Cyprus[f](/ˈsaɪprəs/), officially theRepublic of Cyprus,[g]is anisland countryin the easternMediterranean Sea.It is geographically a part ofWest Asia,but its cultural ties andgeopoliticsare overwhelminglySoutheast European.Cyprus is the third largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean.[11][12]It is east ofGreece,north ofEgypt,south ofTurkey,and west ofLebanonandSyria.Its capital and largest city isNicosia.The northeast portion of the island isde factogoverned by the self-declaredTurkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
Republic of Cyprus | |
|---|---|
| Anthem:Ὕμνος εἰς τὴν Ἐλευθερίαν[a] (English: "Hymn to Liberty") | |
 Location of the Republic of Cyprus in dark green, territoryde jure but not controlledin light green | |
| Capital and largest city | Nicosia 35°10′N33°22′E/ 35.167°N 33.367°E |
| Official languages | |
| Minority languages | |
| Vernaculars | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion (2020; including Northern Cyprus) |
|
| Demonym(s) | Cypriot |
| Government | Unitarypresidential republic |
| Nikos Christodoulides | |
| Vacant[b] | |
| Annita Demetriou | |
| Legislature | House of Representatives |
| Independencefrom the United Kingdom | |
| 19 February 1959 | |
• Independence proclaimed | 16 August 1960 |
| 1 October 1960 | |
| Area | |
• Total[c] | 9,251 km2(3,572 sq mi) (162nd) |
• Water (%) | 0.11[3] |
| Population | |
• 2021 census |  923,272[d][4] |
• Density | 123.4[c][5]/km2(319.6/sq mi) (82nd) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $54.104 billion[6](125th) |
• Per capita | $58,733[6](30th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $34.221 billion[6](105th) |
• Per capita | $37,149[6](27th) |
| Gini(2022) |  29.4[7]low inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.907[8] very high(29th) |
| Currency | Euro(€) (EUR) |
| Time zone | UTC+02:00(EET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+03:00(EEST) |
| Drives on | left |
| Calling code | +357 |
| ISO 3166 code | CY |
| Internet TLD | .cy[e] |
Cyprus was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming settlements emerging a few thousand years later. During the lateBronze Age,Cyprus, known in contemporary sources asAlashiya,developed an urbanized society closely connected to the wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement byMycenaean Greeksin in the late 2nd millennium BC. It was subsequently occupied by severalmajor powers,including the empires of theAssyrians,EgyptiansandPersians,from whom the island was seized in 333 BC byAlexander the Great.Subsequent rule byPtolemaic Egypt,theClassicalandEastern Roman Empire,Arabcaliphatesfor a short period, the FrenchLusignan dynastyand theVenetianswas followed by over three centuries ofOttoman rulebetween 1571 and 1878 (de jureuntil 1914).[13]Cyprus was placed under theUnited Kingdom's administration based on theCyprus Conventionin 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914.
The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities,Greek CypriotsandTurkish Cypriots.From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursuedenosis,union withGreece,which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.[14][15]The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy oftaksim,the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.[16]Followingnationalist violence in the 1950s,Cyprus wasgranted independencein 1960.[17]Thecrisis of 1963–64brought furtherintercommunal violencebetween the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves[18]: 56–59 [19]and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic. On 15 July 1974, acoup d'étatwas staged byGreek Cypriot nationalists[20][21]and elements of theGreek military junta.[22]This action precipitated theTurkish invasion of Cypruson 20 July,[23]which led to the capture of the present-day territory ofNorthern Cyprusand thedisplacementof over 150,000 Greek Cypriots[24][25]and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots.[26]A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north wasestablished by unilateral declarationin 1983; the move was widely condemned by theinternational community,with Turkey alonerecognisingthe new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of acontinuing dispute. Cyprus is a majortourist destinationin the Mediterranean.[27][28][29]The country has an advancedhigh-income economy.The Republic of Cyprus has been a member of theCommonwealthsince 1961 and was afounding memberof theNon-Aligned Movementuntil itjoined the European Unionon 1 May 2004.[30]On 1 January 2008, Cyprus joined theeurozone.[31]
Etymology
The earliest attested reference toCyprusis the 15th century BCMycenaean Greek𐀓𐀠𐀪𐀍,ku-pi-ri-jo,[32]meaning "Cypriot" (Greek:Κύπριος), written inLinear Bsyllabic script.[33] The classical Greek form of the name isΚύπρος(Kýpros).
The etymology of the name is unknown. Suggestions include:
- the Greek word for theMediterranean cypress tree(Cupressus sempervirens), κυπάρισσος (kypárissos)
- the Greek name of thehenna tree(Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros)
- anEteocypriotword for copper. It has been suggested, for example, that it has roots in theSumerianword for copper (zubar) or forbronze(kubar), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island.[34]
Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to theClassical Latinword for copper through the phraseaes Cyprium,"metal of Cyprus", later shortened toCuprum.[34][35]
The standarddemonymrelating to Cyprus or its people or culture isCypriot.The termsCyprioteandCyprian(latera personal name) are also used, though less frequently.
The state's official name inGreekliterally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead.
History
Prehistoric and ancient period
Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites likeAetokremnoson the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias.[36]The arrival of the first humans coincides with the extinction of the 75 cm (2.46 ft) highCypriot pygmy hippopotamusand 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tallCyprus dwarf elephant,the only large mammals native to the island.[37]Neolithicfarming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC).[38]
Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separateNeolithicsite in Cyprus.[39]The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predatingancient Egyptiancivilisation and pushing back theearliest known feline-human associationsignificantly.[40]The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village ofKhirokitiais a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site,dating to approximately 6800 BC.[41]
During the LateBronze Age,from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part asAlashiyain contemporary texts) became more connected to the wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade incopperextracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanized settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like thepharaohsof theNew Kingdom of Egypt,as documented in theAmarna letters).[42]The first recorded name of a Cypriot king isKushmeshusha,as appears on letters sent toUgaritin the 13th century BC.[43]
At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement.[44]The first wave consisted ofMycenaean Greektraders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC.[45][46][47]A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following theLate Bronze Age collapseof Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period.[47][48]Cyprus occupies an important role inGreek mythology,being the birthplace ofAphroditeandAdonis,and home toKing Cinyras,TeucerandPygmalion.[49]Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence atKition,which was underTyrianrule at the beginning of the 10th century BC.[50]SomePhoenicianmerchants who were believed to come fromTyrecolonisedthe area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians.
Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean.[51][52][53]It was ruled by theNeo-Assyrian Empirefor a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventuallyAchaemenidrule in 545 BC.[47]The Cypriots, led byOnesilus,king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in theIoniancities during the unsuccessfulIonian Revoltin 499 BC against the Achaemenids. The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards the Greek world.[47] During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there was not a Persiansatrap.[54]The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and a semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King.[54]
The island was conquered byAlexander the Greatin 333 BC and Cypriot navy helped Alexander during thesiege of Tyre (332 BC).The Cypriot fleet was also sent to helpAmphoterus.[55]In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generalsStasanderandStasanorboth from theSoliand later both became satraps in Alexander's empire. Following Alexander's death, thedivision of his empire,and the subsequentWars of the Diadochi,Cyprus became part of theHellenistic empireofPtolemaic Egypt.It was during this period that the island was fullyHellenized.In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by theRoman Republicand becameRoman Cyprusin 22 BC.[47]
Middle Ages
When theRoman Empirewas divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of the East Roman Empire (also called theByzantine Empire), and would remain so for some 900 years. Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community.[56]
Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched byUmayyad Caliphate.Many were quick piratical raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were slaughtered and great wealth carried off or destroyed.[56]The city ofSalamiswas destroyed and never rebuilt.[47]In 688, EmperorJustinian IIand CaliphAbd al-Maliksigned a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, and would remain neutral in status to both. Byzantine control remained stronger in the northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south. There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and the island entered a period of impoverishment.[57]Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when EmperorNikephoros II Phokasscored decisive victories on land and sea.[47]
In 1156Raynald of ChâtillonandThoros II of Armeniabrutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of the leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover. Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople.[58]
In 1185Isaac Komnenos,a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire. In 1191, during theThird Crusade,Richard I of Englandcaptured the island from Isaac.[59]He used it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from theSaracens.A year later Richard sold the island to theKnights Templar,who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it toGuy of Lusignan.His brother and successorAimerywas recognised asKing of CyprusbyHenry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.[47]
Following the death in 1473 ofJames II,the last Lusignan king, theRepublic of Veniceassumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, QueenCatherine Cornaro,reigned as figurehead. Venice formally annexed theKingdom of Cyprusin 1489, following the abdication of Catherine.[47]The Venetians fortifiedNicosiaby building theWalls of Nicosia,and used it as an important commercial hub. Throughout Venetian rule, theOttoman Empirefrequently raided Cyprus. In 1539 the Ottomans destroyedLimassoland so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortifiedFamagustaandKyrenia.[47]
Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on the island[47]is no longer considered by academics to be accurate. It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to the upper classes, a growing Greekmiddle ranks,[60]and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included KingJohn II of Cypruswho marriedHelena Palaiologina.[61]
Ottoman Cyprus
In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprusmassacredmany Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants.[62]The previous Latin elite were destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community.[63]Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island fromAnatolia.[64]This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on the island.[65]
The Ottomans abolished thefeudalsystem previously in place and applied themillet systemto Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of theChurch of Cypruswas invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that the Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the constant encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church.[66]Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials.[67]
The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians.[68]By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians.[69]The Muslim population included numerouscrypto-Christians,[70]including theLinobambaki,a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities;[70][71]this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule.[72]
As soon as theGreek War of Independencebroke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus,Kyprianos,and four other bishops.[73]In 1828, modern Greece's first presidentIoannis Kapodistriascalled for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.[74]Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by the Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea ofunionwith newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots.[67]
Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low. They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during the twentieth century.[75]
British Cyprus
In the aftermath of theRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878)and theCongress of Berlin,Cyprus wasleasedto theBritish Empirewhich de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained ade jureOttoman territory until 5 November 1914, together withEgypt and Sudan)[13]in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression.[47]
The island would serve Britain as a key military base for its colonial routes. By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking theSuez Canal,the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession. Following the outbreak of theFirst World Warand the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of theCentral Powers,on 5 November 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the OttomanKhedivateofEgypt and SudanaSultanateand British protectorate.[13][47]
In October 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by KingConstantine I of Greece,on the condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British and went toSerbia’s assistance, in order to fulfill her Treaty obligations under theSerbo-Greek pactof May 1913.[76]It gave Greece a golden “opportunity” in achievingenosiswith Cyprus.[76]Alternatively was it a “lost opportunity” whenZaimisadministration declined the British proposal.[76]
In 1923, under theTreaty of Lausanne,the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus,[77]and in 1925 it was declared a Britishcrown colony.[47]During theSecond World War,many Greek and Turkish Cypriots enlisted in theCyprus Regiment.
The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead toenosis.The idea ofenosiswas historically part of theMegali Idea,a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in the former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus andAsia Minorwith a capital inConstantinople,and was actively pursued by theCypriot Orthodox Church,which had its members educated in Greece. These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued theMegali Idea,would later found the guerrilla organisationEOKA(Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agonistonor National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters).[78][79]The Greek Cypriots viewed the island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right.[80]In the 1950s, the pursuit ofenosisbecame a part of the Greek national policy.[81]
Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule.[82]However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls forenosis,as they saw the union ofCretewith Greece, which led to the exodus ofCretan Turks,as a precedent to be avoided,[83][84]and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA.[85]The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right toself-determinationfrom Greek Cypriots.[80]Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leaderMenderesconsidered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured the annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death" was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in the northern part of the island.[86][87]
In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised areferendumunder the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation,[88]where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour ofenosis,[89][90][18]: 9 The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island' s population at the time (census 1946). Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected. In 1955 the EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle. At the same time theTurkish Resistance Organisation(TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight.[91]British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation T.M.T. The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised the Governor of Cyprus not to act against T.M.T despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government.[87]
Independence and inter-communal violence
During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities,Greek Cypriots,who made up 77% of the population in 1960, andTurkish Cypriots,who made up 18% of the population. From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursuedenosis,union withGreece,which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.[92][93]The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy oftaksim,the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.[94]
Cyprus wasgranted independencein 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA.[17]As per theZürich and London Agreement,Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.[95]The UK retained the twoSovereign Base AreasofAkrotiri and Dhekelia,while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving the minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights.
However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed theAkritas plan,which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan.[96]Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President ArchbishopMakarios IIIcalled forconstitutional changes,which were rejected by Turkey[18]: 17–20 and opposed by Turkish Cypriots.[96]
Intercommunal violenceeruptedon 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving the Greek Cypriot police. The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots,[97]destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy;[18]: 56–59 the nature of this event is still controversial. In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to the calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration.[98]Turkish Cypriots started living inenclaves.The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by theGreen Line,with the deployment ofUNFICYPtroops.[18]: 56–59
In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus[99]in response to the continuingCypriot intercommunal violence,but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from the US PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonon 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory.[100]Meanwhile, by 1964,enosiswas a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime ministerGeorgios Papandreouagreed thatenosisshould be the ultimate aim and KingConstantinewished Cyprus "a speedy union with the mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion.[101]
Thecrisis of 1963–64had brought furtherintercommunal violencebetween the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots intoenclaves[18]: 56–59 [19]and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic.
1974 coup d'état, invasion, and division
On 15 July 1974, theGreek military juntaunderDimitrios Ioannidescarried out acoup d'étatin Cyprus, tounite the island with Greece.[102][103][104]The coup ousted presidentMakarios IIIand replaced him with pro-enosisnationalistNikos Sampson.[105]In response to the coup,[h]five days later, on 20 July 1974, theTurkish army invadedthe island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960Treaty of Guarantee.This justification has been rejected by theUnited Nationsand the international community.[111]
The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds ofparatrooperswere dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles.[112][113]
Three days later, when a ceasefire had been agreed,[114]Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself.[114]The junta inAthens,and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power. In Nicosia,Glafkos Cleridestemporarily assumed the presidency.[114]But after the peace negotiations inGeneva,the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started a second invasion on 14 August.[115]The invasion resulted inMorphou,Karpass,Famagusta and theMesaoriacoming under Turkish control.
International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north.[116]At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during theTurkish invasion of Cyprusin 1974.[117]There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots[118]and 502 Turkish Cypriots[119]missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974.
The Republic of Cyprus hasde juresovereigntyover the entire island, including itsterritorial watersandexclusive economic zone,with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas ofAkrotiri and Dhekelia,which remain under the UK's control according to theLondon and Zürich Agreements.However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of the island's area, and the north,[120]administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by theUN buffer zone.The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces.[i]The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of theEuropean Union.[126]
Post-division
After the restoration of constitutional order and the return of ArchbishopMakarios IIIto Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, theTurkish Cypriot parliament,led by the Turkish Cypriot leaderRauf Denktaş,proclaimedthe Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey.[3]
The events of the summer of 1974 dominate thepoliticson the island, as well asGreco-Turkish relations.Turkish settlershave been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states. The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of theGeneva Convention,[18]: 56–59 whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland.[127]
The Turkish invasion, the ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year.[128]
21st century
Attempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, theAnnan Plan,drafted by then UN Secretary GeneralKofi Annan,was put to areferendumin both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of the plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, claiming that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey.[129]In total, 66.7% of the votersrejected the Annan Plan.
On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined theEuropean Union,together with nine other countries.[130]Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until a final settlement of the Cyprus problem.
Efforts have been made to enhance freedom of movement between the two sides. In April 2003, Northern Cyprus unilaterally eased checkpoint restrictions, permitting Cypriots to cross between the two sides for the first time in 30 years.[131]In March 2008, a wall that had stood for decades at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and theUN buffer zonewas demolished.[132]The wall had cut acrossLedra Streetin the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials.[133]The two sides relaunched reunification talks in 2015,[134]but these collapsed in 2017.[135]
TheEuropean Unionwarned in February 2019 that Cyprus was sellingEU passportstoRussian oligarchs,and thus would alloworganized crimesyndicates to infiltrate the EU.[136]In 2020, leaked documents revealed a wider range of former and current officials from Afghanistan, China, Dubai, Lebanon, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine and Vietnam who bought a Cypriot citizenship prior to a change of the law in July 2019.[137][138]Since 2020 Cyprus and Turkey have beenengaged in a disputeover the extent of theirexclusive economic zones,ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area.[139]
In November 2023, theCyprus Confidentialdata leak published by theInternational Consortium of Investigative Journalistsshowed the country's financial network entertaining strong links with Russian oligarchs and high-up figures in the Kremlin, supporting the regime ofVladimir Putin.[140]
In July 2024, on the 50th anniversary of the Turkish invasion of Northern Cyprus, Turkish President Erdoğan rejected a United Nations-endorsed plan for a federal government and supported the idea of having two separate states within Cyprus. Greek Cypriots immediately rejected Erdoğan's two-state proposal, calling it a "non-starter".[141]
Geography
Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after theItalian islandsofSicilyandSardinia,both in terms of area and population.[3]It is also theworld's 80th largest by areaandworld's 51st largest by population.It measures 240 kilometres (149 mi) long from end to end and 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide at its widest point, with Turkey 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the north. It lies between latitudes34°and36° N,and longitudes32°and35° E.
Other neighbouring territories include Syria and Lebanon to the east and southeast (105 and 108 kilometres (65 and 67 mi), respectively), Israel 200 kilometres (124 mi) to the southeast, The Gaza Strip 427 kilometres (265 mi) to the southeast, Egypt 380 kilometres (236 mi) to the south, and Greece to the northwest: 280 kilometres (174 mi) to the smallDodecanesianisland ofKastellorizo(Megisti), 400 kilometres (249 mi) toRhodesand 800 kilometres (497 mi) to the Greek mainland. Cyprus is at the crossroads of three continents, with sources placing Cyprus in Europe,[142][143][144]and alternatively Western Asia and the Middle East.[145][3]
The physical relief of the island is dominated by two mountain ranges, theTroodos Mountainsand the smallerKyrenia Range,and the central plain they encompass, theMesaoria.The Mesaoria plain is drained by thePedieos River,the longest on the island. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The highest point on Cyprus isMount Olympusat 1,952 m (6,404 ft), in the centre of the Troodos range. The narrow Kyrenia Range, extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower, reaching a maximum of 1,024 m (3,360 ft). The island lies within theAnatolian Plate.[146]
Cyprus contains theCyprus Mediterranean forestsecoregion.[147]It had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 7.06/10, ranking it 59th globally out of 172 countries.[148]
Geopolitically,the island is subdivided into four main segments. The Republic of Cyprus occupies the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies the northern third (34.85%), and the United Nations-controlledGreen Lineprovides abuffer zonethat separates the two and covers 2.67% of the island. Lastly, there aretwo bases under British sovereigntyon the island:Akrotiri and Dhekelia,covering the remaining 2.74%.
Climate
Cyprus has asubtropical climate–Mediterraneanandsemi-aridtype (in the north-eastern part of the island) –Köppen climate classificationsCsaandBSh,[149][150]with very mild winters (on the coast) and warm to hot summers. Snow is possible only in the Troodos Mountains in the central part of island. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.
Cyprus has one of the warmest climates in the Mediterranean part of the European Union.[151]The average annual temperature on the coast is around 24 °C (75 °F) during the day and 14 °C (57 °F) at night. Generally, summers last about eight months, beginning in April with average temperatures of 21–23 °C (70–73 °F) during the day and 11–13 °C (52–55 °F) at night, and ending in November with average temperatures of 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) during the day and 12–14 °C (54–57 °F) at night, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes exceed 20 °C (68 °F).[152]
Sunshine hours on the coast are around 3,200 per year, from an average of 5–6 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12–13 hours in July.[153]This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe; for comparison, London receives about 1,540 per year.[154]In December, London receives about 50 hours of sunshine[154]while coastal locations in Cyprus about 180 hours (almost as much as in May in London).
Water supply
Cyprus suffers from a chronic shortage of water. The country relies heavily on rain to provide household water, but in the past 30 years average yearly precipitation has decreased.[155]Between 2001 and 2004, exceptionally heavy annual rainfall pushed water reserves up, with supply exceeding demand, allowing total storage in the island's reservoirs to rise to an all-time high by the start of 2005. However, since then demand has increased annually – a result of local population growth, foreigners moving to Cyprus and the number of visiting tourists – while supply has fallen as a result of more frequent droughts[155](2006 European heat wave,2018 European heat wave,2019 European heat waves,2022 European heat waves).
Dams remain the principal source of water both for domestic and agricultural use; Cyprus has a total of 108 dams and reservoirs, with a total water storage capacity of about 330,000,000 m3(1.2×1010cu ft).[156]Waterdesalinationplants are gradually being constructed to deal with recent years of prolonged drought.
The Government has invested heavily in the creation of water desalination plants which have supplied almost 50 per cent of domestic water since 2001. Efforts have also been made to raise public awareness of the situation and to encourage domestic water users to take more responsibility for the conservation of this increasingly scarce commodity.[157]
Turkey has built a water pipeline under the Mediterranean Sea fromAnamuron its southern coast to the northern coast of Cyprus, to supply Northern Cyprus with potable and irrigation water(seeNorthern Cyprus Water Supply Project).
Flora and fauna
Cyprus is home to a number ofendemicspecies, including theCypriot mouse,thegolden oakand theCyprus cedar.
Government and politics
Cyprus is apresidential republic.The head of state and of the government is elected by a process ofuniversal suffragefor a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in theHouse of Representativeswhilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature.
The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative and judicial branches as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive was led by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives who were also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls.
Since 1965, following clashes between the two communities, theTurkish Cypriotseats in the House have remained vacant. In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto when the Turkish army occupied the northern third of the island. The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but were recognised only by Turkey. In 1985 the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the entire island of Cyprus.
As of 2007, theHouse of Representativeshad 56 members elected for a five-year term byproportional representation,and three observer members representing theArmenian,LatinandMaroniteminorities. Twenty-four seats were allocated to theTurkishcommunity but have remained vacant since 1964. The political environment was dominated by the communistAKEL,the liberal conservativeDemocratic Rally,thecentrist[158]Democratic Party,and thesocial-democraticEDEK.
In 2008,Dimitris Christofiasbecame the country's first Communist head of state. Due to his involvement in the2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis,Christofias did not run for re-election in 2013. The Presidential election in 2013 resulted inDemocratic RallycandidateNicos Anastasiadeswinning 57.48% of the vote. As a result, Anastasiades was sworn in on 28 February 2013. Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the2018 presidential election.[159][160]On 28 February 2023,Nikos Christodoulides,the winner of the 2023 presidentialelectionrun-off, was sworn in as the eighth president of the Republic of Cyprus.[161]
Administrative divisions
The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts:Nicosia,Famagusta,Kyrenia,Larnaca,LimassolandPaphos.[162]
Exclaves and enclaves
Cyprus has fourexclaves,all in territory that belongs to theBritish Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia.The first two are the villages ofOrmidhiaandXylotymvou.The third is theDhekelia Power Station,which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is theEACrefugee settlement. The southern part, even though located by the sea, is also an exclave because it has noterritorial watersof its own, those being UK waters.[163]
TheUN buffer zoneruns up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side offAyios Nikolaosand is connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor. In that sense the buffer zone turns theParalimniarea on the southeast corner of the island into a de facto, though notde jure,exclave.
Foreign relations
The Republic of Cyprus is a member of the following international groups:Australia Group,CN,CE,CFSP,EBRD,EIB,EU,FAO,IAEA,IBRD,ICAO,ICC,ICCt,ITUC,IDA,IFAD,IFC,IHO,ILO,IMF,IMO,Interpol,IOC,IOM,IPU,ITU,MIGA,NAM,NSG,OPCW,OSCE,PCA,UN,UNCTAD,UNESCO,UNHCR,UNIDO,UPU,WCL,WCO,WFTU,WHO,WIPO,WMO,WToO,WTO.[3][164]
Cyprus is the 88th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[165]
Military
TheCypriot National Guardis the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is acombined armsforce, with land, air and naval elements. Historically all male citizens were required to spend 24 months serving in the National Guard after their 17th birthday, but in 2016 this period of compulsory service was reduced to 14 months.[166]
Annually, approximately 10,000 persons are trained in recruit centres. Depending on their awarded speciality the conscript recruits are then transferred to speciality training camps or to operational units.
While until 2016 the armed forces were mainly conscript based, since then a large professional enlisted institution has been adopted (ΣΥΟΠ), which combined with the reduction of conscript service produces an approximate 3:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted.
Law, justice and human rights
TheCyprus Police(Greek:Αστυνομία Κύπρου,Turkish:Kıbrıs Polisi) is the only National Police Service of the Republic of Cyprus and is under the Ministry of Justice and Public Order since 1993.[167]
In "Freedom in the World 2011", Freedom House rated Cyprus as "free".[168]In January 2011, the Report of the Office of theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Human Rightson the question of Human Rights in Cyprus noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island "including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights".[169]The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues.[citation needed]
In 2014, Turkey was ordered by theEuropean Court of Human Rightsto pay well over $100m in compensation to Cyprus for the invasion;[170]Ankaraannounced that it would ignore the judgment.[171]In 2014, a group of Cypriot refugees and a European parliamentarian, later joined by the Cypriot government, filed a complaint to the International Court of Justice, accusing Turkey of violating theGeneva Conventionsby directly or indirectly transferringits civilian populationinto occupied territory.[citation needed]Other violations of the Geneva and the Hague Conventions—both ratified by Turkey—amount to what archaeologist Sophocles Hadjisavvas called "the organized destruction of Greek and Christian heritage in the north".[172]These violations include looting of cultural treasures, deliberate destruction of churches, neglect of works of art, and altering the names of important historical sites, which was condemned by theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites.Hadjisavvas has asserted that these actions are motivated by a Turkish policy of erasing the Greek presence in Northern Cyprus within a framework of ethnic cleansing. But some perpetrators are just motivated by greed and are seeking profit.[172]Art law expert Alessandro Chechi has classified the connection of cultural heritage destruction to ethnic cleansing as the "Greek Cypriot viewpoint", which he reports as having been dismissed by twoPACEreports. Chechi asserts joint Greek and Turkish Cypriot responsibility for the destruction of cultural heritage in Cyprus, noting the destruction of Turkish Cypriot heritage in the hands of Greek Cypriot extremists.[173]
Economy
In the early 21st century, Cyprus boasted a prosperous service-based economy that made it the wealthiest of the ten countries that joined the European Union in 2004.[174]However, the Cypriot economy was later damaged by theglobal financial crisisand theEurozone crisis.In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need €1.8 billionin foreign aid to support theCyprus Popular Bank,and this was followed byFitchdowngrading Cyprus's credit rating tojunk status.[175]Fitch stated Cyprus would need an additional €4 billionto support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure ofBank of Cyprus,Cyprus Popular Bank,andHellenic Bank,Cyprus's three largest banks, to theGreek financial crisis.[175]
The2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisisled to an agreement with theEurogroupin March 2013 to split Cyprus Popular Bank, into a "bad" bank which would be wound down over time and a "good" bank which would be absorbed by the Bank of Cyprus. In return for a €10 billionbailoutfrom theEuropean Commission,theEuropean Central Bankand theInternational Monetary Fund,often referred to as the "troika", the Cypriot government was required to impose a significanthaircutonuninsured deposits,a large proportion of which were held by wealthyRussianswho used Cyprus as atax haven.Insured deposits of €100,000 or less were not affected.[176][177][178]
Cyprus made a staggering[clarification needed]economic recovery in the 2010s,[179]and according to the 2023 International Monetary Fund estimates, Cyprus'per capita GDPat$54,611 is the highest inSouthern Europe,though slightly below the European Union average.[180]Tourism, financial services and shipping are significant parts of the economy, and Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses due its low tax rates andease of doing business.Robust growth was achieved in the 1980s and 1990s, due to the focus placed by Cypriot governments on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union.[181]The Cypriot government adopted the euro as the national currency on 1 January 2008, replacing theCypriot pound.[174]
Cyprus is the last EU member fully isolated from energy interconnections and it is expected that it will be connected to European network via theEuroAsia Interconnector,a 2000 MWhigh-voltage direct currentundersea power cable.[182]EuroAsia Interconnectorwill connect Greek, Cypriot, and Israeli power grids. It is a leading Project of Common Interest of theEuropean Unionand also priority Electricity Highway Interconnector Project.[183][184]
In recent years significant quantities of offshore natural gas have been discovered in the area known asAphrodite(at the exploratory drilling block 12) in Cyprus's exclusive economic zone (EEZ),[185]about 175 kilometres (109 miles) south of Limassol at 33°5'40″N and 32°59'0″E.[186]However, Turkey's offshore drilling companies have accessed both natural gas and oil resources since 2013.[187]Cyprus demarcated its maritime border with Egypt in 2003, with Lebanon in 2007,[188]and with Israel in 2010.[189]In August 2011, the US-based firmNoble Energyentered into a production-sharing agreement with the Cypriot government regarding the block's commercial development.[190]
Turkey, which does not recognise the border agreements of Cyprus with its neighbours,[191]threatened to mobilise its naval forces if Cyprus proceeded with plans to begin drilling at Block 12.[192]Cyprus's drilling efforts have the support of the US, EU, and UN, and on 19 September 2011 drilling in Block 12 began without any incidents being reported.[193]
Infrastructure
Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on theleft-hand side of the road,a remnant of British rule.A series of motorwaysruns along the coast fromPaphostoAyia Napa,with two motorways running inland to Nicosia, one from Limassol and one fromLarnaca.
Per capita private car ownership is the 29th-highest in the world.[194]There were approximately 344,000 privately owned vehicles, and a total of 517,000 registered motor vehicles in the Republic of Cyprus in 2006.[195]In 2006, plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and other public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of theEuropean UnionDevelopment Bank. In 2010 the new bus network was implemented.[196]
Cyprus has two international airports in the government-controlled areas, the busier one being inLarnacaand the other inPaphos.[197]TheErcan International Airportis the only active one in the non-government-controlled areas, but all international flights there must have a stopover in Turkey.[198]
The mainharboursof the island areLimassolandLarnaca,which service cargo, passenger andcruise ships.
Cyta,thestate-ownedtelecommunications company, manages most telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following deregulation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies emerged, includingepic,Cablenet,OTEnet Telecom,Omega TelecomandPrimeTel.In the non-government-controlled areas of Cyprus, two different companies administer the mobile phone network:TurkcellandKKTC Telsim.[citation needed]
Demographics
According to the Republic of Cyprus' website, the population in the government controlled areas was 918,100 at the 2021 Census, with the most populous district being Nicosia (38%), followed by Limassol (28%).[199]The Nicosia Metropolitan area, consisting of seven municipalities, is the largest urban area on the island with a population of 255,309.[200]
As per the first population census after independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566, of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.[95][201]The CIA World Factbook calculated that in 2001,Greek Cypriotscomprised 77%,Turkish Cypriots18%, and others 5% of the total Cypriot population.[202][203]
Due to the inter-communal ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974, an island-wide census was regarded as impossible. Nevertheless, the Cypriot government conducted one in 1973, without the Turkish Cypriot populace.[204]According to this census, the Greek Cypriot population was 482,000. One year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the total population of Cyprus at 641,000; of whom 506,000 (78.9%) were Greeks, and 118,000 (18.4%) Turkish.[205]After the military occupation of part of the island in 1974, the government of Cyprus conducted six more censuses: in 1976, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2011 and 2021; these excluded the Turkish population which was resident in non-government-controlled areas of the island.[201]
In addition to this, the Republic of Cyprus is home to 110,200 foreign permanent residents[206]and an estimated 10,000–30,000 undocumented illegal immigrants.[207][203]As of 2011, there were 10,520 people ofRussianorigin living in Cyprus.[208][209]
| Nationality | Population (2011) |
|---|---|
 Greece
|
29,321 |
 United Kingdom
|
24,046 |
 Romania
|
23,706 |
 Bulgaria
|
18,536 |
 Philippines
|
9,413 |
 Russia
|
8,164 |
 Sri Lanka
|
7,269 |
 Vietnam
|
7,028 |
 Syria
|
3,054 |
 India
|
2,933 |
According to the 2006 census carried out by Northern Cyprus, there were 256,644 (de jure) people living in Northern Cyprus. 178,031 were citizens of Northern Cyprus, of whom 147,405 were born in Cyprus (112,534 from the north; 32,538 from the south; 371 did not indicate what region of Cyprus they were from); 27,333 born in Turkey; 2,482 born in the UK and 913 born in Bulgaria. Of the 147,405 citizens born in Cyprus, 120,031 say both parents were born in Cyprus; 16,824 say both parents born in Turkey; 10,361 have one parent born in Turkey and one parent born in Cyprus.[210]
In 2010, theInternational Crisis Groupestimated that the total population of the island was 1.1 million,[211]of which there were an estimated 300,000 residents in the north, perhaps half of whom wereeither born in Turkeyor are children of such settlers.[212]
The villages ofRizokarpaso(in Northern Cyprus), Potamia (in Nicosia district) andPyla(inLarnaca District) are the only settlements remaining with a mixed Greek and Turkish Cypriot population.[213]
Y-Dna haplogroupsare found at the following frequencies in Cyprus:J(43.07% including 6.20% J1),E1b1b(20.00%),R1(12.30% including 9.2% R1b),F(9.20%),I(7.70%),K(4.60%),A(3.10%).[214]J, K, F and E1b1b haplogroups consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe.
Outside Cyprus there are significant and thriving diasporas – both aGreek Cypriot diasporaand aTurkish Cypriot diaspora– in the United Kingdom,Australia,Canada,theUnited States,Greece and Turkey.
According toCouncil of Europe,approximately 1,250Romani peoplelive in Cyprus.[215]
| Rank | Name | District | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Nicosia  Limassol |
1 | Nicosia | Nicosia | 173,175 |  Strovolos  Larnaca | ||||
| 2 | Limassol | Limassol | 124,054 | ||||||
| 3 | Strovolos | Nicosia | 71,123 | ||||||
| 4 | Larnaca | Larnaca | 68,194 | ||||||
| 5 | Lakatamia | Nicosia | 53,273 | ||||||
| 6 | Agios Athanasios | Limassol | 42,936 | ||||||
| 7 | Famagusta | Famagusta | 42,526 | ||||||
| 8 | Paphos | Paphos | 37,297 | ||||||
| 9 | Kyrenia | Kyrenia | 33,207 | ||||||
| 10 | Paralimni | Famagusta | 31,709 | ||||||
Religion
The majority of Greek Cypriots identify asChristians,specificallyGreek Orthodox,[3][218][219]whereas most Turkish Cypriots are adherents ofSunni Islam.The firstPresident of Cyprus,Makarios III,was anarchbishop.
Hala Sultan Tekke,situated near theLarnaca Salt Lakeis an object ofpilgrimagefor Muslims.
According to the 2001 census carried out in the government-controlled areas,[220]94.8% of the population wasEastern Orthodox,0.9%ArmenianandMaronite,1.5% Roman Catholic, 1.0%Church of England,and 0.6% Muslim. There is also aJewish community on Cyprus.The remaining 1.3% adhered to other religious denominations or did not state their religion. In 2021, it was estimated that there were 13,280Sikhsin Cyprus (1.1% of population), making it the third largest national proportion of Sikhs in the world. The Greek Orthodox,Armenian Apostolic Church,and both the Maronite andLatinCatholics are constitutionally recognized denominations and exempt from taxes.[221][222]
Languages
Cyprus has two official languages, Greek andTurkish.[223]ArmenianandCypriot Maronite Arabicare recognised as minority languages.[224][225]Although without official status,Englishis widely spoken and features widely on road signs and in public notices and advertisements.[226]English was the sole official language during British colonial rule and thelingua francauntil 1960, and continued to be used (de facto) in courts of law until 1989 and in legislation until 1996.[227]In 2010, 80.4% of Cypriots were proficient in English as asecond language.[228]Russian is widely spoken among the country's minorities, residents and citizens of post-Soviet countries, andPontic Greeks.Russian,after English and Greek, is the third language used on many signs of shops and restaurants, particularly in Limassol and Paphos. In addition, in 2006, 12% of the population spokeFrenchand 5% spokeGerman.[229]
The everyday spoken language of Greek Cypriots isCypriot Greek,and that of Turkish Cypriots isCypriot Turkish.[227]Thesevernacularsboth differ from theirstandard registerssignificantly.[227]
Education
Cyprus has a highly developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. The high quality of instruction can be attributed in part to the fact that nearly 7% of the GDP is spent on education which makes Cyprus one of the top three spenders of education in the EU along with Denmark and Sweden.[230]
State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions. However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take.
The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities. Cyprus currently[when?]has the highest percentage of citizens ofworking agewho have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%. In addition, 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU. The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus.
Culture
Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many cultural traits, while also possessing some differences. Several traditional food (such assouvlaandhalloumi) and beverages are similar,[231]as well as expressions and ways of life. Hospitality and buying or offering food and drinks for guests or others are common among both. In both communities, music, dance and art are integral parts of social life and many artistic, verbal and nonverbal expressions, traditional dances such astsifteteli,similarities in dance costumes and importance placed on social activities are shared between the communities.[232]However, the two communities have distinct religions and religious cultures, with the Greek Cypriots traditionally beingGreek Orthodoxand Turkish Cypriots traditionally beingSunni Muslims,which has partly hindered cultural exchange.[233]Greek Cypriots have influences from Greece and Christianity, while Turkish Cypriots have influences from Turkey andIslam.
TheLimassol Carnival Festivalis an annualcarnivalwhich is held atLimassol,in Cyprus. The event which is very popular in Cyprus was introduced in the 20th century.[234]
Arts
The art history of Cyprus can be said to stretch back up to 10,000 years, following the discovery of a series ofChalcolithicperiod carved figures in the villages ofKhoirokoitiaandLempa.[235]The island is the home to numerous examples of high quality religiousicon paintingfrom theMiddle Agesas well asmany painted churches.Cypriot architecture was heavily influenced byFrench Gothicand Italianrenaissanceintroduced in the island during the era of Latin domination (1191–1571).
A well known traditional art that dates at least from the 14th century is theLefkara lace,which originates from the village ofLefkara.Lefkara lace is recognised as anintangible cultural heritage(ICH) by UNESCO, and it is characterised by distinct design patterns, and its intricate, time-consuming production process. Another local form of art that originated from Lefkara is the production of Cypriot Filigree (locally known asTrifourenio), a type of jewellery that is made with twisted threads of silver.
In modern times Cypriot art history begins with the painter Vassilis Vryonides (1883–1958) who studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice.[236]Arguably the two founding fathers of modern Cypriot art were Adamantios Diamantis (1900–1994) who studied at London'sRoyal College of Artand Christophoros Savva (1924–1968) who also studied in London, atSaint Martin's School of Art.[237]In 1960, Savva founded, together with Welsh artist Glyn Hughes, Apophasis [Decision], the first independent cultural centre of the newly established Republic of Cyprus. In 1968, Savva was among the artists representing Cyprus in its inaugural Pavilion at the 34th Venice Biennale. English Cypriot ArtistGlyn HUGHESArchived19 June 2021 at theWayback Machine1931–2014.[238]In many ways these two artists set the template for subsequent Cypriot art and both their artistic styles and the patterns of their education remain influential to this day. In particular the majority of Cypriot artists still train in England[239]while others train at art schools in Greece and local art institutions such as theCyprus College of Art,University of Nicosiaand theFrederick Institute of Technology.
One of the features of Cypriot art is a tendency towards figurative painting althoughconceptual artis being rigorously promoted by a number of art "institutions" and most notably the Nicosia Municipal Art Centre. Municipal art galleries exist in all the main towns and there is a large and lively commercial art scene.
Other notable Greek Cypriot artists includeHelene Black,Kalopedis family,Panayiotis Kalorkoti,Nicos Nicolaides,Stass Paraskos,Arestís Stasí,Telemachos Kanthos,Konstantia SofokleousandChris Achilleos,and Turkish Cypriot artists includeİsmet Güney,Ruzen AtakanandMutlu Çerkez.
Music
The traditionalfolk musicof Cyprus has several common elements withGreek,Turkish,andArabic Music,all of which have descended from Byzantine music, including Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot dances such as thetillirkotissa,as well as the Middle Eastern-inspiredtsifteteliandarapies.There is also a form of musical poetry known aschattistawhich is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations. The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the violin ( "fkiolin" ),lute( "laouto" ), Cyprus flute (pithkiavlin),oud( "outi" ),kanonakiand percussions (including the "tamboutsia"). Composers associated with traditional Cypriot music includeSolon Michaelides,Marios Tokas,Evagoras Karageorgis and Savvas Salides. Among musicians is also the acclaimed pianistCyprien Katsaris,composerAndreas G. Orphanides,and composer and artistic director of the European Capital of Culture initiativeMarios Joannou Elia.
Popular musicin Cyprus is generally influenced by the GreekLaïkascene; artists who play in this genre include internationalplatinumstarAnna Vissi,[240][241][242][243]Evridiki,andSarbel.Hip hopandR&Bhave been supported by the emergence of Cypriot rap and theurban musicscene atAyia Napa,while in the last years thereggaescene is growing, especially through the participation of many Cypriot artists at the annualReggae Sunjamfestival. Is also noted Cypriot rock music andÉntekhnorock is often associated with artists such asMichalis HatzigiannisandAlkinoos Ioannidis.Metalalso has a small following in Cyprus represented by bands such as Armageddon (rev.16:16), Blynd,Winter's Verge,Methysosand Quadraphonic.
Literature
Literary production of the antiquity includes theCypria,anepic poem,probably composed in the late 7th century BC and attributed toStasinus.TheCypriais one of the first specimens of Greek and European poetry.[244]The CypriotZeno of Citiumwas the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.
Epic poetry, notably the "acritic songs", flourished during theMiddle Ages.Two chronicles, one written byLeontios Machairasand the other byGeorgios Boustronios,cover the entire Middle Ages until the end of Frankish rule (4th century–1489). Poèmes d'amour written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from the 16th century. Some of them are actual translations of poems written byPetrarch,Bembo,Ariostoand G.Sannazzaro.[245]Many Cypriot scholars fled Cyprus at troubled times such asIoannis Kigalas(c. 1622–1687) who migrated from Cyprus to Italy in the 17th century, several of his works have survived in books of other scholars.[246]
Hasan Hilmi Efendi, a Turkish Cypriot poet, was rewarded by the Ottoman sultanMahmud IIand said to be the "sultan of the poems".[248]
Modern Greek Cypriot literary figures include the poet and writerCostas Montis,poetKyriakos Charalambides,poetMichalis Pasiardis,writerNicos Nicolaides,Stylianos Atteshlis,Altheides,Loukis Akritas[249]and Demetris Th. Gotsis.Dimitris Lipertis,Vasilis Michaelidesand Pavlos Liasides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in theCypriot-Greekdialect.[250][251]Among leading Turkish Cypriot writers areOsman Türkay,twice nominated for theNobel Prize in Literature,[252]Özker Yaşın,Neriman Cahit,Urkiye Mine Balman,Mehmet YaşınandNeşe Yaşın.
There is an increasingly strong presence of both temporary and permanent emigre Cypriot writers in world literature, as well as writings by second and third-generation Cypriot writers born or raised abroad, often writing in English. This includes writers such asMichael ParaskosandStephanos Stephanides.[253]
Examples of Cyprus in foreign literature include the works of Shakespeare, with most of the playOthellobyWilliam Shakespeareset on the island of Cyprus. British writerLawrence Durrelllived in Cyprus from 1952 until 1956, during his time working for the British colonial government on the island, and wrote the bookBitter Lemonsabout his time in Cyprus which won the secondDuff Cooper Prizein 1957.
Mass media
In the 2015 Freedom of the Press report ofFreedom House,the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus were ranked "free". The Republic of Cyprus scored 25/100 inpress freedom,5/30 in Legal Environment, 11/40 in Political Environment, and 9/30 in Economic Environment (the lower scores the better).[254]Reporters Without Bordersrank the Republic of Cyprus 24th out of 180 countries in the 2015 World Press Freedom Index, with a score of 15.62.[255]
The law provides forfreedom of speechandpress,and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.[256]
Local television companies in Cyprus include the state ownedCyprus Broadcasting Corporationwhich runs two television channels. In addition on the Greek side of the island there are the private channels ANT1 Cyprus, Plus TV, Mega Channel, Sigma TV, Nimonia TV (NTV) and New Extra. In Northern Cyprus, the local channels areBRT,the Turkish Cypriot equivalent to the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, and a number of private channels. The majority of local arts and cultural programming is produced by the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation and BRT, with local arts documentaries, review programmes and filmed drama series.
Cinema
The most worldwide known Cypriot director, to have worked abroad, isMichael Cacoyannis.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Filis produced and directedGregoris Afxentiou,Etsi Prodothike i Kypros,andThe Mega Document.In 1994, Cypriot film production received a boost with the establishment of the Cinema Advisory Committee. In 2000, the annual amount set aside for filmmaking in the national budget wasCYP£500,000 (about €850,000). In addition to government grants, Cypriot co-productions are eligible for funding from theCouncil of Europe'sEurimagesFund, which finances European film co-productions. To date, four feature films on which a Cypriot was an executive producer have received funding from Eurimages. The first wasI Sphagi tou Kokora(1996), followed byHellados(unreleased),To Tama(1999), andO Dromos gia tin Ithaki(2000).[257]
Cuisine
During the medieval period, under the French Lusignan monarchs of Cyprus an elaborate form of courtly cuisine developed, fusing French, Byzantine and Middle Eastern forms. The Lusignan kings were known for importing Syrian cooks to Cyprus, and it has been suggested that one of the key routes for the importation of Middle Eastern recipes into France and other Western European countries, such as blancmange, was via the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus. These recipes became known in the West asvyands de Chypre,or foods of Cyprus, and the food historian William Woys Weaver has identified over one hundred of them in English, French, Italian and German recipe books of the Middle Ages. One that became particularly popular across Europe in the medieval and early modern periods was a stew made with chicken or fish calledmalmonia,which in English became mawmeny.[258]
Another example of a Cypriot food ingredient entering the Western European canon is the cauliflower, still popular and used in a variety of ways on the island today, which was associated with Cyprus from the early Middle Ages. Writing in the 12th and 13th centuries the Arab botanistsIbn al-'AwwamandIbn al-Baitarclaimed the vegetable had its origins in Cyprus,[259][260]and this association with the island was echoed in Western Europe, where cauliflowers were originally known as Cyprus cabbage orCyprus colewart.There was also a long and extensive trade in cauliflower seeds from Cyprus, until well into the sixteenth century.[261]
Although much of the Lusignan food culture was lost after the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571, a number of dishes that would have been familiar to the Lusignans survive today, including various forms of tahini and houmous, zalatina, skordalia and pickled wild song birds called ambelopoulia.Ambelopoulia,which is today highly controversial, and illegal, was exported in vast quantities from Cyprus during the Lusignan and Venetian periods, particularly to Italy and France. In 1533 the English traveller to Cyprus, John Locke, claimed to have seen the pickled wild birds packed into large jars, of which 1200 jars were exported from Cyprus annually.[262]
Also familiar to the Lusignans would have beenHalloumicheese, which some food writers today claim originated in Cyprus during the Byzantine period[263][264][265]although the name of the cheese itself is thought by academics to be of Arabic origin.[266]There is no surviving written documentary evidence of the cheese being associated with Cyprus before the year 1554, when the Italian historianFlorio Bustronwrote of a sheep-milk cheese from Cyprus he calledcalumi.[266]Halloumi (Hellim) is commonly served sliced, grilled, fried and sometimes fresh, as an appetiser ormezedish.
Seafood and fish dishes include squid, octopus,red mullet,andsea bass.Cucumber and tomato are used widely in salads. Common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, asparagus andtaro.Other traditional delicacies are meat marinated in dried coriander seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such aslountza(smokedpork loin), charcoal-grilled lamb,souvlaki(pork and chicken cooked over charcoal), andsheftalia(minced meat wrapped inmesentery).Pourgouri(bulgur,cracked wheat) is the traditional source of carbohydrate other than bread, and is used to make the delicacykoubes.
Fresh vegetables and fruits are common ingredients. Frequently used vegetables include courgettes, green peppers,okra,green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans, broad beans, peas, black-eyed beans, chick-peas and lentils. The most common fruits and nuts are pears, apples, grapes, oranges,mandarines,nectarines,medlar,blackberries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut.
Cyprus is also well known for its desserts, includinglokum(also known asTurkish delight) andSoutzoukos.[267]This island hasprotected geographical indication (PGI)for itslokumproduced in the village ofGeroskipou.[268][269]
Sports
Sport governing bodies include theCyprus Football Association,Cyprus Basketball Federation,Cyprus Volleyball Federation,Cyprus Automobile Association,Cyprus Badminton Federation,[270]Cyprus Cricket Association,Cyprus Rugby Federationand the Cyprus Pool Association.
Notable sports teams in the Cyprus leagues includeAPOEL FC,Anorthosis Famagusta FC,AC Omonia,AEL Limassol FC,Apollon Limassol FC,Nea Salamis Famagusta FC,Olympiakos Nicosia,AEK Larnaca FC,Aris Limassol FC,AEL Limassol B.C.,Keravnos B.C.andApollon Limassol B.C.Stadiums or sports venues include theGSP Stadium(the largest in the Republic of Cyprus-controlled areas),Tsirion Stadium(second largest),Neo GSZ Stadium,Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium,Ammochostos Stadium.Makario StadiumandAlphamega Stadium.
In the 2008–09 season,Anorthosis Famagusta FCwas the first Cypriot team to qualify for theUEFA Champions LeagueGroup stage. Next season,APOEL FCqualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage, and reached the last 8 of the2011–12 UEFA Champions Leagueafter finishing top of its group and beating FrenchOlympique Lyonnaisin the Round of 16.
TheCyprus national rugby union teamknown asThe Moufflonscurrently holds the record for most consecutive international wins, which is especially notable as theCyprus Rugby Federationwas only formed in 2006.
FootballerSotiris Kaiafaswon theEuropean Golden Shoein the 1975–76 season; Cyprus is the smallest country by population to have one of its players win the award. Tennis playerMarcos Baghdatiswas ranked 8th in the world, was a finalist at the Australian Open, and reached theWimbledonsemi-final, all in 2006. High jumperKyriakos Ioannouachieved a jump of 2.35m at the 11thIAAF World Championships in AthleticsinOsaka,Japan, in 2007, winning the bronze medal. He has been ranked third in the world. In motorsports,Tio Ellinasis a successful race car driver, currently racing in theGP3 Seriesfor MarussiaManor Motorsport.There is also mixed martial artistCostas Philippou,who competed inUFC's middleweight division from 2011 until 2015. Costas holds a 6–4 record in UFC bouts.
Also notable for a Mediterranean island, the siblingsChristopherandSophia Papamichalopoulouqualified for the2010 Winter Olympicsin Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. They were the only athletes who managed to qualify and thus representedCyprus at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
The country's first ever Olympic medal, a silver medal, was won by the sailorPavlos Kontides,at the2012 Summer Olympicsin theMen's Laser class.
See also
References
Informational notes
- ^The Greek national anthem was adopted in 1966 by a decision of theCouncil of Ministers.[1]
- ^The vice presidency is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot. However the post has been vacant since theTurkish invasionin 1974.[3]
- ^abIncluding Northern Cyprus, theUN buffer zoneandAkrotiri and Dhekelia.
- ^Government-controlled areas of the Republic of Cyprus.
- ^The.eudomain is also used, shared with otherEuropean Unionmember states.
- ^Greek:Κύπρος,romanized:Kýpros[ˈcipros];Turkish:Kıbrıs[ˈkɯbɾɯs]
- ^Greek:Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία,romanized:Kypriakí Dimokratía,[cipriaˈciðimokraˈti.a],lit:Cypriot Republic; Turkish:Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti,[ˈkɯbɾɯsˈdʒumhuɾijeti],lit:Republic of Cyprus
- ^See:[106][107][108][109][110]
- ^See:[121][122][123][124][125]
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They hoped that the transfer of administration would pave the way for the island to be united with Greece—an aspiration known as 'enosis.' At the time, these calls for enosis were not just limited to Cyprus. Instead, Cyprus was part of a wider political movement... This overarching political ambition was known as the Megali Idea (Great Idea).
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From early 1950s onward Greece has favored union with Cyprus through a policy of enosis
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- ^Rhythm: Global Sounds and Ideas.Vol. 9. World Marketing Incorporated. 2000. p. 70.Archivedfrom the original on 10 September 2015.Retrieved20 June2015.
We have a Euro Music category with clips by the Gipsy Kings and Anna Vissi, a huge star for Sony Greece 'We also have...
- ^"An indication that at least the main contents of theCypriawere known around 650 BC is provided by the representation of theJudgment of Parison theChigi vase"(Burkert 1992:103). On theproto-Corinthianewerof c. 640 BC known as theChigi "vase"[permanent dead link],Paris is identified asAlexandros,as he was apparently called inCypria.[dead link]
- ^Th. Siapkaras- Pitsillidés, Le Pétrarchisme en Cypre. Poèmes d' amour en dialecte Chypriote d' après un manuscript du XVIe siècle, Athènes 1975 (2ème édition)
- ^Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Institut für Griechisch-Römische Altertumskunde, Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Zentralinstitut für Alte Geschichte und Archäologie (1956).Berliner byzantinistische Arbeiten, Volume 40.Akademie-Verlag. pp. 209–210.
John Cigala (born at Nicosia 1622). He studied at the College of Saint Athanasios, Rome (1635–1642), which he graduated as doctor of philosophy and theology and at which he taught Greek successfully for eight years (1642–1650)... What has survived of his work as a number of epigrams published in books of other scholars.
- ^Serena, Sebastiano; Barbarigo, Gregorio (1963).S. Gregorio Barbarigo e la vita spirituale e cultuale nel suo Seminario di Padova; lettre e saggi editi dagli amici in memoria.Editrice Antenore. p. 495.OCLC6706000.
Giovanni Cicala, greco di Cipro, prof. di Filosofia nella Università... Al qual fine permetteva tutta la confidenza con il Cigala e con il Papadopoli, ambedue greci nativi e Lettori pubblici nell'Universita di Padova, coi quail si tratteneva, in frequenti discorsi sopra questa material, le mezze giornate intiere...
- ^Gazioğlu, Ahmet C. (1990). The Turks in Cyprus: a province of the Ottoman Empire (1571–1878), 293–295, K. Rüstem.
- ^"Cyprus Stamp Issue: Loukis Akritas".Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved29 December2009.
- ^"Cyprus Stamp Issue: Cyprus Poets".Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved29 December2009.
- ^"Cyprus Stamp Issue: Centenary Birthday Anniversary of Poet Pavlos Liasides".Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved29 December2009.
- ^Kozmik şiirin yazarıArchived17 October 2015 at theWayback Machine(Hürriyet). Retrieved 31 December 2014.
- ^Alexander Davidian, 'A literary resilience' inThe Cyprus Weekly(Cyprus newspaper), 10 January 2016
- ^Freedom HouseArchived16 February 2016 at theWayback Machine,2015 report Cyprus
- ^RSFArchived19 April 2016 at theWayback Machine,Cyprus
- ^"Cyprus"Archived28 March 2020 at theWayback Machine,Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012,Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 22 March 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^"Film Birth – History of Cinema – CyprusArchived24 September 2015 at theWayback Machine".
- ^William Woys Weaver, 'Poland in the Middle Ages' in Maria Dembinska (ed.)Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past(Philadelphia: University of University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) pp. 41–46
- ^"Cabbage Flowers for Food".Aggie Horticulture.Texas AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M System.Archivedfrom the original on 12 August 2014.Retrieved12 October2014.
- ^Fenwick, G. Roger; Heaney, Robert K.; Mullin, W. John; VanEtten, Cecil H. (1982). "Glucosinolates and their breakdown products in food and food plants".CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition.18(2): 123–201.doi:10.1080/10408398209527361.PMID6337782.
- ^Jon Gregerson,Good Earth(Portland: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, 1990) p.41
- ^David Bannerman and Mary BannermanBirds of Cyprus(London: Oliver and Boyd, 1958) p. 384
- ^Goldstein, Darra; Merkle, Kathrin; Parasecoli, Fabio; Mennell, Stephen; Council of Europe (2005).Culinary cultures of Europe: identity, diversity and dialogue.Council of Europe. p. 121.ISBN978-92-871-5744-7.
Most culinary innovations in the Cypriot cuisine occurred during the Byzantine era... Experimentation with dairy products resulted in the now-famous halloumi and feta cheese.
- ^Robinson, R. K.; Tamime, A. Y. (1991).Feta and Related Cheeses.Woodhead Publishing. p. 144.ISBN978-1-85573-278-0.
Halloumi is a semi-hard to hard, unripened cheese that traditionally is made from either sheep's or goat's milk or a mixture. Although the cheese has its origins in Cyprus, it is widely popular throughout the Middle East, and hence many countries have now become involved with its manufacture.
- ^Murdoch Books Pty Limited (2005).Essential Mediterranean.Murdoch Books. p. 21.ISBN978-1-74045-539-8.
HALOUMl Originating in Cyprus, this salty, semi-hard sheep's milk cheese is a popular table cheese
- ^abP. Papademas, "Halloumi Cheese" in A.Y. Tamime (ed.),Brined Cheeses(Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006) p.117
- ^"Cyprus villagers make giant sweetArchived17 May 2024 at theWayback Machine",BBC News,18 October 2004
- ^"Turks riled as Cyprus set to win EU trademark on Turkish Delight".International Herald Tribune.Associated Press. 13 December 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 2 December 2008.Retrieved14 December2007.
- ^Andreou, Evie (4 July 2016)."Agros rose preserve included in protected geographical indication list".Cyprus Mail.Archivedfrom the original on 20 January 2018.Retrieved19 January2018.
- ^"Cyprus Badminton Federation".Cyprusbadminton. Archived fromthe originalon 3 April 2009.Retrieved27 March2009.
Further reading
- Brewin, Christopher (2000).European Union and Cyprus.Eothen Press.ISBN978-0-906719-24-4.
- Charalambous, Giorgos (2015).Party-Society Relations in the Republic of Cyprus.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-317386-56-8.
- Clark, Tommy.A Brief History of Cyprus(2020)excerptArchived26 March 2023 at theWayback Machine
- Dods, Clement, ed. (1999).Cyprus: The Need for New Perspectives.The Eothen Press.ISBN978-0-906719-23-7.
- Durrell, Lawrence (1957).Bitter Lemons.Faber and Faber.ISBN978-0-571-20155-6.
- Faustmann, Hubert; Nicos Peristianis (2006).Britain and Cyprus: Colonialism and Post-Colonialism, 1878–2006.Bibliopolis.ISBN978-3-933925-36-7.
- Gibbons, Harry Scott (1997).The Genocide Files.Charles Bravos Publishers.ISBN978-0-9514464-2-3.
- Hannay, David (2005).Cyprus: The Search for a Solution.I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-1-85043-665-2.
- Hitchens, Christopher (1997).Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger.Verso.ISBN978-1-85984-189-1.
- Ker-Lindsay, James (2005).EU Accession and UN Peacemaking in Cyprus.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-4039-9690-9.
- Ker-Lindsay, James; Hubert Faustmann (2009).The Government and Politics of Cyprus.Peter Lang.ISBN978-3-03911-096-4.
- Mallinson, William (2005).Cyprus a Modern History.I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-1-85043-580-8.
- Merin, Jennifer; Burdick, Elizabeth B. (1 November 1979).International directory of theatre, dance, and folklore festivals: a project of the International Theatre Institute of the United States, inc.Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-20993-2.
- Mirbagheri, Farid (1989).Cyprus and International Peacemaking.Hurst.ISBN978-1-85065-354-7.
- Nicolet, Claude (2001).United States Policy Towards Cyprus, 1954–1974.Bibliopolis.ISBN978-3-933925-20-6.
- Oberling, Pierre (1982).The Road to Bellapais.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-88033-000-8.
- O'Malley, Brendan; Ian Craig (1999).The Cyprus Conspiracy.I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-1-86064-737-6.
- Palley, Claire (2005).An International Relations Debacle: The UN Secretary-General's Mission of Good Offices in Cyprus, 1999–2004.Hart Publishing.ISBN978-1-84113-578-6.
- Papadakis, Yiannis (2005).Echoes from the Dead Zone: Across the Cyprus Divide.I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-1-85043-428-3.
- Richmond, Oliver (1998).Mediating in Cyprus.Frank Cass.ISBN978-0-7146-4431-8.
- Richmond, Oliver; James Ker-Lindsay, eds. (2001).The Work of the UN in Cyprus: Promoting Peace and Development.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-333-91271-3.
- Richter, Heinz (2010).A Concise History of Modern Cyprus 1878–2009.Rutzen.ISBN978-3-447-06212-1.
- Sacopoulo, Marina (1966).Chypre d'aujourd'hui.Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose. 406 p., ill. with b&w photos. and fold. maps.
- Tocci, Nathalie (2004).EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution: Catalysing Peace or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus?.Ashgate.ISBN978-0-7546-4310-4.
- Yiorghos, Leventis; Murata Sawayanagi Nanako; Hazama Yasushi (2008).Crossing Over Cyprus.Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA) Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (TUFS).ISBN978-4-86337-003-6.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
General Information
- Cyprus.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- Timeline of Cyprus by BBC
- CyprusfromUCB Libraries GovPubs
- Cyprusinformation from theUnited States Department of Stateincludes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
- CyprusatCurlie
- Cyprus profilefrom theBBC News
- The UN in Cyprus
Government
- Cyprus High Commission Trade Centre – London
- Republic of Cyprus – English Language
- Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus
- Press and Information Office – Ministry of Interior
- Cyprus Statistical Service
Tourism
- Read about Cyprus on visitcyprusArchived28 June 2010 at theWayback Machine– the official travel portal for Cyprus
- Cyprus informational portal and open platform for contribution of Cyprus-related content– Cyprus
Geographic data related toCyprusatOpenStreetMap
Cuisine
- Gastronomical map of CyprusArchived23 April 2023 at theWayback Machine
Archaeology
- Cypriot Pottery, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections
- The Cesnola collection of Cypriot art: stone sculpture,a fully digitised text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
- The Mosaics of Khirbat al-Ma
Official publications
- The British government's Foreign Affairs Committee report on Cyprus.
- Legal Issues arising from certain population transfers and displacements on the territory of the Republic of Cyprus in the period since 20 July 1974Archived28 September 2008 at theWayback Machine
- Address to Cypriots by President Papadopoulos (FULL TEXT)
- Annan Plan
- Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background
