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Deccan Plateau

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TheDeccanis aplateauextending over an area of 422,000 km2(163,000 sq mi) and occupies the majority of theIndian peninsula.It stretches from theSatpuraandVindhya Rangesin the north to the northern fringes ofTamil Naduin the south. It is bound by the mountain ranges of theWestern Ghatsand theEastern Ghatson the sides, which separate the region from theWesternandEastern Coastal Plainsrespectively. It covers most of theIndian StatesofMaharashtra,Telangana,KarnatakaandAndhra Pradeshexcluding the coastal regions, and minor portions of Tamil Nadu andKerala.

Deccan Plateau
Deccan Peninsula
Geographical region
The Deccan Plateau (cyan) forms a major part of Peninsular India
The Deccan Plateau (cyan) forms a major part ofPeninsular India
Coordinates:15°N77°E/ 15°N 77°E/15; 77
CountryIndia
States
Area
• Total
422,000 km2(163,000 sq mi)

The plateau is marked by rocky terrain with an average of about 600 m (2,000 ft). It is subdivided into Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, and Telangana Plateau. TheDeccan Trapsin the north west were formed by multiple layers ofigneousrocks laid down bybasalticlava flowsfollowing a massivevolcanic eruptionthat occurred during the end of thecretaceous period(66mya). The underlying bed consists ofgraniteandsedimentary rocksformed during theprecambrianera and the formation ofGondwana.

The region forms one of the major watersheds of India, with many perennial river systems such asGodavari,Krishna,andKaveriflowing through the region. The plateau slopes gently from the west to east, resulting in most of the principal rivers flowing eastwards towards theBay of Bengal.As theWestern Ghatsblocks the rain bearing winds, the plateau region is drier than the coastal region and has a semi-arid climate.

The Deccan plateau region was ruled by several kingdoms inIndian historysuch asPallavas,Cholas,Pandyas,Satavahanas,Chalukyas,Rashtrakutas,Hoysalas,Kadambas,Kakatiyas,andWestern Gangas.In the latermedieval era,the lower plateau was ruled by theVijayanagara empire,and the upper portion by theBahmani kingdom,and its successors, theDeccan sultanates.It later housed theKingdom of Mysore,Maratha confederacy,andNizam's dominions.It was under the control ofBritish Rajfor nearly two centuries before theIndian Independencein 1947. TheReorganisation of Indian statesin the 1950s resulted in the creation of states on linguistic lines.

Etymology

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The wordDeccanis an anglicised version of thePrakritworddakkhaṇa,which evolved from theSanskritworddakṣiṇa,meaning "south".[1][2][3]

History

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Carbon datingshows that ash mounds associated withNeolithiccultures in region date back to 8000 BCE. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE,iron technologyspread through the region though geological evidence does not point to a fully developedBronze Agein existence prior to the Iron Age.[4]Since at least the 1st century BCE, the region was connected to theSilk Roadand was involved in trade with theMediterraneanandEast Asia.[5][6][7]

Map of Deccan in the 14th century CE

Several dynasties such as thePandyasofMadurai,theCholasofThanjavur,theZamorinsofKozhikode,theSatavahanasofAmaravati,thePallavasofKanchi,theKadambasofBanavasi,theWestern GangasofKolar,theRashtrakutasofManyakheta,theChalukyasofBadami,theHoysalasofBelur,and theKakatiyasofOrugalluruled over the region from the 6th century BCE to the 14th century CE.[8][9]In the LateMiddle Ages,Vijayanagara empireconquered most of the southern part of the pleateu region.[8][10]The upper portion was ruled by theBahmani kingdom,[11][12]and later by its successors, theDeccan sultanates.[9][13]

TheEuropeansarrived in the 15th century CE and by the middle of the 18th century, theFrenchand theBritishwere involved in a protracted struggle for military control over the region.[14]TheMaratha Empirefounded byChatrapati Shivaji,briefly captured the region in the early 18th century CE.[15][16][17]After the defeat ofMysore Kingdomin the late 18th century CE and theVellore Mutinyin 1806 CE, theBritish East India Companyconsolidated their power over much of the region. TheBritish Empiretook control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857.[9][18]

During theBritish colonial rule,the region was divided between theMadras Presidency,Bombay Presidency,Hyderabad State,andMysore.[19][20]The region played a major role in theIndian independence movement.[21]AfterIndian Independencein 1947, majority of the region was organised into four statesBombay State,Hyderabad State,Madras State,andMysore State.[22]TheReorganisation of Indian stateson linguistic lines in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the states ofAndhra Pradesh,Karnataka,Kerala,Maharashtra,andTamil Nadu.[23][24][25]Telanganawas created in 2014 by bifurcating Andhra Pradesh.[26][27]

Geology

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Topography of the region.
Deccan Trapswere formed bylava flowsin thecretaceousera (66mya).

The Deccan Plateau is one of the oldest and most stable land formations in theIndian subcontinent.[28]The plateau is marked by rocky terrain with an average of about 600 m (2,000 ft).[9]TheDeccan Trapsconsist of multiple layers ofigneous rocks,which are more than 2 km (1.2 mi) in thickness. These rocks were laid down bybasalticlava flowswhich emerged from deep inside theEarth's crustfollowing a massivevolcanic eruption.[28][29]

The eruption event occurred during the end of thecretaceousperiod (66mya) and is the second largest volcanic eruption ever recorded on land. Scientists state that the volcanic event would have released large amounts ofash,dust andcarbon dioxideinto the atmosphere. The release would have blockedsunlightresulting in lower temperatures and caused major climatic changes on Earth. The eruption would have resulted in high levels ofsulfur,chlorineand other toxic gases in theatmosphere.Researchers argue that the volcanic event would have contributed to theextinctionof various species including some of thedinosaurs.[29]

The volcanic deposits stretch more than 500,000 km2(190,000 sq mi) encompassing neighbouringcentral highlands.The deposits consist of three subgroups based on the time and level of deposition.[30]Underlying the lava deposits aregraniteandsedimentary rocksformed during theprecambrianera and the formation ofGondwanaland.[30]TheIndo-Gangetic Plainrests on hard crystalline rocks which connect theHimalayan regionwith the plateau region.[31]Apart from granite, parts of the region consists ofmetamorphic rockssuch asgneiss,andschist.[32]

The Deccan Plateau region is rich in mineral deposits likeiron ore,coal,andmica.Preciousandsemi precious stoneshave also been mined from the region.[28][33]Largeuraniumdeposits have been discovered in the region in the 21st century.[34][35][36]There are two major soil types, forming distinct sub-regions of the plateau. Most of the region with igneous basaltic rock consists ofblack soil.These soils have a high clay content, retain moisture and are resistant to erosion, but develop cracks during the dry season. The gneisspeneplainregion in the low rainfall areas in the eastern vicinity of theWestern Ghatsconsist of infertilered soil.[32][37]

Geography

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Regions of India, showing the Deccan Plateau surrounded by the various mountain ranges.

Historians have used the term Deccan differently across various time periods.Firishta(16th century),R. G. Bhandarkar(1920), andRichard Eaton(2005) demarcate the region based on linguistic lines.[38][37]K. M. Panikkar(1969) defines it as the entire Indian peninsula south of the Vindhyas.[37]Stewart Gordon(1998) notes that Deccan is a "relational term" and historically the border of Deccan has varied fromTapti Riverto theGodavari River,depending on the southern boundary of the northern empires and is used to denote "the area beyond the southern border of a northern-based kingdom" of India.[39]

Geographers have defined the extent of Deccan region using various physical features and indices such as rainfall, vegetation, or soil type.[38]As per a broader geographical definition, the region consists of the peninsulartablelandlying to the south of theTropic of Cancer,marked by theVindhya-Satpuraranges in the north.[37]The Deccan is a plateau region extending over an area of 422,000 km2(163,000 sq mi) and occupies the majority of theIndian peninsula.It is shaped like an inverted triangle with its upper boundary at theNarmada Riverbasin near the Vindhya-Satpura ranges and the lower boundary at the northern fringes ofTamil Naduin the south.[9][28]

The region is bound by the mountain ranges of theWestern Ghatsand theEastern Ghatson the sides, which separate the region from theWesternandEastern Coastal Plainsrespectively.[40][41]It covers most of theIndian statesofMaharashtra,Telangana,KarnatakaandAndhra Pradeshexcluding the coastal regions, and minor portions of Tamil Nadu andKerala.[28]The western side of the plateau is elevated gently slopes towards the east.[42][43]It is subdivided into Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, and Telangana Plateau.[28]

Hydrography and climate

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Average rainfall Map showing the low rainfall areas in the interior of the plateau.

The Deccan forms one of the majorwatershedsof India, feeding many perennial rivers.[44]The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats are theGodavari,Kaveri,andKrishna.[32][45]Most rivers flow eastwards towards theBay of Bengalowing to the steeper gradient moving from east to west, with only smaller streams flowing in the opposite direction.[44]The streams and rivers give rise to numerous waterfalls in the region.[46]The rivers have been dammed forhydroelectricandirrigationpurposes, with major reservoirs spread across the region.[47][48]

The region has largelysemi-aridclimate in the northern parts andtropical climatein most of the other areas. The summer months of April – May are dry and hot with maximum temperatures often rising more than 40 °C (104 °F).[28]During the dry summer months of April – May, heat builds up on the interior of the Deccan Plaeau, which draws air from the sea. The air, which picks up moisture along the way and flows eastward from theArabian Sea,is blocked by theWestern Ghats.[49]The rising air cools and brings aboutorographic precipitationalong the western coast, which signifies the onset of themonsoonseason in June.[50]

By the time the air rises above the mountains, it becomes dry, resulting in arain shadowregion with very little rainfall on theleewardside towards the interior of the Deccan plateau. The monsoon winds rounding up the peninsula and moving from the east from theBay of Bengalpass over the Eastern Ghats and bring some rainfall to the eastern region of the plateau.[51]The region receives most of the rainfall during the months of July to September and the rains feed the rivers that flow into basins and then into the Bay of Bengal.[52][53]

Flora and fauna

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There is a wide diversity of plants and animals in the region, resulting from its varied climates and geography.scrub landsare common in the low rainfall regions withdry deciduous forestsfound in the southern part of the plateau.[54]The woodlands of the region are older than theHimalayas.The central part of the plateau is covered by woodlands formed by trees such ashardwickia,teak,siris,axlewood,boswellia,andacaciatrees.[28]The region hosts significant populations of endangeredBengal tigersandIndian elephants[55][56]Othermammalsfound in the region includegaur,blackbuck,chinkara,four-horned antelope,wild buffalo,andIndian wild dog.[28]

Demographics

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Population density map of India, showing sparsely populated interior.

The largest linguistic group in the region is theDravidian family of languages,of approximately 73 languages.[57]TheTelugusandKannadigaswho speakTeluguandKannadaform the major demographic groups in the central region.TamilsandMalayalisform a part of the southern end of the plateau.Marathi people,who speakMarathi,anIndo-Aryan language,form the majority in the north-western part of the plateau.[58]Englishis also widely spoken in urban areas of the region.[59]Deccani Urdua regional dialect ofUrduis spoken by theMuslims.[60][61][62]Evidence ofprehistoric religionin the region comes from scatteredMesolithicrock paintings depicting dances and rituals, such as theKupgal petroglyphsof eastern Karnataka, atStone Agesites.[63]Hinduismis the major religion today in the region.[64][65]

Thetotal fertility ratein the region was less than thepopulation replacement leveland as a result, the proportion of the population of the region to India's total population has declined in the last four decades.[66][67][68][69]The economies of the states in the region registered a growth higher than the national average over the past three decades. While the states have improved in some of thesocio-economicmetrics, there is wide disparity within the region.[70][71][72]

Economy

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Agricultureis often difficult in low rainfall areas, which require additional irrigation facilities while it is more feasible in the river valleys.[73]Agriculture is still the primary occupation in the region.[74][75]Riceis the staple food and major crop in the region.[76]Others crops cultivated includesugarcane,banana,cotton,turmeric,millets,pulses,andspices.[77][78][79]The urban centres are significant contributors to the Indian and globalInformation Technologyeconomy.[80][81][82]The presence of these hubs has spurred economic growth and attracted foreign investments and job seekers from other parts of the country.[83]Manufacturing and textiles are other major industries in the region.[84][85][86][87]

Culture

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Sariworn by women in the region.

As defined byMinistry of Cultureof the Government of India to promote and preserve thecultural heritage,the region falls under the purview ofWest and South ZoneCultural Centers.[88]The women traditionally wear asari,a garment that consists of a drape varying from 5 yards (4.6 m) to 9 yards (8.2 m) in length and 2 feet (0.61 m) to 4 feet (1.2 m) in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff, as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity.[89][90][91]The men wear adhoti,a 4.5 m (15 ft) long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes. It is usually wrapped around the waist and the legs and knotted at the waist.[92]A colourfullungiwith typicalbatikpatterns is the most common form of male attire in the countryside. People in urban areas generally wear tailored clothing, and western dress is popular. Western-style school uniforms are worn by both boys and girls in schools, even in rural areas.[93]

The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.[94][95]The traditional way of eating a meal involves eating food served on abanana leafusing the right hand.[96][97]Riceis the staple food in meals of the region.[98]Bhakrimade ofmilletsandrotiorchapathimade ofwheatserved withdalare popular in the north and western parts of the region.[99]Idlianddosaserved withsambarandchutneyfor breakfast and rice served withsambarandrasamfor lunch are popular in the eastern and southern parts of the region.[100][101][102]Hyderabadi cuisineis popular for itsbiryani.[103]

Dravidian(left),Vesara(center), andNagaraarchitecture.

The region is home to various music and dance forms such asKuchipudi,Lavani,Yakshagana,andBharatanatyam.[104][105][106]There are three distinct styles of rock architecture, theDravidianstyle of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, theVesarastyle of Karnataka, Telangana, and theNagarastyle of Maharashtra.[107]In Dravidian architecture, the temples considered of large gate-pyramids orGopuramsin quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple with large pillared halls.[108][109][110]Vimanamare similar structures built over thegarbhagrihaor inner sanctum of the temple but are usually smaller than the gopurams in the Dravidian architecture.[111][112]In the Nagara style, the temples had one or moreshikharas,which are towers similar to the vimanas.[113]The Vesara style is a hybrid of both these architectural styles.[114][115]

Transport

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Highway distribution with population density.

There is an extensive road network composed ofNational Highways,State Highwaysand other roads in the region. TheGolden Quadrilateralconnecting the major cities in the country traverses across the region.[116]Public bus services are mostly provided by state-run transport corporations.[117][118][119][120]

TheMadras Railwaywas established in 1845 and theGreat Indian Peninsular Railwaywas incorporated in 1849. The construction on the first main line in the South betweenRoyapuramin Madras andArcotstarted in 1853, which became operational on 1 July 1856.[121]In 1879, theNizam's Guaranteed State Railwaywas established which built railway lines across the thenHyderabad Stateand theMysore State Railwaywas established to build an extension of Madras Railway in Mysore State.[122]In 1880, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway built a railway network radiating from Madras.[123][124]TheMadras and Southern Mahratta Railwaywas founded on 1 January 1908 by merging the Madras Railway and theSouthern Mahratta Railway.[125][126]In 1950, there were about 42 different railway companies across the countrym which were amalgamated in steps to form a single entity named asIndian Railways.[127][128]On 14 April 1951, the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, the South Indian Railway, and the Mysore State Railway were merged to form theSouthern Railway,thefirst zoneofIndian Railways.[129]TheWesternwas established on 5 November 1951, theSouth Central zoneon 2 October 1966, and theSouth Western zoneon 1 April 2003.[130]Most of the region is covered by these four zones, with small portions of the coasts covered byEast Coast RailwayandKonkan Railway.[131]Metroand suburban systems are operational in major cities.[132][133]

Air transport in the region started in the late 1910s with commercial services beginning in the 1930s.[134][135][136]The region has multipleinternational and domestic airports.[137][138]Chennai International Airportserves as the Southern Regional Headquarters of theAirports Authority of India,the Southern Region comprising the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, andMumbai International Airportserves the state of Maharashtra.[139]The southern region comes under the purview of theSouthern Air Commandof theIndian Air Forceand the north western region comes under theSouth Western Air Command.[140]

See also

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