel "Zaat" by Egyptian author Sonallah Ibrahim, takes[...] "
References
edit- ʻAbd al-Ḥamīd Yūsuf, Ahmad (2003).From Pharaoh's lips: ancient Egyptian language in the Arabic of today.Minneapolis, Minn.: American University in Cairo Press.ISBN9789774247088.
- Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1989).Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction(PDF).Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill.ISBN9789004096264.
Further reading
edit- Asante, Molefi Kete (2002).Culture and Customs of Egypt.Greenwood Press.ISBN0313317402.