Wikipedia

Decimus Burton

Decimus Burton(30 September 1800 – 14 December 1881) was one of the foremost English architects and landscapers of the 19th century. He was the foremost Victorian architect in theRoman revival,Greek revival,Georgian neoclassicalandRegencystyles. He was a founding fellow and vice-president of theRoyal Institute of British Architects,and from 1840 architect to theRoyal Botanic Society,and an early member of theAthenaeum Club, London,whose clubhouse he designed and which the company of his father,James Burton, the pre-eminent Georgian London property developer,built.

Decimus Burton
FRSFRSAFSAFRIBA
Burton bySir Thomas Lawrence
Born30 September 1800
North House, Southampton Terrace,Bloomsbury,London, England
Died14 December 1881(1881-12-14)(aged 81)
1 Gloucester Road, Kensington,London, England
Resting placeKensal Green Cemetery,London
EducationTonbridge School
Alma mater
OccupationArchitect
Notable work
Parents
Relatives

Burton's works areHyde Park, London(including the gate or screen ofHyde Park Corner,theWellington Arch,and the Gates);Green ParkandSt James's Park;Regent's Park(includingCornwall Terrace,York Terrace,Clarence Terrace,Chester Terrace,and the villas of the Inner Circle which include his own mansion,The Holme,and the originalWinfield House); the enclosure of the forecourt ofBuckingham Palacefrom which he had Nash'sMarble Archmoved; the clubhouse of theAthenaeum Club, London;Carlton House Terrace;Spring GardensinSt. James's;and thePalm Houseand theTemperate HouseatKew Gardens.Burton designed the seaside towns ofSt Leonards-on-Sea,Fleetwood,andFolkestone,and alsoRoyal Tunbridge Wells.His Calverley Estate (of which only a small proportion survives) was highly commended.

Burton was a member ofLondon high societyduring theGeorgian eraand during theRegency era.He had close friendships with PrincessVictoria(the future Queen Victoria); theDuchess of Kent;William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire,John Wilson Croker,and SirHumphry Davy.The Burtons' London mansion, The Holme of Regent's Park, which was built by James's company to a design by his son Decimus Burton, was described by 20th century architectural criticIan Nairnas 'a definition of Western civilization in a single view'. Burton also contributed to the design of theirTonbridge,Kentmansion, Mabledon.

Family

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Decimus was the tenth child ofJames Burton,a pre-eminent London property developer (1761–1837), and Elizabeth Westley (12 December 1761 – 14 January 1837), ofLoughton, Essex,the daughter of John and Mary Westley.[1][2]His father was born James Haliburton, and shortened his surname to Burton in 1794, between the births of his fourth and fifth children.[1][3][2][4][5]The paternal grandfather was William Haliburton (1731–1785),[1]a London property developer ofScottishdescent.[1][5]

On his father's side, Decimus's great-great grandparents were Rev. James Haliburton (1681–1756) and Margaret Eliott, daughter ofSir William Eliott, 2nd Baronet,and aunt ofGeorge Augustus Eliott, 1st Baron Heathfield.[2]Decimus was descended from John Haliburton (1573–1627),[3]from whom SirWalter Scottwas descended on the maternal side.[4][1][3]Burton was a cousin of the Canadian author and British Tory MPThomas Chandler Haliburton[6]and of the British civil servantLord Haliburton,[5][7][8]who was the first nativeCanadianto be raised to thePeerage of the United Kingdom.[9]

Decimus's siblings includedthe Egyptologist James Burton,andthe physician Henry Burton.He was the nephew of Constance Mary Fearon, who was the founder of theFrancis Bacon Society.[citation needed]

Education and architectural style

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Decimus was born at the 'very comfortable and well staffed' North House in the newly built Southampton Terrace,Bloomsbury,London.[10]From 1805,[11]Decimus was raised in his father's mansion, Mabledon House, inKent.[12][13]Subsequent to the birth of his twelfth child, Jessy, in 1804, Decimus's father James Burton had purchased a site on a hill about one mile to the south of Tonbridge in Kent, where he constructed, to the designs of the architectJoseph T. Parkinson,in 1805,[11]the large country mansion which he named Mabledon House,[12][14]which was described in 1810 by the local authority as 'an elegant imitation of an ancient castellated mansion'.[12]The majority of the stone that James Burton required for Mabledon was quarried from the hill on which it was to be built, but Burton also purchased the stone that had been released by the recent demolition at a nearby mansion,Penshurst Place.[12]Decimus Burton was coincidentally commissioned to expand Mabledon, his childhood home, on several occasions after it had been sold by his father.[15]

Tuition by his father and George Maddox

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Decimus first trained with his father and received drawing lessons fromGeorge Maddox.[16][17]Decimus's father James was a talented architect, in addition to the foremost contemporaneous property developer. Williams says of James Burton, "[He] was no ordinary builder. He could have put up an imposing and beautifully proportioned building, correct in every constructional detail, from the roughest of sketches tossed patronizingly at him by a 'gentleman architect'",[1]and "James Burton became adept at relieving the monotony of long residential terraces by allowing their central blocks to project slightly from the surfaces to each side, and by bringing forward, too, the houses at each end", and that "the ironwork in a classical style in James Burton's Bloomsbury terraces was, and often still is, particularly fine, though mass produced".[10]

Samuel Pepys Cockerell,advisor to the Governors of theFoundling Hospital,a contemporary of James Burton, commended James Burton's architectural excellence:

Without such a man, possessed of very considerable talents, unwearied industry, and a capital of his own, the extraordinary success of the improvement of the Foundling Estate could not have taken place... By his own peculiar resources of mind, he has succeeded in disposing of his buildings and rents, under all disadvantages of war, and of an unjust clamour which has repeatedly been raised against him. Mr Burton was ready to come forward with money and personal assistance to relieve and help forward those builders who were unable to proceed in their contracts; and in some instances he has been obliged to resume the undertaking and complete himself what has been weakly and imperfectly proceeded with....[18]

In 1815, James Burton took Decimus to Hastings, where the two would later design and buildSt Leonards-on-Seaand, in 1816, Decimus commenced work in James Burton's office.[19]While working for his father, Decimus was present in the design and construction of lowerRegent Street.Simultaneously, Maddox taught Decimus architectural draughtsmanship, including the details of the five orders. After his first year of tuition by his father and Maddox, Decimus submitted to theRoyal Academy of Artsa design for a bridge, which was commended by the academy.[20]

Tuition at Royal Academy Schools by John Soane

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Burton has been described by Williams as "an exceptionally clever child" who demonstrated a lack of emotion characteristic of his family.[21]Decimus leftTonbridge Schoolin 1816 and entered directly theRoyal Academy Schools,in 1817.[22][17][23]His contemporaries at the Royal Academy includedSydney Smirke,with whom he would restoreTemple Church, Londonbetween 1841 and 1843,[24]andWilliam Tite.[23]As a consequence of his father's social position, Burton was able to enter the Schools at an unprecedentedly young age, without having been previously articled to an architect. There he was taught by SirJohn Soane,for whom his brother,James,had also worked.[22][17]

Soane was an advocate of the Neo-Palladian style, but had repudiated, including to his students, Robert Smirke's newTheatre Royal, Covent Garden,which had not been built in proportion: Soane used special diagrams to demonstrate to his students, including Burton, the failings of Smirke's design, as a consequence of which he was ostracized within the Royal Academy and compelled to suspend his lectures.[25]Soane commended, in contradistinction, in 1815, as an archetype of neoclassical excellence,Robert Adam'sKedleston Hall:"In this superb structure he [Adam] has united... the taste and magnificence of a Roman villa with all the comforts and conveniences of an English Nobleman's residence".[20]

Tuition by John Nash

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Whereas Decimus's father James Burton was vigorously industrious, and had become 'most gratifyingly rich',[10]John Nash's early years in private practice, and his first speculative developments, which failed either to sell or let, were unsuccessful, and his consequent financial shortage was exacerbated by the 'crazily extravagant' wife whom he had married before he had completed his training, until he was declared bankrupt in 1783.[26]To resolve his financial shortage, Nash cultivated the acquaintance of James Burton, who consented to patronize him.[27]James Burton was responsible for the social and financial patronage of the majority of Nash's London designs,[28]in addition to for their construction,[22]and Decimus became acquainted with Nash through his father.[28]

Architectural scholar Guy Williams has written, 'John Nash relied on James Burton for moral and financial support in his great enterprises. Decimus had showed precocious talent as a draughtsman and as an exponent of the classical style... John Nash needed the son's aid, as well as the father's'.[28]Subsequent to theCrown Estate's refusal to finance them, James Burton agreed to personally finance the construction projects of John Nash atRegent's Park,which he had already been commissioned to construct. In return, Nash agreed to promote the career of Decimus Burton.[22]Nash was a vehement advocate of the neoclassical revival endorsed by Soane, although he had lost interest in the plain stone edifices typical of the Georgian style, and instead advocated the use of stucco.[19]Decimus Burton entered the office of Nash in 1815,[29]where he worked alongsideAugustus Charles Pugin,who detested the neoclassical style.[21]Decimus established his own architectural practice in 1821.[30]

In 1821, Nash invited Decimus to designCornwall Terracein Regent's Park, and Decimus was also invited byGeorge Bellas Greenough,a close friend of the Prince Regent, Humphry Davy, and Nash, to designGrove Housein Regent's Park. Greenough's invitation to Decimus Burton was 'virtually a family affair', for Greenhough had dined frequently with Decimus's parents and Decimus's brothers, includingthe physician Henry Burton.Greenough and Decimus finalized their designs during numerous meetings at the opera.[31]

Decimus's design, when the villa had been completed, was described inProceedings of the Royal Societyas, 'One of the most elegant and successful adaptations of the Grecian style to purposes of modern domestic architecture to be found in this or any country'. Subsequently, Nash invited Burton to designClarence Terrace,Regent's Park.[32]Nash was appointed architectural 'overseer' for Decimus's Regent's Park projects:[33]Cornwall Terrace,York Terrace,Chester Terrace,Clarence Terrace,the villas along the Inner Circle, includingThe Holmeand theLondon Colosseumaccording toThomas Hornor'sspecifications.[34][22]However, to Nash's great annoyance, Decimus disregarded the latter's advice and developed the terraces according to his own style. As a result, Nash sought, unsuccessfully, to demolish and completely rebuild Chester Terrace.[16][22][14]Decimus subsequently eclipsed his master and emerged as the dominant force in the design ofCarlton House Terrace,[22]where he exclusively designed No. 3 and No. 4.[35]Decimus also designed some of the villas of the Inner Circle: his villa for the Marquess of Hertford has been described as, 'decorated simplicity, such as the hand of taste, aided by the purse of wealth can alone execute'.[36]

Other influences

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Carlton Gardens,to the design of which Burton made extensive contributions

Decimus was apolymathand aphilomathand extremely erudite in both arts and sciences, as was demonstrated by the diversity of his library – a part of which was auctioned off by his nieces after his death. The sale catalogue listed 347 separate lots, some of which ran into many volumes,[22]and demonstrated the diversity of his intellectual interests: it contained the complete Proceedings of theCamden Society,in 135 volumes; and transactions of many of the learned societies of which Burton was a member; and the completeHistoire Naturelle(70 vols.) ofG. L. L. BuffonandBernard Germain de Lacépède;[22]and standard works on classical architecture, such as the five volumes ofColen Campbell,Vitruvius Britannicusby John Woolfe andJames Gandon,James Gibbs'sBook of Architecture,andWilliam Kent'sThe Designs ofInigo Jones;and numerous topographical views and surveys of cities and counties in the collection;[22]and foreign-language texts, including volumes byCharles PercierandJean-Baptiste Rondelet,and a complete set ofGiovanni Battista Piranesi's works, and several dictionaries. The absence of anyGrand Tourearly in Decimus's career meant that his books and casts were the sources for his early designs, which are technically formal in style.[22][16]However, he subsequently travelled extensively inEuropeandNorth America.[37]His first tours were ofFranceandSpain,in 1826. He toured theNetherlandsin 1846 andGermanyin 1850.[22][17]He touredItaly,includingVenice.[37]He touredCanadaand theUnited States,after departingLiverpoolforHalifax, Nova Scotia,with his cousinThomas Chandler Haliburton,a Tory MP and author. Burton collected casts, which informed his work, over 200 of which he donated to theVictoria and Albert Museum,which displayed 18 of the same in its British Galleries.[37]

Although he was the leading exponent ofGreek revival architecture,Burton was uniquely and significantly influenced byAncient Roman architecture.It was in his Georgian neoclassical work that he attained the acme of his excellence.[22]Dana Arnold(2002) described his Neoclassical work thus:

"His use of the orders is always correct, but he showed a lack of pedantry in their application that sets him apart from some of his more doctrinaire contemporaries, such asHamiltonand Smirke. From Nash he had learned to combine theclassicaland thepicturesque,and it is the picturesque that is predominant in much of his later work".[17]

In his later career, Decimus designed buildings in theGothic revival style,theold Englishstyle and in thecottage ornéstyle.[22][16]His Gothic revival designs are unoriginal as he had little sympathy for the style.[17]

Life

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The Burton family mansion,The HolmeinRegent's Park,which was built by the company ofJames Burtonto a design by Decimus Burton. It has been described as "one of the most desirable private homes in London" by architectural scholar Guy Williams, and "a definition of Western civilization in a single view" by architectural critic Ian Nairn.

Burton has been described, by architectural scholar Guy Williams, as "rich, cool, well-dressed, apparently celibate, the designer and prime member of theAthenaeum,one of London's grandest gentlemens' clubs "[38]where Burton "mixed with many of the greatest in the land, meeting the most creative as well as those with enormous hereditary wealth".[39]By 1826, the name of Decimus Burton "was on the lips of everyone who cared at all about the arts and architecture": he was "very well liked [and] his modesty, politeness, and upright bearing were endearing" and "his integrity and professional competence were worthy of the greatest respect".[40]Burton was treated by the aristocracy 'more as a friend than as a professional advisor'[41]and his close friendships with, and patronage by, the aristocracy were undamaged by the vituperation of both his person and his neoclassical architecture byAugustus Puginand his disciples. TheProceedings of the Royal Societycommended Burton's "extreme amiability of character".[41]

The Burtons' social circle included Princess Victoria; theDuchess of Kent;[39]William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire;[42]John Wilson Croker;John Nash;[31]Sir Humphry Davy; George Bellas Greenough;[31]SirPeter Hesketh-Fleetwood;and theirCanadiancousin,Thomas Chandler Haliburton.[6]Decimus and his siblings, Jane, James (born 1786), Septimus, the solicitor, Octavia, and Jessy, would host Thomas on his visits to London.[43][14][17][44][45]

Burton was "on excellent terms" with Princess Victoria, and with the Duchess of Kent.[39]The Princess and the Duchess, with several courtiers, had laid the foundation stone of a Decimus Burton School inTunbridge Wells,and, five weeks later, in autumn 1834, they had stayed, by Burton's invitation, at James Burton's private villa atSt Leonards-on-Sea,until several weeks into 1835.[46]

From 1818, Burton resided, with his father, at The Holme, Regent's Park, which has been described as "one of the most desirable private homes in London",[47]which was designed as the Burton family mansion by Decimus, and built by James Burton's own company.[14]The Holme was the second villa to be built in Regent's Park, and the first of those to be designed or constructed by the Burton family. The hallmark of the Burton design is the large semi-circular bay that divided the principal elevation, and which extended for two storeys.[48]The original villa also had a conservatory of polygonal form, which used wrought iron glazing bars, then only recently patented, instead of the then customary wooden bars.[48]The first villa to be constructed in the park wasSt John's Lodgeby John Raffield.[48]

Burton bought from the Crown a plot atSpring Gardens,St. James's Park,at the east end ofThe Mall,where he constructed, in the Georgian neoclassical townhouse style, No. 10, 12, and 14 Spring Gardens, as both his townhouse and his principal office.[49][50]The buildings no longer exist, but elevations of them appear in the former LCC'sSurvey of LondonVol. XX, and views of their interiors have been preserved inHastings Museum and Art Gallery.[50]At the end of 1834, Burton had two "comfortable well-staffed homes", one in Spring Gardens and one at Tunbridge Wells,[39]where he had another office at No. 10 Calverley Parade, where theTunbridge Wells Town Hallnow stands.[50]Williams records that, for Burton, "Money was rolling in. Income tax was of no concern. [Decimus] had a brother who could look after his business affairs and see to his investments".[39]

Burton retired in 1869,[51][52]and subsequently resided at his homes at Gloucester Gardens,Kensington,and St. Leonards Lodge, St. Leonards-on-Sea, which adjoined 'The Uplands' and 'The Lawn' developments which he had designed.[53]He never married nor had issue.[53]He died in December 1881, at1 Gloucester Road, Kensington,and was buried inKensal Green Cemetery,alongside his brotherHenry Burton,and his sister Jessy Burton.[54][53]Decimus was the last of his siblings to die.[54][55]Over his grave is a tapering sarcophagus of greyCornish granite,on a stepped base, with a shallow pyramidal cover.[55]His tomb was Grade II listed building in 2001.[55]On his death, his property, including his extensive library and all of his architectural drafts and notes passed to surviving members of his family, mostly to his nephew Alfred Henry Burton (d.1917)[56]or his two unmarried nieces, Helen and Emily Jane Wood, who subsequently sold their share, despite that he had left his library to theRoyal Institute of British Architects,of which he had served as president.[22]However, Burton donated 200 of his extensive collection of casts, which informed his work, to theVictoria and Albert Museum,which displayed 18 of the same in its British Galleries.[37]Amongst Burton's possession on his death were an oil painting of St. John, copied by Sir Joshua Reynolds from a work by Raphael; a model of the Temple on the Ilissus at Athens; a statuette of an Angel copied from an original by Thorvaldsen; framed drawings of 'A Royal Palace' by Joseph Gandy ARA (b. 1771), who had been described as 'an EnglishPiranesi'; and a bronze lamp suspended from a snake's mouth.[53]An obituary notice said "No architect was better known, and none was better respected, for he was amiable, considerable, and gentle to all".[57]

Career

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Central London Parks

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During the second half of the 1820s, theCommissioners of Woods and Forestsand the King resolved thatHyde Park,and the area around it, must be renovated to the extent of the splendor of rival European capital cities, and that the essence of the new arrangement would be a triumphal approach to Buckingham Palace, which had been recently completed.[58]The committee of the project, led by the Prime Minister,Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool,and advised byCharles Arbuthnot,President of the Board of Commissioners of Woods and Forests, selected Decimus Burton as the project's architect: in 1828, when giving evidence to a Parliamentary select committee on the Government's spending on public works, Arbuthnot explained that he had nominated Burton 'having seen in the Regent's Park, and elsewhere, works which pleased my eye, from their architectural beauty and correctness'.[58]Burton intended to create an urban space dedicated to the celebration of theHouse of Hanover,national pride, and the nation's heroes.[22]

The renovation of Hyde Park,Green Park,andSt James's Park,began, in 1825, with the demarcation of new drives and pathways, subsequent to which Burton designed new lodges and gates, viz. Cumberland Gate, Stanhope Gate, Grosvenor Gate, the Hyde Park Gate/Screen atHyde Park Corner,and, later, the Prince of Wales's Gate,Knightsbridge,in the classical style. There were no authoritative precedents for such buildings, which required windows and chimney stacks, in the classical style, and, in the words of Guy Williams, 'Burton's reticent treatment of the supernumerary features' and of the cast iron gates and railings, was 'greatly admired'.[59]

At Hyde Park Corner, the King required that "some great ceremonial outwork that would be worthy of the new palace that lay to its rear", and accepted Burton's consequent proposal for a sequence comprising a gateway and a classical screen, and a triumphal arch, which would enable those approaching Buckingham Palace from the north to ride or drive first through the screen and then through the arch, before turning left to descendConstitution Hilland enter the forecourt of Buckingham Palace through Nash'sMarble Arch.[60]The screen became theRoman revivalHyde Park Gate/Screen at Hyde Park Corner, which delighted the King and his Committee, and which architectural historian Guy Williams describes as 'one of the most pleasing architectural works that have survived from the neo-classical age'.[60]The triumphal arch became theWellington Archat Constitution Hill into Green Park, London, which has been described as 'one of London's best loved landmarks'.[28]Burton designed the arch's iron gates, which were constructed by Bramah and Co. of Pimlico.[61]Burton's original design for the triumphal arch, which was modelled on theArch of Titusat Rome, on which the central and side blocks of the Screen had been modelled, was more technically perfect, and coherent with the Screen, than that of the arch that was subsequently built: this original design, however, was rejected by the committee – who had envisaged a design based on theArch of Constantine(on which Nash's Marble Arch had been modelled) – because it was not sufficiently ostentatious. Burton created a new design, "to pander to the majestic ego", which was much larger and modelled on a fragment found in the Ancient Roman forum, which was accepted on 14 January 1826, and subsequently built as the presentWellington Arch.[40]

Sculpture of the Triumphal Arch

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The arch at Constitution Hill was left devoid of decorative sculpture as a result of the moratorium in 1828 on public building work, and, instead, despite the absolute objection of Burton, was mounted with an ungainlyequestrian statue of the Duke of WellingtonbyMatthew Cotes Wyatt,the son of the then recently deceasedJames Wyatt,who had been selected by statue's commissioner, and one of its few subsequent advocates, SirFrederick Trench.Matthew Cotes Wyatt was not competent: Guy Williams contends that he was 'not noticeably talented', and theDictionary of National Biographythat 'thanks to royal and other influential patronage, Wyatt enjoyed a reputation and practice to which his mediocre abilities hardly entitled him'.[62]Trench, and his patrons the Duke and Duchess of Rutland, had told the public subscribers to the statue that the statue would be place on top of Burton's triumphal arch at Hyde Park Corner: Burton expressed his opposition to this proposal 'as plainly and as vehemently as his nature allowed' consistently over successive years, because the ungainly statue would 'disfigure' his arch, for which it was much too large, and the surrounding neighbourhood, because it would have to be placed, contrary to all classical precedent, across, instead of parallel with, the roadway under the arch.[62]

Burton had envisaged that his arch would be topped with only a small quadriga whose horses would have been parallel with the road under the arch. Burton's objections were extensively endorsed by most of the aristocratic residents of London.[62]A writer inThe BuilderaskedCharles Canning,the First Commissioner for Woods and Forests, to ban the project: "We have learnt, and can state positively, that Mr. Burton has the strongest objection possible against placing the group in question on the archway... and that he is taking no part whatever in the alteration proposed to be made in the upper part of the structure to prepare it to receive the pedestal... Mr. Burton, through the mildness which characterizes him, has not expressed this opinion so loudly and so publicly as he ought to have done.... an opinion prevails very generally, that he is a party to the proceedings, and this has induced many to be silent who would otherwise have spoken...".[62]The Prime Minister, SirRobert Peel,contended that another site would be preferable, and proposed, on behalf of the Crown, to offer any other site, but the statue's subscribers rejected all alternative proposals. Every single MP except Sir Frederick Trench wanted the statue to be placed elsewhere.[62]

Canning wrote that 'the remonstrances which reach Her Majesty's Government against the proposed appropriation of the arch are so many and so strong, the representations of its architect, Mr. Burton, in the same sense, are so earnest, and the opinion of every other eminent architect, artist, or other competent authority who has been consulted on the subject is so decided [against the placing of the Wellington statue on the arch]".[62]

Decimus Burton himself wrote, "The arch would, I consider, suffer greatly in importance if the colossal statue in question be placed there, because it would become a mere pedestal. The want of proportion in the proposed surmount, compared with the columns and other details of the architecture, would show that they had been designed by different hands, and without reference for each other....I have desired to witness the completion of this building, as originally designed by me, and as approved by theLords of the Treasury,yet I would prefer that the building should remain for the present in its forlorn and bare state, rather than a colossal equestrian statue should be placed upon it... I fear that if this appropriation of the building should be decided upon, a proposition would soon be made for removing altogether the facades of columns, the slender proportions of which would appear so incongruous and out of proportion compared with the prodigious dimensions of the statue".[62]

Burton had realized that the disciples of Pugin and advocates of Pugin's anti-classicism would remove all classical elements from his arch if permitted the opportunity to do so. The Government placed the Wellington statue on the arch in autumn 1846: Williams contends that the product was 'ridiculous'.[62]The Buildercontended, "down, unquestionably, it must come. As the network of timber is removed, spar by spar, from before it, so do the folly of the experiment, the absurdity of the conjunction, and the greatness of the sacrifice become apparent. Its effect is even worse than we anticipated – the destruction of the arch by the statue, and of the statue by its elevation on the arch, more complete. Every post brings us letters urging renewed efforts to remove the figure to another site". The contestation about the prospective removal of the statue became national. However, the Government failed to remove the statue, despite that they had professed, when it had been placed, that they would do so if it provoked the aversion which it had provoked. Foreign intellectuals who visited London identified the incongruous fusion of the statue and the arch as "spectacular confirmation" of the "artistic ignorance of the English".[62]Architectural historian Guy Williams writes that "[the] arch at Hyde Park Corner is a visible reminder of one of the fiercest attacks that have ever been launched in the worlds of art and architecture. The face of London might have been very different now – freer, perhaps, of the 'monstrous carbuncles' so disliked by the present Prince of Wales – if the attacked party [Decimus Burton] had been a little more pugnacious, and so better equipped to stand his ground".[28]

Main article:Marble Arch
Marble Arch before its relocation at the entrance to the newly rebuiltBuckingham Palace
Aerial view ofMarble Arch

In 1847 the problem of accommodatingQueen Victoria's expanding family was becoming acute. It was "solved" in two steps by Decimus Burton and W.A. Nesfield. With his eye for landscape, Burton had John Nash's triumphal monument, originally intended as the entrance to the palace, relocated to the north eastern corner of Hyde Park. He consulted on filling in the Buckingham Palace forecourt, creating new interiors and the courtyard we know today. The Royal Family were able to move in to more spacious premises. Moving the arch, stone by stone, was left to the engineering skills ofThomas Cubittand took four years. The siting at the Cumberland Gate entrance to the park was eventually completed in 1851.[63]

During 1882, traffic congestion at Hyde Park Corner motivated advocacy for Burton's triumphal arch to be moved to the top of Constitution Hill to create space for traffic. In response to this advocacy, Burton's great-nephew Francis Fearon compiled and published a pamphlet that advocated the removal of the Wellington statue from the arch in the event of the removal of the arch to another location: Fearon contended that the arch should be 'relieved once and for all of its unsightly load'.[64]The campaign led by Fearon was successful: Wyatt's incongruous statue was removed toAldershot,and its place on Burton's arch, which was moved to Constitution Hill in 1883,[22]was occupied by a Quadriga by CaptainAdrian Jones.Jones' statue is not nearly as elegant as Burton's designed statue intended for the arch, but it is more coherent with the arch than Wyatt's statue, and its figures, unlike those of Wyatt's statue, are aligned with the roadway under the arch.[64]

London Zoo

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By the end of 1829, Burton had completedLondon Zoo,which had opened in April 1828,[65]to fervent commendation.[66]Guy Williams records, "From all sides, Decimus Burton's Zoo buildings received the highest praise. They were playful - witty, even - while being architecturally beyond reproach. They made a visit to the Zoo an aesthetic, as well as an educational, pleasure. They brought a suggestion of foreign lands to the flattish expanses at the foot of Primrose Hill".[66]Burton laid out the Zoo in the picturesque style, and designed the early animal houses in thecottage ornéstyle.[65]As a consequence of the success of his London Zoo designs, Burton received more commissions than he were able to complete himself, and, consequently, employed assistants, began to train pupils, and bought a plot at Spring Gardens, St. James's Park, at the east end of The Mall, where he constructed Nos. 10, and 11, and 12 Spring Gardens as both his townhouse and his office.[49]

Architecture as environment

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Burton was one of the first architects to consider the implications of architecture on the creation of distinct urban environments.[22]The evidence given by Burton to twoParliamentary select committeesdemonstrates the breadth of his knowledge, and the esteem in which his opinion was held by his contemporaries. Burton's evidence to the 1840 Select Committee, which discussed plans to developTrafalgar Square,popularised his views onurban development.[22][a]This is one of the first examples of public discourse about an urban space that acknowledged the potential for its national and political significance.[22][16]

Athenaeum Club

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TheAthenaeumwas founded in 1824 at the instigation ofJohn Wilson Croker,thenSecretary to the Admiralty,who was primarily responsible for the organisation and early development of the club. In 1823, Croker wrote to Sir Humphry Davy, "I will take the opportunity of repeating the proposition I have made to you about a Club for Literary and Scientific men and followers of the Fine Arts. The fashionable and Military Clubs... have spoiled all the Coffee Houses and Taverns so that the artist, or mere literary man... are in a much worse position".[68]

Croker suggested 30 names for the club's organizing Committee, including theEarl of Aberdeen,theEarl of Ashburnham,Earl Spencer,Lord Palmerston,SirThomas Lawrence,Francis Chantrey,and Robert Smirke the Younger: all of those invited, exceptRichard Payne Knight,accepted.[68]The first meeting of the Athenaeum, with 14 men present, was held at the rooms of theRoyal Societyon 16 February 1824, where a committee was formed that resolved: first, that temporary premises would be rented at 12 Waterloo Place, which had been constructed by the company of Club member James Burton, the pre-eminent London property developer; and, second, that Decimus Burton, then 24 years old, would be commissioned to design a permanent clubhouse.[68]The Trustees of the Club who employed Burton were the Earl of Aberdeen, former Prime Minister and President of theSociety of Antiquaries of London;Sir Thomas Lawrence, President of the Royal Academy; and Sir Humphry Davy, President of the Royal Society. Decimus continued to work for the club until 1864, and designed Croker's villa atStokes Bay,nearGosport,in around 1840.[69]Burton's Athenaeum clubhouse is in the Neoclassical style, with both Ancient Greek, Ancient Roman, and Renaissance Italian elements:[70]it has a Doric portico with paired columns, and has been described by architectural scholar Guy Williams as 'a building of remarkable grace and astonishing novelty' with a central staircase that is 'distinctly Egyptian in flavour'.[71]The Corinthian-columns of the entrance hall, informed by those of the AthenianTower of the Winds,are Greek: the barrel-vaulted ceiling Roman.John Summersoncontends design were informed by that ofBaldassare Peruzzi's 17th centuryPalazzo Massimo alle Colonnein Rome.[70]

Burton made himself responsible for the design of as many of the decorative features of the club as possible, including the clock-cases and the pendant light-fittings.[71]When the Clubhouse was completed in April 1830, the members of the Club Committee stated, "[They] are bound to express their entire satisfaction at the manner in which the work has been carried out by Mr. Burton. They can testify, and indeed the foregoing Accounts evince, the general accuracy of his estimates and they trust that the Club at large, as well as the public, must be satisfied of his professional skill, and the beauty of his architectural designs".[71]Decimus Burton subsequently became the "prime member of the Athenaeum, one of London's grandest gentlemen's clubs",[38]of which his father James was also a member.[72]The cast of theApollo Belvederepositioned in the recess at the top of the principal staircase at the Athenaeum was a gift to the club from Decimus.[73]There is a photographic portrait of Decimus, taken in 1873, preserved at the club,[17]and the Club retains some furniture designed by Decimus.[72]Another early member wasSir Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood,a close friend of the Burtons.[44]

Calverley Estate

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Burton was commissioned to develop the Calverley Estate by John Ward, an MP for whom he had designed his first neoclassical country residence. Great Mount Pleasant, a mansion owned by theDuke of Leeds,had been used by the Princess Victoria and the Duchess of Kent. The villas constructed by Burton on the Calverley Estate were intended for the gentry, and each would be able to accommodate several servants.[74]Burton's design is predominantly Georgian neoclassical in style, but includes elements of the Italianate-, Old English or Tudor-, neogothic-,[75]and cottage orne[76]styles. Burton designed 24 villas, the first of which was completed in autumn 1828: nearly twenty years would pass until the last villa of the series were complete. Burton also constructed a series of Tudor-style servants' cottages, and three grand entrances to the estate: the Victoria Gate, and the less ornate Keston Lodge and Farnborough Lodge.[74]

In 1832, Calverley Park Crescent, designed by Burton, modelled partially on those atBathandBuxton,was constructed at Calverley. The Crescent contained 17 shops, and covered areas for spectators.[74]Burton's development of the Calverley Estate contained elements of the neoclassical-, the Old English-, and the neogothic styles, and was highly commended: it has been described as "a landmark in English domestic architecture" and the "prototype garden suburb".[77]

M. Wilson contends that 'Decimus Burton's laying out of the Calverley Estate is the best surviving embodiment of Early Victorian seriousness and refinement'.[78]Christopher Hussey,ofCountry Life,commended Burton's 'restrained eclectism' in the Calverley developments.[79]Williams contends that the Calverley Estate be 'one of the great architectural successes of the nineteenth century' and that 'Decimus Burton's reputation could be assured by his work here alone',[74]and describes Burton's villas at the estate as 'domestic masterpiece[s]'.[80]Henry Russell Hitchcock described Burton's Calverley Estate as 'the finest extant example' of its kind.[75]Sir John Soane's friend John Britton described Burton's Calverley as a 'beautiful pleasure garden'.[76]

Philip Whitbourn contends that Burton has been inaccurately 'sometimes stereotyped as [one] feeling no enthusiasm for the Gothic Revival' and that 'it is as a master not only of the neoclassical but also of thepicturesquethat Decimus Burton should be remembered'.[76]William Willicombe's subsequent designs on the Calverley Estate, including Lansdowne Road and Calverley Park Gardens, were informed by Burton, with whom he had worked on Burton's earlier parts of the town.[57]

Constructions in the neo-gothic style

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Burton was commissioned to designHoly Trinity Churchat Tunbridge Wells in the neo-gothic style: he unwisely accepted the commission despite that he was 'neither by temperament nor training' qualified to design a work in this style, of which he knew little, and his design was censured,[81]in addition to commended as a 'beautiful structure' and a 'handsome structure' which 'reflects great credit on the architect'.[82]A more unanimously successful attempt to design in the neogothic style wasSt Mary's Church, Goring-by-Sea,which he redesigned, for the Tory MPDavid Lyon,between 1836 and 1838.[83][84]

Neoclassical Houses of Parliament and vituperation by Augustus W. N. Pugin

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Burton created a design for a new neoclassicalHouses of Parliament.[85]Decimus Burton and his pupils commended the purchase of theElgin Marblesfor the nation, and the erection of a neoclassical gallery in which they could be displayed to the same, and subsequently contended that theBurning of Parliamentin the fire of 1834 were an opportunity for the creation of a splendid neoclassical replacement of the Houses of Parliament, in which the Elgin Marbles could be displayed: they expressed their aversion that the new seat of the British Empire would "be doomed to crouch and wither in the groinings [sic], vaultings, tracery, pointed roof, and flying buttresses of a Gothic building… ":[86]a building of a style that they contended to be improper ‘to the prevailing sentiment of an age so enlightened’. In contradistinction to the neo-gothic style, they commended those who had ‘built St. Paul's Cathedral, to the satisfaction of an applauding posterity, in the more beautiful and universal style of Roman architecture’.[86]

However, the Prime Minister, SirRobert Peel,wanted, now that he were premier, to disassociate himself from the controversial John Wilson Croker, who was a founding member of the Athenaeum, close associate of the Burtons, an advocate of neoclassicism, and repudiator of the neo-gothic style: consequently, Peel appointed a committee chaired byEdward Cust,a detestor of the style of Nash andWilliam Wilkins,which resolved that the new Houses of Parliament would have to be in either the ‘gothic’ or the ‘Elizabethan’ style.[86]

Augustus Pugin,the foremost expert on the Gothic, had to submit each of his designs through, and thus in the name of, other architects,James Gillespie-GrahamandCharles Barry,because he had recently openly and fervently converted to Roman Catholicism, as a consequence of which any design submitted in his own name would certainly have been automatically rejected;[86]the design he submitted for improvements toBalliol College, Oxford,in 1843 were rejected for this reason.[87]The design for Parliament that Pugin submitted through Barry won the competition.[86]Subsequent to the announcement of the design ascribed to Barry,William Richard Hamilton,who had been secretary to LordElginduring the acquisition and transportation of the Elgin Marbles,[88]published a pamphlet in which he censured the fact that ‘gothic barbarism’ had been preferred to the masterful designs of Ancient Greece and Rome: but the judgement was not altered, and was ratified by theCommonsand theLords.[86]The commissioners subsequently appointed Pugin to assist in the construction of the interior of the new Palace, to the design of which Pugin himself had been the foremost determiner.[86]The first stone of the new Pugin-Barry design was laid on 27 April 1840.[89]

Vituperation of Burton by Pugin

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During the competition for the design of the new Houses of Parliament, Burton, "the land's leading classicist",[90]was vituperated with continuous invective, which Guy Williams has described as an "anti-Burton campaign",[91]by the foremost advocate of the neo-gothic style, Augustus Pugin,[92]who was made enviously reproachful that Burton "had done much more that Pugin's father (Augustus Charles Pugin) to alter the appearance of London ".[93]Pugin attempted to popularize advocacy of the neo-gothic, and repudiation of the neoclassical, by composing and illustrating books that contended the supremacy of the former and the degeneracy of the latter, which were published from 1835.[94]

In 1845, Pugin, in hisContrasts: or a Parallel Between the Noble Edifices of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries and Similar Buildings of the Present Day,which the author had to publish himself as a consequence of the extent of the defamation of society architects therein, satirized John Nash as "Mr Wash, Plasterer, who jobs out Day Work on Moderate Terms", and Burton as "Talent of No Consequence, Premium Required", and included satirical sketches of Nash's Buckingham Palace and Burton's Wellington Arch.[94]Consequently, the amount of commissions received by Burton declined,[95]although he retained a close friendship with the aristocrats amongst his patrons, who continued to commission him.[41]Burton completed a new portico, hall, and staircase forWilliam Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire'sDevonshire House;[95]additions to10 Belgrave Squarefor the secondEarl of Burlington;[96]the enlargement ofGrimston Park,Yorkshire, forJohn Hobart Caradoc, 2nd Baron Howdenand the RussianPrincess Bagration;additions toSyon HouseforLord Prudhoe;and a new town,Fleetwood,inLancashire,for SirPeter Hesketh-Fleetwood.[95]

Glasshouses

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Decimus was primarily responsible for the 'Great Stove' [conservatory] atChatsworth Housefor the 6th Duke of Devonshire, for whichJoseph Paxtonhas been erroneously attributed primary responsibility and credit.[97]Architectural historian Guy Williams is unequivocal: Decimus Burton was "[the] designer of the Great Stove at Chatsworth". Burton, who was advisor to theRoyal Botanic Society,also designed the 'Winter Garden' glasshouse of the Royal Botanic Society in Regent's Park, and thePalm House,originally named 'the Stove', andTemperate Houseat Kew Gardens.[98]The constructed Palm House is the consequence of the collaboration of Burton and Richard Turner: 'Decimus Burton contributed his considerable flair for creating refined and elegant structures and Richard Turner a singular talent for metal fabrication'.[99]Burton's Palm House has been described as "one of the boldest pieces of 19th century functionalism in existence - much bolder indeed, and hence aesthetically much more satisfying thanCrystal Palaceever was ".[100]

Philip Whitbourn contends that Burton's Palm House 'could have a just claim as the world's most important surviving Victorian glass and iron structure'.[100]Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace was derived almost entirely from the glasshouse work of Decimus Burton andRichard Turner.[101]Subsequent to his retirement there, Decimus designed and constructed several buildings at St Leonards-on-Sea.[6]Burton's Temperate House at Kew, which is double the size of his Palm House and the world's largest surviving Victorian glass structure,[102]was only completed after his death, in 1898, and has become one of his most popularly acclaimed works:[91]Williams writes of the Temperate House, "It makes one wonder how much the appearance of London might not have been improved if Augustus W. N. Pugin had never started his anti-Burton campaign".[91]Burton's other works at Kew include the Museum No.1, the Campanile, and the Main Entrance Gates toKew Green.Burton's Glasshouses at Kew constituted the UK's case for Kew to be made anUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitein 2002.[102][103]

Further studies and elections

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From 1830 to 1834, Burton studied atClifford's Inn.The architectural historian, SirNikolaus Pevsner,believes that Decimus was the designer of the Gatehouse and the Inn buildings.[104]

In 1832 Decimus Burton was elected aFellow of the Royal Society.[2]He became a Fellow of theRoyal Society of Arts;a Fellow of theSociety of Antiquaries of London;a founding Fellow, and later vice-president, of theRoyal Institute of British Architects;[50]and was architect to theRoyal Botanic Societyfrom 1840.[16][22][105][34][106]An 1828 testimonial for his election to Fellowship of the Society of Antiquaries described him as 'Architect and Gentleman, well versed in the History and Antiquaries of this Kingdom':[88]he was elected FSA on 8 January 1829, during the tenure of W. R. Hamilton, Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, as vice-president.[88]

Protégés

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Burton trained his nephew,Henry Marley Burton(1821–1880)[91]the son of his eldest brother, William Ford Burton.[53]Henry Marley Burton succeeded to Decimus's architectural practice subsequent to Decimus's retirement.[91][17][53]In 1866, Henry Marley was commissioned byJohn George Dodson, 1st Baron Monk Brettonto design a mansion at Coneyborough. Decimus had previously designed Bineham inChaileyfor Dodson's brother-in-law,John Blencowe.Burton also taught the architectsHenry Currey,[107][108]George Mair,[108]John Crake,[108]Arthur William Hakewill,[108]andE.J. May,[108][54]who was his last pupil.[109][110][34]

Legacy

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Despite the fact that he had left his library to the Royal Institute of British Architects, of which he had served as president, most of it was deposited instead with his two unmarried nieces, Helen and Emily Jane Wood, who subsequently sold it, and the remainder was distributed among other family members. As a consequence, according toDana Arnold,there is a gross imbalance between the ‘scale and significance’ of Decimus Burton's work and the amount of documentary evidence about it that has come into the public domain. Given the fragmentary nature of written sources concerning his work, he has tended to be relegated, quite undeservedly, 'to the margins of architectural histories’. However, Burton's works in London, especially those around Hyde Park, Green Park, Regent's Park, remains a lasting and resplendent memorial.[22]His reputation has increased since the commencement of the 20th century,[111]during which aBurtons' St Leonards Societyhas been founded in St Leonards-on-Sea to 'encourage the preservation of the work of James and Decimus Burton and to prevent development unsympathetic to its character', which has successfully thwarted several attempts to create new developments that would have violated the beauty of the Burtons' project.[111]

The recently completed restoration (2018) of the Temperate House at London's Kew Gardens has prompted a re-evaluation of Burton'shorticultural designs.[112]Douglas Murphy contends that Burton's use of "Iron and glass, through shedding ornament and aiming for efficient performance over capricious pomp, was retroactively understood as the historic forerunner ofModernism,meaning that what had been thought of as mere engineering was allowed to enter the pantheon of true architecture. Burton's name was now fortunately attached to some of the most significant works of that type ".[113]

Burton's legacy on either side of theIrish Seaendures. In April 2017 theHearsum Collection,in collaboration withThe Royal Parksand Ireland'sOffice of Public Works,mounted an exhibition at Dublin'sPhoenix ParkentitledParks, Our Shared Heritage: The Phoenix Park, Dublin & The Royal Parks, London,demonstrating the historical links betweenRichmond Park(and other Royal Parks in London) and Phoenix Park.[114]This exhibition was also displayed at theMall Galleriesin London in July and August 2017.[115]

The Palm House and lake to Victoria Gate

List of architectural projects

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The projects are listed by county in Alpha betical order. The list is based on the work ofWhitbourn 2003,and on theOxford Dictionary of National Biographyentry for "Burton, Decimus (1800–1881)", byDana Arnold.Any other sources are specified individually.

Buckinghamshire

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Derbyshire

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  • The Great Conservatory and the Home Farm atChatsworth(1836–1840: Conservatory demolished circa 1920))[35]

Dorset

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East Sussex

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St Leonards-on-Sea

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In 1828 Burton's father, James, bought an estate inEast Sussex,on which he built the new town ofSt Leonard's-on-Sea,as a pleasure resort for the gentry. Decimus designed the majority of the buildings.[4][116]

  • North Streetwith Kenilworth Road in background
  • Steps down toKings Road
  • Warrior Square Station,St Leonard's-on-Sea

Central London

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Hampshire

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Hertfordshire

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  • Haydon Hill House,Bushey(1840s; later extended – now a Grade IIlisted buildingand converted into flats)

Kent

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Lancashire

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Burton's work with his father on the East Sussex town of St Leonards-on-Sea, between 1827 and 1837, had so impressed their friend, and fellow Atheneaum Club member, Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood that he commissioned Burton to design and lay out his new port and seaside resort ofFleetwood.[44]

Norfolk

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  • Sennowe Hall,nearGuist,extended 1855–56, remodelled 1908 – very little of Burton's work survives.

North Yorkshire

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  • Grimston Park, Yorkshire 1839-40

Nottinghamshire

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  • The Grammar School,Retford(1855–1857)
  • Burton's King Edward VI Grammar School,Retford

West Sussex

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Ireland

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Burton spent two decades of his life modernising and landscaping the neglected site ofPhoenix Park,Dublin.This included many works on the paths, relocation of monuments and construction of gates to an area previously dominated by military and police barracks.[127]

Phoenix Park–Dublin,Republic of Ireland

See also

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References and notes

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  1. ^The proceedings were reported in theCivil Engineer and Architect's Journal,7 September 1840[67]
  2. ^One widely publicized event was a "Grand Scottish Fête" on 16 September 1834 "with a tightrope performance byPablo Fanque,the black circus performer who would later dominate the Victorian circus and achieve immortality inThe Beatlessong, "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!".[124]
  1. ^abcdefWilliams 1990,p. 18
  2. ^abcd"Pedigree of Decimus Burton (1800–1881), The Weald, Public Archives of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex".Archived fromthe originalon 15 May 2018.Retrieved7 June2016.
  3. ^abcWhitbourn 2003,p. 9.
  4. ^abc"Who were the Burtons?".The Burtons' St Leonards Society.Archived fromthe originalon 8 September 2019.Retrieved18 June2016.
  5. ^abcDavies 2005,pp. 71–73.
  6. ^abcWilliams 1990,p. 127
  7. ^Burton, James(1783–1811)."The Diary of James Burton".The National Archives.Retrieved18 June2018– viaHastings Museum and Art Gallery.
  8. ^"Haliburton [Haleburton; formerly Burton], James (1788–1862), Egyptologist".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11926.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  9. ^Morgan, Henry James,ed. (1903).Types of Canadian Women and of Women who are or have been Connected with Canada.Toronto: Williams Briggs. p.142.
  10. ^abcWilliams 1990,p. 19
  11. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 135
  12. ^abcdWilliams 1990,pp. 19–20
  13. ^Whitbourn 2003,p. 10.
  14. ^abcdeBowdler, Roger. "Burton [Haliburton], James".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/50182.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  15. ^"History of Mabledon House, Kent".Retrieved17 March2017.
  16. ^abcdefCurl, James Stevens (1999).The Dictionary of Architecture.Vol. 1 Aba – Byz. Oxford University Press. p. 133.ISBN0-19-860678-8.
  17. ^abcdefghiArnold, Dana (2003)."Sample biographical essay for Burton, Decimus".Reading Architectural History.Routledge. pp. 66–67.ISBN978-1-134-53231-5.
  18. ^Williams 1990,pp. 20–21
  19. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 28
  20. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 29
  21. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 21
  22. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwArnold, Dana. "Burton, Decimus".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/4125.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  23. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 11.
  24. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 45.
  25. ^Williams 1990,pp. 27–28
  26. ^Williams 1990,p. 14
  27. ^Williams 1990,p. 16
  28. ^abcdeWilliams 1990,pp. 11–12
  29. ^Williams 1990,p. 30
  30. ^Williams 1990,p. 136
  31. ^abcWilliams 1990,pp. 38–39
  32. ^Williams 1990,p. 40
  33. ^Arnold, Dana (2005).Rural Urbanism: London Landscapes in the Early 19th Century.Manchester University Press. p. 58.
  34. ^abcdBasic biographical details of Decimus Burtonat theDictionary of Scottish ArchitectsBiographical Database.
  35. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanWilliams 1990,pp. 135–157
  36. ^abJones 2017,p. 209.
  37. ^abcdWhitbourn 2003,pp. 12–13.
  38. ^abWilliams 1990,Inside Cover
  39. ^abcdeWilliams 1990,p. 66
  40. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 51
  41. ^abcWilliams 1990,p. 108
  42. ^Williams 1990,p. 84
  43. ^Davies 2005,p. 72.
  44. ^abcCurtis & Curtis 1994,p.[page needed].
  45. ^Cooke, Neil M. R. "Haliburton [Haleburton; formerly Burton], James (1788–1862), Egyptologist".Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(online ed.). Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/11926.(Subscription orUK public library membershiprequired.)
  46. ^Williams 1990,pp. 66–67
  47. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 133
  48. ^abcdefWilliams 1990,p. 37
  49. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 55
  50. ^abcdWhitbourn 2003,p. 53.
  51. ^Basic biographical details of Henry Marley Burtonat theDictionary of Scottish ArchitectsBiographical Database.
  52. ^"Fountain Design of Edgar Burton to commemorate James Burton".Retrieved20 February2016.
  53. ^abcdefWhitbourn 2003,p. 56.
  54. ^abcWilliams 1990,p. 130
  55. ^abcHistoric England."Tomb of Decimus Burton (1389239)".National Heritage List for England.
  56. ^Williams 1990,p. 157
  57. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 58.
  58. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 49
  59. ^Williams 1990,pp. 49–50
  60. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 50
  61. ^Whitbourn 2003,p. 18.
  62. ^abcdefghiWilliams 1990,pp. 85–94
  63. ^Historic England."Marble Arch (1492760)".Research records (formerly PastScape).Retrieved6 December2018.
  64. ^abWilliams 1990,pp. 131–133
  65. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 34.
  66. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 54
  67. ^"The Nelson Monument and Trafalgar Square".Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal.7 September 1840. p. 304.Retrieved18 June2018.
  68. ^abcWilliams 1990,pp. 43–45
  69. ^Whitbourn 2003,pp. 15–16.
  70. ^abcWhitbourn 2003,pp. 21–22.
  71. ^abcWilliams 1990,pp. 46–48
  72. ^ab"Athenaeum Club, London. Homepage".
  73. ^"Grand Staircase, The Athenaeum Club".The Victorian Web.
  74. ^abcdWilliams 1990,pp. 56–59
  75. ^abWhitbourn 2003,pp. 24–25.
  76. ^abcWhitbourn 2003,pp. 34–35.
  77. ^Whitbourn 2003,p. 8.
  78. ^Jones 2017,p. 287.
  79. ^Jones 2017,p. 35.
  80. ^Williams 1990,p. 134
  81. ^Williams 1990,p. 56
  82. ^Whitbourn 2003,p. 42.
  83. ^Williams 1990,p. 143
  84. ^ab"David Lyon junior".Legacies of British Slave-ownership.Retrieved18 June2018– via ucl.ac.uk.
  85. ^Williams 1990,p. 62
  86. ^abcdefgWilliams 1990,pp. 69–75
  87. ^Williams 1990,p. 150
  88. ^abcWhitbourn 2003,p. 7.
  89. ^Williams 1990,p. 147
  90. ^Williams 1990,p. 83
  91. ^abcdeWilliams 1990,p. 129
  92. ^Williams 1990,pp. 67–78
  93. ^Williams 1990,p. 75
  94. ^abWilliams 1990,pp. 75–77
  95. ^abcWilliams 1990,pp. 83–84
  96. ^Williams 1990,p. 146
  97. ^Williams 1990,pp. 97–99
  98. ^Williams 1990,pp. 100–102
  99. ^Williams 1990,pp. 103–104
  100. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 51.
  101. ^Williams 1990,p. 114
  102. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 52.
  103. ^Whitbourn 2003,pp. 56–57.
  104. ^Bradley & Pevsner 2002,pp. 293–294.
  105. ^Colvin 2008.
  106. ^Jones, R.P. (1905). "The Life and Works of Decimus Burton".Architectural Review.XVII.
  107. ^abWhitbourn 2003,p. 49.
  108. ^abcdeWhitbourn 2003,pp. 57–58.
  109. ^Grant, Sandra."E J May".Architecture and architects.The Bedford Park Society.
  110. ^"ARCHIVE OF LORD MONK BRETTON OF CONYBORO IN BARCOMBE".The National Archives.Retrieved18 June2018.
  111. ^abWilliams 1990,pp. 132–134
  112. ^Coulter 1996,p.[page needed].
  113. ^Murphy, Douglas (26 March 2018)."The Contradictory Career of Decimus Burton".Apollo: The International Art Magazine.Retrieved1 April2018.
  114. ^Fionnuala Fallon (1 April 2017)."Park yourself in Dublin's finest garden".The Irish Times.Retrieved2 April2017.
  115. ^"Parks – Our Shared Heritage".London:The Mall Galleries.July 2017.Retrieved22 September2017.
  116. ^McKie, David (6 February 2006)."Ghosts of St. Leonard's".The Guardian.
  117. ^abWilliams 1990,p. 137
  118. ^abcdWhitbourn 2003,p. 19.
  119. ^Elmes 1852,p. 144.
  120. ^Paul Wilson."Architecture at ZSL London Zoo, Regent's Park".Zoological Society of London.Retrieved6 December2018.
  121. ^Baillie 1901,p. 167.
  122. ^"The Lawns".London Borough of Croydon.Archived fromthe originalon 14 March 2012.Retrieved17 July2011.
  123. ^abCoulter 1996,pp. 80–84.
  124. ^Warwick 1982,Ch. 5.
  125. ^Jones 2017,p. 236.
  126. ^abcHoman 1984,p. 106.
  127. ^"Phoenix Park: History from the Georgian Period to the Present. The Nineteenth Century and the Decimus Burton Era".
  128. ^"Dictionary of Irish Architects, 1720–1940".
  129. ^"Chapelized Gate Lodge, Phoenix Park".Dublin. 5 February 2010.[accessed 5 December 2018]

Sources

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Further reading

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