Wikipedia

Dead Sea

TheDead Sea(Arabic:اَلْبَحْر الْمَيِّت,romanized:al-Baḥr al-Mayyit,orاَلْبَحْر الْمَيْت,al-Baḥr al-Mayt;Hebrew:יַם הַמֶּלַח,romanized:Yam hamMelaḥ), also known byother names,is a landlockedsalt lakebordered byJordanto the east, theIsraeli-occupied West Bankto the west andIsraelto the southwest.[5][6]It lies in theJordan Rift Valley,and its maintributaryis theJordan River.

Dead Sea
A view of the sea from the Jordanian shore with the hills of theWest Bankin the background
Location of the Dead Sea
Location of the Dead Sea
Dead Sea
LocationWestern Asia
Coordinates31°30′N35°30′E/ 31.500°N 35.500°E/31.500; 35.500
Lake typeEndorheic
Hypersaline
Primary inflowsJordan River
Primary outflowsNone
Catchment area41,650 km2(16,080 sq mi)
BasincountriesJordan,Palestine(Israeli-occupied West Bank),Israel
Max. length50 km (31 mi)[1](northern basin only)
Max. width15 km (9.3 mi)
Surface area605 km2(234 sq mi) (2016)[2]
Average depth188.4 m (618 ft)[3]
Max. depth298 m (978 ft) (elevation of deepest point, 728 m (2,388 ft) BSL [below sea level], minus current surface elevation)
Water volume114 km3(27 cu mi)[3]
Shore length1135 km (84 mi)
Surface elevation−430.5 m (−1,412 ft) (2016)[4]
References[3][4]
1Shore length isnot a well-defined measure.
Short video about the Dead Sea from theIsraeli News Company

As of 2019, the lake's surface is 430.5 metres (1,412 ft) belowsea level,[4][7]making its shores thelowest land-based elevationon Earth. It is 304 m (997 ft) deep, the deepesthypersaline lakein the world. With asalinityof 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of theworld's saltiest bodies of water[8]– 9.6 times assalty as the ocean– and has adensityof 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar tofloating.[9][10]This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is 50 kilometres (31 mi) long and 15 kilometres (9 mi) wide at its widest point.[1]

The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around theMediterranean Basinfor thousands of years. It was one of the world's firsthealth resorts,and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, fromasphaltforEgyptianmummificationtopotashforfertilisers.Today, tourists visit the sea on its Israeli, Jordanian and West Bank coastlines.

The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is 605 km2(234 sq mi), having been 1,050 km2(410 sq mi) in 1930. Multiple canal and pipeline proposals, such as the scrappedRed Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyanceproject,[11]have been made to reduce its recession.

Names

TheEnglishname "Dead Sea" is acalqueof theArabic name,itself a calque ofearlier Greek and Latin names[citation needed],in reference to the scarcity of aquatic life caused by the lake's extreme salinity.[12] Historical English names include theSalt Sea,[13]Lake ofSodom[13]from the biblical account of its destruction[14]andLake Asphaltites[13]fromGreek and Latin.

The name "Dead Sea" occasionally appears inHebrew literatureasYām HamMāvet(יםהמוות), 'Sea of Death'.[12] The usualbiblical[15]and modern Hebrew name for the lake is theSea of Salt(ים המלח,Yām HamMelaḥⓘ). Other Hebrew names for the lake also mentioned in theBibleare theSea ofArabah(יםהערבה,Yām Ha‘Ărāvâ) and theEastern Sea(היםהקדמוני,HaYām HaQadmōnî).

TheArabicname isal-Bahr al-Mayyitⓘ(‏البحر الميت‎), or usually without the articleal-,so justBahretc.[16] It is also known in Arabic as theSea ofLot(‏بحر لوط‎,Buhayrat,[17]Bahret,orBirket Lut)[18]from the nephew ofAbrahamwhose wife was said to have turned into a pillar of salt during the destruction ofSodom and Gomorrah.[14]Less often, it has been known in Arabic as the Sea ofZo'arfrom a formerly important city along its shores.

Because of the large volume ofancient tradein the lake's naturally occurring free-floatingbitumen,its usual names inancient GreekandRoman geographywere some form ofAsphaltLake(Greek:ἈσφαλτίτηςorἈσφαλτίτιςΛίμνη,AsphaltítēsorAsphaltítis Límnē;Latin:LacusAsphaltites) or Sea (Ἀσφαλτίτης Θάλασσα,Asphaltítēs Thálassa). It was also known as the 'Dead Sea' (GreekΝεκράΘάλασσα,Nekrá Thálassa,Latin(MareMortuum).[citation needed]

Geography

Satellite photographshowing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean Sea

The Dead Sea is asalt lakeis bordered byJordanto the east andPalestine'sIsraeli-occupied West BankandIsraelto the west.[5][6]It is anendorheic lake,meaning there are no outlet streams.

The Dead Sea lies in theJordan Rift Valley,a geographic feature formed by theDead Sea Transform(DST). This left lateral-movingtransform faultlies along thetectonicplate boundarybetween theAfrican Plateand theArabian Plate.It runs between theEast Anatolian Faultzone inTurkeyand the northern end of theRed Sea Riftoffshore of the southern tip ofSinai.

Water feeds into the Dead Sea from various sources, many small or intermittent, including:

(Wadiis the Arabic term for a river valley with a small or intermittent stream;Nahalis the equivalent in Hebrew. The two terms are often used interchangeably in English names for the same body of water.)

The water ofWadi Hassais now completely consumed in Jordan.[19]The Jordan River, which passes through theSea of Galilee,has been substantially diverted. It currently only contributes about one-sixth of the inflow to the Dead Sea, less than direct rainfall.[19]

There are also small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools andquicksandpits along the edges.[20]

The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern part of the Jordan valley, is abiosphere reserve,with an area of 212km2(82sq mi).[21] Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm (4 in) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm (2 in) in the southern part.[22]The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to therainshadoweffect of theJudaean Mountains.Thehighlandseast of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.

To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tallhalitemineral formation calledMount Sodom.

Geology

The Jordanian shore of the Dead Sea, showing salt deposits left behind by falling water levels.

Formation theories

There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of theRed Sea Rift,or even of theGreat Rift Valleyofeastern Africa.A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.[citation needed]

Sedom Lagoon

During the latePliocene-earlyPleistocene,what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern WadiArabahwas repeatedly inundated by waters from theMediterranean Sea.[23]The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now theJezreel Valley.[citation needed]The floods of the valley came and went depending on long-scale changes in the tectonic andclimatic conditions.[23]

The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from theSea of Galileein the north to somewhere around 50 km (30 mi) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea, and the subsequent lakes never surpassed this expanse. TheHula Depressionwas never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of theKorazim blockseparating it from the Sea of Galilee basin.[24]

Salt deposits

The Sedom Lagoon depositedevaporitesmainly consisting ofrock salt,which eventually reached a thickness of 2.3 km (1.43 mi) on the old basin floor in the area of today'sMount Sedom.[25]

Lake formation

NASAphoto showing depth of the Dead Seabasin(slightly below center). The Mediterranean Sea is on the right, with the Suez Canal visible connecting it to the Red Sea on left (slightly above center).

According to Kafri, during the lateNeogene,i.e. in thePliocene(ended c. 2.5 million years ago), theeustatic sea levelwas at 50–100 metresabove the current sea level,thus flooding the northern valleys connecting the Mediterranean Sea with theJordan Rift Valley,which led to the creation of a crooked-shaped lagoon. This high eustatic sea level situation subsequently came to an end, and the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake, which - due to the high evaporation rate - retreated toward the lower, southern part of the rift valley.[24]However, Mordechai Stein considers the formation process as not yet clarified, speaking of a late Pliocene-earlyPleistoceneprocess in which tectonics might also have played a part in blocking water ingression from the Mediterranean to its former bay or lagoon.[23]

The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is namedLake Amora(which possibly appeared in the early Pleistocene; its sediments developed into the Amora (Samra) Formation, dated to over 200–80kyrBP), followed byLake Lisan(c. 70–14 kyr) and finally by the Dead Sea.[23]

Lake salinity

The water levels and salinity of the successive lakes (Amora, Lisan, Dead Sea) have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom, and due to climate variation. As the climate became more arid, Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier, leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder.[23][24]

From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, Lake Lisan's level was 100 to 250 m (330 to 820 ft) higher than its current level, possibly due to lower evaporation than in the present.[26][27]Its level fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in theNear East.[28]Around 10,000 years ago, the lake's level dropped dramatically, probably even lower than today. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately 400 m (1,300 ft), with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule outvolcanic activity;therefore, it may have been a seismic event.

Salt mounts formation

Inprehistoric times,[dubious–discuss]great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now theLisan PeninsulaandMount Sodom(on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (seesalt dome).

Climate

The Dead Sea has ahot desert climate(Köppen climate classificationBWh), with year-round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than 50 millimetres (2 in) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 °C (90 and 102 °F). Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 °C (68 and 73 °F). The region has weakerultraviolet radiation,particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higheratmospheric pressure,the air has a slightly higheroxygencontent (3.3% in summer to 4.8% in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level.[29][30]Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude.[31](This barometric measure is about 5% higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water's mass andspecific heat capacity.On average, there are 192 days above 30 °C (86 °F) annually.[32]

Climate data for Dead Sea, Sedom (390 m below sea level)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 26.4
(79.5) 		30.4
(86.7) 		33.8
(92.8) 		42.5
(108.5) 		45.0
(113.0) 		46.4
(115.5) 		47.0
(116.6) 		44.5
(112.1) 		43.6
(110.5) 		40.0
(104.0) 		35.0
(95.0) 		28.5
(83.3) 		47.0
(116.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 20.5
(68.9) 		21.7
(71.1) 		24.8
(76.6) 		29.9
(85.8) 		34.1
(93.4) 		37.6
(99.7) 		39.7
(103.5) 		39.0
(102.2) 		36.5
(97.7) 		32.4
(90.3) 		26.9
(80.4) 		21.7
(71.1) 		30.4
(86.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) 16.6
(61.9) 		17.7
(63.9) 		20.8
(69.4) 		25.4
(77.7) 		29.4
(84.9) 		32.6
(90.7) 		34.7
(94.5) 		34.5
(94.1) 		32.4
(90.3) 		28.6
(83.5) 		23.1
(73.6) 		17.9
(64.2) 		26.1
(79.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 12.7
(54.9) 		13.7
(56.7) 		16.7
(62.1) 		20.9
(69.6) 		24.7
(76.5) 		27.6
(81.7) 		29.6
(85.3) 		29.9
(85.8) 		28.3
(82.9) 		24.7
(76.5) 		19.3
(66.7) 		14.1
(57.4) 		21.9
(71.4)
Record low °C (°F) 5.4
(41.7) 		6.0
(42.8) 		8.0
(46.4) 		11.5
(52.7) 		19.0
(66.2) 		23.0
(73.4) 		26.0
(78.8) 		26.8
(80.2) 		24.2
(75.6) 		17.0
(62.6) 		9.8
(49.6) 		6.0
(42.8) 		5.4
(41.7)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 7.8
(0.31) 		9.0
(0.35) 		7.6
(0.30) 		4.3
(0.17) 		0.2
(0.01) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		1.2
(0.05) 		3.5
(0.14) 		8.3
(0.33) 		41.9
(1.65)
Average precipitation days 3.3 3.5 2.5 1.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.6 2.8 15.6
Averagerelative humidity(%) 41 38 33 27 24 23 24 27 31 33 36 41 32
Source: Israel Meteorological Service[33]

Chemistry

Halite deposits (andteepee structure) along the western Dead Sea coast

With 34.2%salinity(in 2011), it is one of theworld's saltiest bodies of water,thoughLake VandainAntarctica(35%),Lake AssalinDjibouti(34.8%), LagoonGarabogazkölin theCaspian Sea(up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of theMcMurdo Dry ValleysinAntarctica(such asDon Juan Pond(44%)) have reported higher salinities.

In the 19th century and the early 20th century, the surface layers of the Dead Sea were less salty than today, which resulted in an average density in the range of 1.15-1.17 g/cm3instead of the present value of around 1.25 g/cm3.A sample tested byBernaysin the 19th century had a salinity of 19%. By the year 1926, the salinity had increased[34][35](although it was also suspected that the salinity varies seasonally and depends on the distance from the mouth of theJordan).

Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mi xing event took place,[36]the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost 35 meters (115 ft) or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of about 30%, and a temperature that swung between 19 and 37 °C (66 and 99 °F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 °C (72 °F) temperature, salinity of over 34%, and completesaturationofsodium chloride(NaCl).[37]Since the water near the bottom issaturatedwith NaCl, that salt precipitates out of solution onto thesea floor.

Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978–79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then,stratificationhas begun to redevelop.[36]

Pebbles cemented withhaliteon the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi

The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl−(181.4), Br−(4.2), SO42−(0.4), HCO3−(0.2), Ca2+(14.1), Na+(32.5), K+(6.2) and Mg2+(35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg.[38]These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, wascalcium chloride(CaCl2) 14.4%,potassium chloride(KCl) 4.4%,magnesium chloride(MgCl2) 50.8% andsodium chloride(NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of mostoceansandseasis approximately 85%sodium chloride.The concentration ofsulfateions (SO42−) is very low, and the concentration ofbromideions (Br−) is the highest of all waters on Earth.

Beach pebbles made ofhalite;western coast

The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of naturalbuoyancy.In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to theGreat Salt LakeinUtahin the United States.

An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge ofasphalt.From deepseeps,the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance.[39]Asphalt-coated figurines and bitumen-coatedNeolithicskulls fromarchaeologicalsites have been found.Egyptianmummificationprocesses used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.[40][41]

Putative therapies

The Dead Sea area has become a location forhealthresearchand potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content ofpollensand otherallergensin theatmosphere,the reducedultravioletcomponent ofsolar radiation,and the higheratmospheric pressureat this great depth each may have specifichealth effects.For example, persons experiencing reducedrespiratoryfunction fromdiseasessuch ascystic fibrosisseem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.[42]

The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies:

There is evidence that the uniqueattenuationand spectrum of UV rays near the Dead Sea contribute to effective photoclimatherapy forpsoriasis,in part because the reduced exposure to solar radiation allows for longer periods of sunbathing.[43][44][45]

Rhinosinusitispatients receiving Dead Sea salinenasal irrigationexhibited improved symptom relief compared to standardhypertonicsaline spray in one study.[46]

Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients withosteoarthritisof the knees. According to researchers of theBen Gurion University of the Negev,treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy.[47]

Panorama of the Dead Sea from theMövenpickResort, Jordan.

Life forms

Dead Sea in the morning, seen fromMasada

The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish andaquatic plants,from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.

In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. It temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers fromHebrew University of Jerusalemfound it to be teeming with analgacalledDunaliella.Dunaliellain turn nourishedcarotenoid-containing (red-pigmented)halobacteria,whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.

In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter. They sampledbiofilmssurrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria andarchaea.[48]

Human settlement

There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These includeEin Gedi,Neve Zoharand theIsraeli settlementsin theMegilot Regional Council:Kalya,Mitzpe ShalemandAvnat.There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end atEin Bokeknear Neve Zohar.Highway 90runs north–south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565 km (351 mi) fromMetulaon theLebaneseborder in the north to its southern terminus at theEgyptianborder near theRed Seaport ofEilat.

Potash Cityis a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima.Highway 65runs north–south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port ofAqaba.

Human history

Biblical period

Mount Sodom,Israel, showing the so-called "Lot's Wife"pillar (made ofhalitelike the rest of the mountain)

Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in theHebrew Bibleas having taken place before theIsraelitescame toCanaan,and extensively at the time of KingDavid.

Just northwest of the Dead Sea isJericho.Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in theBook of Genesiswhich were said to have been destroyed in the time ofAbraham:Sodom and Gomorrah(Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain",Admah,ZeboimandZoar(Deuteronomy 29:23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephewLotescaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21–22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of naturaltar pits,which was called thevale of Siddim.King David was said to have hidden fromSaulat Ein Gedi nearby.

In Ezekiel 47:8–9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supportingmarine life.A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that "living waters will go out fromJerusalem,half of them to the eastern sea [likely the Dead Sea] and half to the western sea [theMediterranean]. "

Greek and Roman period

Greek and Jewish writers report that theNabateanshadmonopolisticcontrol over the Dead Sea.[49]

Archaeological evidence shows multiple anchorages existing on both sides of the sea, including inEin Gedi,Khirbet Mazin(where the ruins of aHasmonean-era dry dock are located),Numeiraand nearMasada.[50][51]

KingHerod the Greatbuilt or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous wasMasada,where in 70 CE a small group of Jewishzealotsfled after the fall of the destruction of theSecond Temple.The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by theX Legionended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress wasMachaerus(מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus,John the Baptistwas imprisoned byHerod Antipasand died.[52]

Again if, as is fabled, there is a lake inPalestine,such that if you bind a man or beast and throw it in it floats and does not sink, this would bear out what we have said. They say that this lake is so bitter and salty that no fish live in it and that if you soak clothes in it and shake them it cleans them. —Aristotle,Meteorology

Also in Roman times, someEssenessettled on the Dead Sea's western shore;Pliny the Elderidentifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History,Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers atQumranand that "theDead Sea Scrolls"discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.

A cargo boat on the Dead Sea as seen on theMadaba Map,from the 6th century AD

Josephusidentified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city ofSodom.However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.[53]

Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are theEssenesofQumran,who left an extensive library known as theDead Sea Scrolls.[54]The town ofEin Gedi,mentioned many times in theMishna,producedpersimmonfor the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness.[55]The Roman camps surroundingMasadawere built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from theEin Feshchasprings and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.[56]

Byzantine period

Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attractedGreek Orthodoxmonkssince theByzantineera. Theirmonasteries,such asSaint Georgein Wadi Kelt andMar Sabain theJudaean Desert,are places ofpilgrimage.

Modern times

The southern basin of the Dead Sea as of 1817–18, with the Lisan Peninsula and its ford (now named Lynch Strait). North is to the right.

In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily byChristopher Costiganin 1835, Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847,William Francis Lynchin 1848, andJohn MacGregorin 1869.[57]The full text of W. F. Lynch's 1849 bookNarrative of the United States' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Seais available online.Charles Leonard IrbyandJames Manglestravelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817–18, but didn't navigate on its waters.[58]

World's lowest (dry) point,Jordan,1971

Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate.

After the find of the "Moabite Stone"in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea,Moses Wilhelm Shapiraand his partner Salim al-Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite" antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips", a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace.

The1922 census of Palestinelists 100 people (68 Muslims and 32 Christians) with "Dead Sea & Jordan" as their main locality.[59]The1931 censusshows a sharp increase with 535 people (264 Muslims, 230 Jews, 21 Christians, 17Druze,and three with no religion) listing "Dead Sea" as their main village/town.[60]The 1938 nor1945 village statisticsdoes not give a number for the general Dead Sea area.[61][62]

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of Jewish religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement ofQumran,about one mile (1.6 kilometres) inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as theDead Sea Scrolls.

The world's lowest roads,Highway 90,run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on theJordanianside, at 393 m (1,289 ft) below sea level.

Tourism and leisure

Ein Bokek,a resort on the Israeli shore

British Mandate period

Agolf coursenamed forSodom and Gomorrahwas built by the British atKaliaon the northern shore.

Israel

The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearbyArad,and since the 1960s at theEin Bokekresort complex.

Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a six-kilometre (3.7-mile) stretch of the southern shore.[63]

Jordan

Kempinski Hotel, one of the many hotels on theJordanianshore

On the Jordanian side, nine international franchises have openedseaside resorthotels near theKing Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center,along with resort apartments, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side's capacity to 2,800 rooms.[64]

On November 22, 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with40 archaeological locationsin Jordan, to become live onGoogle Street View.[65]

Palestine (West Bank)

The portion of Dead Sea coast which Palestinians could possibly eventually manage is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. TheWorld Bankestimates that such Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs.[63]However, Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism-related investments on the Dead Sea.[63]According to the World Bank, officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement, but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000.[63]

Chemical industry

View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, taken in 1989 from theSpace Shuttle Columbia(STS-28). The southern half is separated from the northern half at what used to be theLisan Peninsulabecause of the fall in level of the Dead Sea.
View of the mineral evaporation ponds almost 12 years later (STS-102). A northern and small southeastern extension were added and the large polygonal ponds subdivided.

British Mandate period

In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit ofpotash(potassium chloride) andbromine.Aconcession was granted by the British Mandatory governmentto the newly formed Palestine Potash Company in 1929. Its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer ofLake Baikalexploitation,Moses Novomeysky,had worked for the charter for over ten years having first visited the area in 1911.[66]The first plant, on the north shore of the Dead Sea atKalya,commenced production in 1931[66]and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times.[67]In 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in theMount Sodomarea, south of the'Lashon' regionof the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash duringWorld War II.Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the1948 Arab–Israeli War.[68]

Israel

TheDead Sea Workswas founded in 1952 as a state-owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company.[69]In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned byIsrael Chemicals.From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 milliontonspotash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tonscaustic soda,25,000 tonsmagnesiummetal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US$3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals.[63]

Jordan

On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea,Arab Potash(APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in theKarak Governorate.

Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan's GDP).

West Bank

The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate.[63]The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918M incremental value added per year, "almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today".[63]

Extraction

Both companies, Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash, use extensive saltevaporation pansthat have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producingcarnallite,potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. Thepondsare separated by a central dike that runs roughly north–south along the international border. Thepower planton the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.).

Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.

Recession and environmental concerns

Gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession of water levels. It was excavated by floods from theJudean Mountainsin less than a year.

Receding shoreline

Since 1930, when its surface was 1,050 km2(410 sq mi) and its level was 390 m (1,280 ft) below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously. The Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking since the 1960s because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north[70]as part of theNational Water Carrierscheme,[71]completed in 1964.[72]The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by theDead Sea Works,a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a water surface of 395 m (1,296 ft) below sea level in 1970[70]it fell 22 to 418 m (72 to 1,371 ft) below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of 1 m (3 ft) per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics[vague]of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.

As of 2021,the surface of the Sea has shrunk by about 33 percent since the 1960s, which is partly attributed to the much-reduced flow of the Jordan River since the construction of the National Water Carrier project, and the amount of water from the rains reaching the Dead Sea has diminished even further sinceflash floodsstarted pouring into the sinkholes left by its shrinkage. TheEcoPeace Middle East,a joint Israeli-Palestinian-Jordanian environmental group, has estimated that the annual flow into the Dead Sea from the Jordan is as of 2021less than 100,000,000 cubic metres (3.5×109cu ft) of water, compared with former flows of between 1,200,000,000 cubic metres (4.2×1010cu ft) and 1,300,000,000 cubic metres (4.6×1010cu ft).[71]

Year Water level (m) Surface (km2)
1930 −390 1050
1980 −400 680
1992 −407 675
1997 −411 670
2004 −417 662
2010 −423 655
2016 −430.5 605

Sources: Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research,[4]Haaretz,[2]Jordan Valley Authority.[73]

Views in 1972, 1989, and 2011 compared[74]

Sinkholes and their impact

The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by agroundwaterlevel drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of largesinkholesalong the western shore—incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.[75]As of 2021Ein Gedi,on the western coast, has been subject to a large number of sinkholes appearing in the area, attributed to the decline in the water level of the Dead Sea.[71]

As a result of the sinkholes, most beach resorts along the west shore of the northern basin had to be shut down, with just three remaining near the basin's northwest tip (seeList of beaches in Palestine: Dead Sea).

The proposedRed Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.

In May 2009 at theWorld Economic Forum,Jordan introduced plans for a "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project"(JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from theRed Seanear Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to itsNegevregion.[76][77]

At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.[78]

In October 2009, the Jordanians accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres (11 billion cubic feet) of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of theRed Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance.[79]

In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and thePalestinian Authoritysigned an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline would be 180 km (110 mi) long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete.[80]In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water was dropping by 1 m (3.3 ft) a year.[81]

On 27 November 2016, the Jordanian government shortlisted five consortia to implement the project. Jordan's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project would begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and would be completed by 2021.[11]The project was officially abandoned in June 2021, having never broken ground.[82]

See also

References

  1. ^ab"Virtual Israel Experience: The Dead Sea".Jewish Virtual Library.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2013.Retrieved21 January2013.
  2. ^ab"The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast: Is It Too Late to Save It, or Was It Always a Lost Cause?".Haaretz.7 October 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2016.
  3. ^abcDead Sea Data Summary 2015Archived2015-02-21 atarchive.today.Water Authority of Israel.
    "Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program".The World Bank Group. 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-09-15.
  4. ^abcd"Long-Term changes in the Dead Sea".Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research - Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR).Archivedfrom the original on 2018-11-06.Retrieved2014-05-31.
  5. ^abc"A Rare Middle East Agreement, on Water".The New York Times.9 December 2013.Retrieved4 December2023.About 25 miles of the Dead Sea's shoreline lie in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and are claimed by the Palestinians as part of a future state.
  6. ^ab"The Dead Sea is dying. These beautiful, ominous photos show the impact".NPR.11 December 2022.Retrieved4 December2023.The Dead Sea is a landlocked lake that's partly in Jordan, Israel and the Israeli-occupied West Bank.
  7. ^"Israel and Jordan Sign 'Historic' $900 Million Deal to Save the Dead Sea".Newsweek.2015-02-27.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-11-24.Retrieved2015-03-18.
  8. ^Goetz, P. W., ed. (1986). "Dead Sea".The New Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 3 (15th ed.). Chicago. p. 937.{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^R W McColl, ed. (2005).Encyclopedia of world geography.Facts on File. p. 237.ISBN978-0-8160-7229-3.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-10-30.Retrieved2020-11-10.
  10. ^"Dead Sea - Composition of Dead Sea Water".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-11-04.
  11. ^ab"5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red-Dead's phase I".The Jordan Times.27 November 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2016.Retrieved3 December2016.
  12. ^abDavid Bridger; Samuel Wolk (September 1976).The New Jewish Encyclopedia.Behrman House, Inc. p. 109.ISBN978-0-87441-120-1.Archivedfrom the original on October 30, 2023.RetrievedJuly 25,2011.It was named the "Dead Sea" because of the fact that no living thing can exist there, since the water is extremely salty and bitter.
  13. ^abcMorse, Jedidiah (1819),The American Universal Geography...,vol. 2 (7th ed.), Boston: Lincoln & Edmands, p.458
  14. ^abGen 19
  15. ^KJV
  16. ^The first articleal-is unnecessary and usually not used.
  17. ^Moshe Sharon(1999).Bani Na'im: Maqam an-Nabi Lut.Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae(CIAP). Vol. Two: B–C. Leiden, Boston, Cologne: Brill. p. 15 (of pp.12–21).ISBN978-90-04-11083-0.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2023.Retrieved30 December2019.
  18. ^Dead Sea: Israel and Jordan.Vol. 1: A-E (14th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Cataloging Distribution Service, Library of Congress. 1991. p. 1163.ISSN1048-9711.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2023.Retrieved30 December2019.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  19. ^abcdefgh"Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study (RSDSC) Program: Dead Sea Study, July 2010, p. 64"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-12-24.Retrieved2016-10-14.
  20. ^"Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea".Archived fromthe originalon November 22, 2008.RetrievedAugust 27,2008.
  21. ^"Mujib".UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2019.Retrieved7 May2016.
  22. ^"Dead Sea".Exact Me.org. Archived fromthe originalon January 20, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 21,2013.
  23. ^abcdeMordechai Stein."The limnological history of late Pleistocene – Holocene water bodies in the Dead Sea basin"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2013-05-13.[self-published source?](Adjunct Professor at HUJI and senior researcher (emeritus as of 2024) of theGeological Survey of Israel,Geochemistry and Ecological Geology Division.)
  24. ^abc Uri Kafri; Yoseph Yechieli (2010).Groundwater Base Level Changes and Adjoining Hydrological Systems.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 123.Bibcode:2010gblc.book.....K.ISBN978-3-642-13944-4.
  25. ^Ben-Avraham, Zvi; Katsman, Regina (2015)."The formation of graben morphology in the Dead Sea Fault, and its implications".Geophysical Research Letters.42(17). American Geophysical Union. 2.2. Sedimentary Regime, p. 6991 (of 6989–6996).Bibcode:2015GeoRL..42.6989B.doi:10.1002/2015GL065111.ISSN0094-8276.Estuarine-lagoonal series of syn-rift evaporites of the latest Miocene—Pliocene ages. Sedimentary regime and mineral composition indicate that.... the Sedom formation in the DSB [Dead Sea Basin]...., consisting mainly ofhalite,can be related to ingression of sea waters.... through the Yezreel Valley inland into the Jordan-Arava rift valley (from the Sea of Galilee to the present-day Dead Sea....) in the Late Neogene. After its disconnection from the open sea that could be associated with either eustatic changes in the sea, tectonic uplift of Judea-Samaria anticline, or other processes [Stein, 2014], the rift valley was occupied by a series of hypersaline terminal lakes. They occasionally evaporated and precipitated halite..... Restoration of the Sedom diapir to its original uniform thickness covering the basin floor yields 2.3 km.
  26. ^Zech, Roland; Zech, Michael; Marković, Slobodan; Hambach, Ulrich; Huang, Yongsong (1 October 2013)."Humid glacials, arid interglacials? Critical thoughts on pedogenesis and paleoclimate based on multi-proxy analyses of the loess–paleosol sequence Crvenka, Northern Serbia".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.387:165–175.Bibcode:2013PPP...387..165Z.doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.07.023.Archivedfrom the original on 20 November 2022.Retrieved19 November2022.
  27. ^Sorin, Lisker; Anton, Vaks; Miryam, Bar-Matthews; Roi, Porat; Amos, Frumkin (May 2010)."Late Pleistocene palaeoclimatic and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Dead Sea area (Israel), based on speleothems and cave stromatolites".Quaternary Science Reviews.29(9–10): 1201–1211.Bibcode:2010QSRv...29.1201S.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.01.018.Archivedfrom the original on 20 November 2022.Retrieved19 November2022.
  28. ^Geochemical Society; Meteoritical Society (1971).Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta.Pergamon Press.Archivedfrom the original on October 30, 2023.RetrievedApril 12,2011.
  29. ^"Natural Resources".Dead Sea Research Center.Archived fromthe originalon 6 October 2013.Retrieved27 October2013.
  30. ^"Lowest Elevation: Dead Sea".Extreme Science.Archivedfrom the original on October 7, 2011.RetrievedMay 22,2007.
  31. ^Kramer, Mordechai R.; Springer, Chaim; Berkman, Neville; Glazer, Mendel; Bublil, Milli; Bar-Yishay, Ephraim; Godfrey, Simon (March 1998). "Rehabilitation of Hypoxemic Patients With COPD at Low Altitude at the Dead Sea, the Lowest Place on Earth".Chest.113(3): 571–575.doi:10.1378/chest.113.3.571.PMID9515826.
  32. ^"Climatological Averages for Dead Sea".IMS. Archived fromthe originalon June 7, 2011.RetrievedJune 9,2011.
  33. ^"Averages and Records for several places in Israel".Israel Meteorological Service. June 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-09-14.
  34. ^Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, Volume 7, page 879
  35. ^Friend, J. Newton (June 1926). "Examination of Dead Sea Water for Eka-Cæsium and Eka-Iodine".Nature.117(2953): 789–790.Bibcode:1926Natur.117..789F.doi:10.1038/117789b0.S2CID4114399.
  36. ^ab"Dead Sea Canal".American.edu. 1996-12-09. Archived fromthe originalon May 22, 2009.RetrievedMay 5,2009.
  37. ^Abu Ghazleh, Shahrazad; Abed, Abdulkader M.; Kempe, Stephan (2010). "The Dramatic Drop of the Dead Sea: Background, Rates, Impacts and Solutions".Macro-engineering Seawater in Unique Environments.Environmental Science and Engineering. pp. 77–105.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14779-1_4.ISBN978-3-642-14778-4.
  38. ^Steinhorn, Ilana (May 1983)."In situ salt precipitation at the Dead Sea".Limnology and Oceanography.28(3): 580–583.Bibcode:1983LimOc..28..580S.doi:10.4319/lo.1983.28.3.0580.INIST9327311.
  39. ^Bein, A.; Amit, O. (April 1980). "The evolution of the dead sea floating asphalt blocks: Simulations by pyrolysis".Journal of Petroleum Geology.2(4): 439–447.Bibcode:1980JPetG...2..439B.doi:10.1111/j.1747-5457.1980.tb00971.x.
  40. ^Niemi, Tina M.,Zvi Ben-Avrahamand Joel Gat, eds.,The Dead Sea: the lake and its setting,1997, Oxford University Press, p. 251ISBN978-0-19-508703-1
  41. ^Rullkötter, J.; Nissenbaum, A. (December 1988). "Dead sea asphalt in egyptian mummies: Molecular evidence".Naturwissenschaften.75(12): 618–621.Bibcode:1988NW.....75..618R.doi:10.1007/BF00366476.PMID3237249.S2CID29037897.
  42. ^"Asthma, Cystic Fibrosis, Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease".Dead Sea Research Center.Archived fromthe originalon June 21, 2007.RetrievedMay 22,2007.
  43. ^Leibovici, V.; Sagi, E.; Siladji, S.; Greiter, J.C.; Greiter, F.; Holubar, K. (1987)."Seasonal Variation of UV Radiation at the Dead Sea".Dermatology.174(6): 290–292.doi:10.1159/000249201.PMID3622880.
  44. ^Kudish, A. I.; Abels, D.; Harari, M. (2003)."Ultraviolet radiation properties as applied to photoclimatherapy at the Dead Sea".International Journal of Dermatology.42(5): 359–365.doi:10.1046/j.1365-4362.2003.01683.x.PMID12755972.
  45. ^Emmanuel, Thomas; Petersen, Annita; Houborg, Hannah Inez (August 2022)."Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea for psoriasis is a highly effective anti-inflammatory treatment in the short term: An immunohistochemical study".Experimental Dermatology.31(8): 1136–1144.doi:10.1111/exd.14549.PMC9541097.PMID35196397.
  46. ^Friedman, Michael; Vidyasagar, Ramakrishnan; Joseph, Ninos (June 2006). "A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind Study on the Efficacy of Dead Sea Salt Nasal Irrigations".The Laryngoscope.116(6): 878–882.doi:10.1097/01.mlg.0000216798.10007.76.PMID16735920.S2CID13013715.
  47. ^Flusser, Daniel; Abu-Shakra, Mahmoud; Friger, Michael; Codish, Shlomi; Sukenik, Shaul (August 2002). "Therapy With Mud Compresses for Knee Osteoarthritis: Comparison of Natural Mud Preparations With Mineral-Depleted Mud".Journal of Clinical Rheumatology.8(4): 197–203.doi:10.1097/00124743-200208000-00003.PMID17041359.S2CID7647456.
  48. ^Ionescu, Danny; Siebert, Christian; Polerecky, Lubos; Munwes, Yaniv Y.; Lott, Christian; Häusler, Stefan; Bižić-Ionescu, Mina; Quast, Christian; Peplies, Jörg; Glöckner, Frank Oliver; Ramette, Alban; Rödiger, Tino; Dittmar, Thorsten; Oren, Aharon; Geyer, Stefan; Stärk, Hans-Joachim; Sauter, Martin; Licha, Tobias; Laronne, Jonathan B.; De Beer, Dirk (2012)."Microbial and Chemical Characterization of Underwater Fresh Water Springs in the Dead Sea".PLOS ONE.7(6): e38319.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...738319I.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038319.PMC3367964.PMID22679498.
  49. ^Hammond, Philip C. (1959)."The Nabataean Bitumen Industry at the Dead Sea".The Biblical Archaeologist.22(2): 40–48.doi:10.2307/3209307.JSTOR3209307.S2CID133997328– via JSTOR.
  50. ^Hadas, Gideon (April 2011). "Dead Sea Anchorages".Revue Biblique.118(2): 161–179.JSTOR44092052.
  51. ^Sailing the Dead SeaArchived2019-01-06 at theWayback Machine,Israel Museum
  52. ^Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews18.119[permanent dead link].
  53. ^Josephus."9".Antiquities of the Jews.Vol. 1.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-11-11.Retrieved2012-02-18.
  54. ^Found today in theShrine of the Bookat the Israel Museum of Jerusalem
  55. ^Cooper, Levi (February 12, 2009)."World of Our Sages: Salty Hands".Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies.Archived fromthe originalon 2009-08-15.
  56. ^A synagogue mosaic floor (circa 100 BCE) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna, portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town's secret persimmon recipe. Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area, especially persimmon trees, but also olive and date trees
  57. ^"History of the Dead Sea - Discover the Dead Sea with Us!".1 July 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 22 November 2015.Retrieved22 November2015.
  58. ^"'The unfortunate Costigan', first surveyor of the Dead Sea ".25 February 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 25 December 2017.Retrieved22 November2015.
  59. ^Palestine Census ( 1922).
  60. ^Palestine Census 1931.
  61. ^"Village statistics, February 1938".rosetta.nli.org.il.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-08-19.Retrieved2023-08-19.
  62. ^"Village statistics, April, 1945 | Palestine (1917-1948). Department of Statistics | | The National Library of Israel".nli.org.il.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-08-19.Retrieved2023-08-19.
  63. ^abcdefgWorld Bank, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department,Area C and the Future of the Palestinian EconomyArchived2014-02-22 at theWayback Machine,October 2, 2013
  64. ^"Dead Sea, Aqaba hotels packed during Eid Al Fitr holiday".The Jordan Times.10 July 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2016.Retrieved12 July2016.
  65. ^"Discover Street View and contribute your own imagery to Google Maps".Google Maps Street View.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-02-05.Retrieved2022-05-13.
  66. ^abJacob Norris (11 April 2013).Land of Progress: Palestine in the Age of Colonial Development, 1905-1948.OUP Oxford. pp. 159–.ISBN978-0-19-966936-3.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2023.Retrieved22 December2018.
  67. ^"Wealth From The Dead Sea".Popular Mechanics.Vol. 54, no. 5. Chicago: Hearst Magazines. November 1930. pp. 794–798.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-10-30.Retrieved2020-09-28.
  68. ^Hurlbert, Stuart H. (6 December 2012).Saline Lakes V: Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Inland Saline Lakes, held in Bolivia, 22–29 March 1991.Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN978-94-011-2076-0.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2023.Retrieved13 September2020– via Google Books.
  69. ^Schechter, Asher (14 April 2013)."Who Really Owns the Dead Sea?".Haaretz.Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2016.Retrieved17 May2016.
  70. ^abKlein, C.; Flohn, H. (1987). "Contributions to the knowledge of the fluctuations of the Dead Sea level".Theoretical and Applied Climatology.38(3): 151–156.Bibcode:1987ThApC..38..151K.doi:10.1007/BF00868099.S2CID122554176.INIST7617200.
  71. ^abcTlozek, Eric (10 June 2021)."The Dead Sea is disappearing, leaving behind a landscape shattered by sinkholes".ABC News.Cinematography: Alon Farago and Abu Saada; Graphics: Andres Gomez Isaza.Australian Broadcasting Corporation.Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2021.Retrieved19 June2021.
  72. ^Kantor, Shmuel."The National Water Carrier".theUniversity of Haifa.Archived fromthe originalon 2 October 2018.Retrieved19 June2021.
  73. ^Eng. Sa’ad Abu Hammour, JVA."River Basin Management"(PDF).Jordan Valley Authority. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-05-31.Retrieved31 May2014.
  74. ^"The Dead Sea: Image of the Day".6 April 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2015.Retrieved23 September2013.
  75. ^M. Abelson; Y. Yechieli; O. Crouvi; G. Baer; D. Wachs; A. Bein; V. Shtivelman (2006).Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes in.Geological Society of America.pp. 241–253.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  76. ^"Jordan, Israel agree $900 million Red Sea-Dead Sea project".Reuters.26 February 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2018.Retrieved11 December2018.
  77. ^Jordan Red Sea Project:Archived2012-03-24 at theWayback MachineOriginal:Jordan Red Sea Project Description,retrieved on May 11, 2011
  78. ^Ehud Zion Waldoks (July 8, 2009)."Back from the Dead?".The Jerusalem Post.Archived fromthe originalon October 27, 2013.
  79. ^"Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea".Daily Telegraph.10 October 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 13 October 2009.
  80. ^Sherwood, Harriet (2013-12-09)."Dead Sea neighbours agree to pipeline to pump water from Red Sea".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 2018-07-04.Retrieved2016-12-14.
  81. ^Catholic Online."Dead Sea Dying: Levels of salt water are dropping by three feet annually".Archivedfrom the original on 2015-01-08.Retrieved2015-01-08.
  82. ^"After years of delays, Jordan said to nix Red Sea-Dead Sea canal with Israel, PA".The Times of Israel.Archivedfrom the original on 22 May 2023.Retrieved22 February2022.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dead_Sea&oldid=1248612202"