Deity

"Gods" redirects here. For the monotheistic concept of a supreme being, seeGod.For the word, seeGod(word).For other uses, seeGods (disambiguation).

"Divine person" redirects here. For the theological term used in Christian theology to denote a divine person, seeProsopon.

Adeityorgodis asupernaturalbeing considered to besacredand worthy ofworshipdue to having authority over the universe, nature or human life.TheOxford Dictionary of Englishdefines deity as agodorgoddess,or anything revered asdivine.C. Scott Littletondefines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to newlevels of consciousness,beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life ".

Examples of representations of deities in different cultures; clockwise from upper left:Hinduism,Buddhism,Yoruba,Maya,Egyptian,Shinto,Christianity,Graeco-Roman,andInca.

Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship.Monotheisticreligions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as "God"),whereaspolytheisticreligions accept multiple deities.Henotheisticreligions accept onesupreme deitywithout denying other deities, considering them as aspects of the same divine principle.Nontheistic religionsdeny any supreme eternalcreator deity,but may accept apantheonof deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being.

Although most monotheistic religions traditionally envision their god asomnipotent,omnipresent,omniscient,omnibenevolent,andeternal,none ofthese qualitiesare essential to the definition of a "deity"and various cultures have conceptualized their deities differently.Monotheistic religions typically refer to their god in masculine terms,while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways—male, female,hermaphroditic,or genderless.

Many cultures—including the ancientMesopotamians,Egyptians,Greeks,Romans,andGermanic peoples—have personifiednatural phenomena,variously as either deliberate causes or effects.SomeAvestanandVedicdeities were viewed as ethical concepts.InIndian religions,deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind.Deities are envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) afterrebirth,for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they becomeguardian deitiesand live blissfully inheaven,but are also subject to death when their merit is lost.

Etymology

Main articles:Dyeus,Deus,God (word),andDeva (Hinduism)

The English language worddeityderives fromOld Frenchdeité,theLatindeitatem(nominativedeitas) or "divine nature", coined byAugustine of Hippofromdeus( "god" ). Deus is related through a commonProto-Indo-European(PIE) origin to*deiwos.This root yields the ancient Indian wordDevameaning "to gleam, a shining one", from *div- "to shine", as well asGreekdios"divine"andZeus;and Latindeus"god" (Old Latindeivos).Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent isdevi.Etymologically, the cognates ofDeviare Latindeaand Greekthea.InOld Persian,daiva-means "demon,evil god ",while inSanskritit means the opposite, referring to the "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".

The closely linked term "god"refers to" supreme being, deity ", according to Douglas Harper,and is derived fromProto-Germanic*guthan,from PIE*ghut-,which means "that which is invoked".Guthin theIrish languagemeans "voice". The term*ghut-is also the source ofOld Church Slavoniczovo( "to call" ), Sanskrithuta-( "invoked", an epithet ofIndra), from the root*gheu(e)-( "to call, invoke." ),

An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from the Proto-GermanicGaut,which traces it to the PIE root*ghu-to-( "poured" ), derived from the root*gheu-( "to pour, pour alibation"). The term*gheu-is also the source of the Greekkhein"to pour".Originally the word "god" and its other Germanic cognates wereneuternouns but shifted to being generally masculine under the influence of Christianity in which thegod is typically seen as male.In contrast, all ancientIndo-European culturesandmythologiesrecognized both masculine and feminine deities.

Definitions

Pantheistsbelieve that the universe itself and everything in it forms a single, all-encompassing deity.

There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is, and concepts of deities vary considerably across cultures.Huw Owenstates that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance.It has ranged from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over the universe" (God), to a "finite entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages".

A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects,heroicin outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.In other cases, the deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". TheUpanishadsof Hinduism, for example, characterizeAtman(soul, self) asdeva(deity), thereby asserting that thedevaand eternal supreme principle (Brahman) is part of every living creature, that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the supreme.

Theismis the belief in the existence of one or more deities.Polytheismis the belief in and worship of multiple deities,which are usually assembled into apantheonof gods andgoddesses,with accompanyingrituals.In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature orancestral principles,and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects oremanationsof a creator God ortranscendentalabsolute principle(monistictheologies), which manifestsimmanentlyin nature.Henotheismaccepts the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or aspects of the same divine principle, the highest.Monolatryis the belief that many deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped.

Monotheismis the belief that only one deity exists.A monotheistic deity, known as "God", is usually described asomnipotent,omnipresent,omniscient,omnibenevolentandeternal.However, not all deities have been regarded this wayand an entity does not need to be almighty, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal to qualify as a deity.

Deismis the belief that only one deity exists, who created the universe, but does not usually intervene in the resulting world.Deism was particularly popular among western intellectuals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.Pantheismis the belief that the universe itself is Godor that everything composes an all-encompassing,immanentdeity.Pandeismis an intermediate position between these, proposing that the creator became a pantheistic universe.Panentheismis the belief thatdivinitypervades the universe, but that it alsotranscendsthe universe.Agnosticism is the position that it is impossible to know for certain whether a deity of any kind exists.Atheismis the non-belief in the existence of any deity.

Prehistoric

Statuette of anude, corpulent, seated womanflanked by twofelinesfromÇatalhöyük,dating toc.6000 BCE, thought by most archaeologists to represent a goddess of some kind

Further information:Prehistoric religion

Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and prehistoric arts such ascave drawings,but it is unclear what these sketches and paintings are and why they were made.Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals.It was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses such asInanna,Ishtar,Astarte,Cybele,andAphrodite;this approach has now generally been discredited.Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it is impossible to conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone goddesses.Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities.TheVenus of Willendorf,a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as an exemplar of a prehistoric female deity.A number of probable representations of deities have been discovered at'Ain Ghazaland the works of art uncovered atÇatalhöyükreveal references to what is probably a complex mythology.

Religions and cultures

Sub-Saharan African

Main articles:List of African mythological figures,Traditional African religion,Afro-American religion,andOrisha

Yoruba deity from Nigeria

Diverse African cultures developed theology and concepts of deities over their history. InNigeriaand neighboringWest African countries,for example, two prominent deities (locally calledÒrìṣà)are found in theYoruba religion,namely the godOgunand the goddessOsun.Ogun is the primordial masculine deity as well as the archdivinity and guardian of occupations such as tools making and use, metal working, hunting, war, protection and ascertaining equity and justice.Osun is an equally powerful primordial feminine deity and a multidimensional guardian of fertility, water, maternal, health, social relations, love and peace.Ogun and Osun traditions were brought into the Americas onslave ships.They were preserved by the Africans in their plantation communities, and their festivals continue to be observed.

InSouthern African cultures,a similar masculine-feminine deity combination has appeared in other forms, particularly as the Moon and Sun deities.One Southern African cosmology consists ofHiesebaorXuba(deity, god),Gaune(evil spirits) andKhuene(people). TheHiesebaincludesNladiba(male, creator sky god) andNladisara(females, Nladiba's two wives). The Sun (female) and the Moon (male) deities are viewed as offspring ofNladibaand twoNladisara.The Sun and Moon are viewed as manifestations of the supreme deity, and worship is timed and directed to them.In other African cultures the Sun is seen as male, while the Moon is female, both symbols of the godhead.InZimbabwe,the supreme deity isandrogynouswith male-female aspects, envisioned as the giver of rain, treated simultaneously as the god of darkness and light and is calledMwari Shona.In theLake Victoriaregion, the term for a deity isLubaale,or alternativelyJok.

Ancient Near Eastern

Main article:Religions of the ancient Near East

Egyptian

Main articles:Ancient Egyptian deities,Egyptian mythology,andAncient Egyptian religion

Egyptian tomb painting showing the godsOsiris,Anubis,andHorus,who are among the major deities in ancient Egyptian religion

Ancient Egyptianculture revered numerous deities. Egyptian records and inscriptions list the names of many whose nature is unknown and make vague references to other unnamed deities.EgyptologistJames P. Allenestimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in Egyptian texts,whereas Christian Leitz offers an estimate of "thousands upon thousands" of Egyptian deities.Their terms for deities werenṯr(god), and femininenṯrt(goddess);however, these terms may also have applied to any being – spirits and deceased human beings, but not demons – who in some way were outside the sphere of everyday life.Egyptian deities typically had an associated cult, role and mythologies.

Around 200 deities are prominent in thePyramid textsand ancient temples of Egypt, manyzoomorphic.Among these, wereMin(fertility god),Neith(creator goddess),Anubis,Atum,Bes,Horus,Isis,Ra,Meretseger,Nut,Osiris,Shu,SiaandThoth.Most Egyptian deities represented natural phenomenon, physical objects or social aspects of life, as hidden immanent forces within these phenomena.The deityShu,for example represented air; the goddessMeretsegerrepresented parts of the earth, and the godSiarepresented the abstract powers of perception.Deities such asRaandOsiriswere associated with the judgement of the dead and their care during the afterlife.Major gods often had multiple roles and were involved in multiple phenomena.

The first written evidence of deities are from early 3rd millennium BCE, likely emerging from prehistoric beliefs.However, deities became systematized and sophisticated after the formation of an Egyptian state under thePharaohsand their treatment assacred kingswho had exclusive rights to interact with the gods, in the later part of the 3rd millennium BCE.Through the early centuries of the common era, as Egyptians interacted and traded with neighboring cultures, foreign deities were adopted and venerated.

Levantine

A 4th century BCdrachm(quartershekel) coin from thePersianprovince ofYehud Medinata,possibly representingYahwehseated on a winged and wheeled sun-throne

Main articles:Ancient Canaanite religion,Origins of Judaism,Ancient Semitic religion,Yahweh,Second Temple Judaism,andHistory of ancient Israel and Judah

The ancientCanaaniteswere polytheists who believed in a pantheon of deities,the chief of whom was the godEl,who ruled alongside his consortAsherahand theirseventy sons.Baalwas the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility,while his consortAnatwas the goddess of warandAstarte,theWest Semiticequivalent toIshtar,was the goddess of love.The people of theKingdoms of IsraelandJudahoriginally believed in these deities,alongside their ownnational godYahweh.El later becamesyncretizedwithYahweh,who took over El's role as the head of the pantheon,with Asherah as his divine consortand the "sons of El" as his offspring.During the later years of theKingdom of Judah,amonolatristicfaction rose to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah.Monolatry became enforced during the reforms ofKing Josiahin 621 BCE.Finally, during the national crisis of theBabylonian captivity,someJudahitesbegan to teach that deities aside from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist.The "sons of El" were demoted from deities toangels.

Mesopotamian

Akkadiancylinder sealimpression showingInanna,the Sumerian goddess of love, sex, and war

Wall relief of the Assyriannational godAššur in a "winged male" hybrid iconography

Main articles:List of Mesopotamian deities,Ancient Mesopotamian religion,andSumerian religion

AncientMesopotamian culturein southernIraqhad numerousdingir(deities, gods and goddesses).Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively anthropomorphic.They were thought to possess extraordinary powersand were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.They were generally immortal,but a few of them, particularlyDumuzid,Geshtinanna,andGugalannawere said to have either died or visited the underworld.Both male and female deities were widely venerated.

In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice.The gods were fed, clothed, entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities.Many of the Sumerian deities werepatron guardiansofcity-states.

The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as theAnunnaki,and included deities known as the "seven gods who decree":An,Enlil,Enki,Ninhursag,Nanna,UtuandInanna.After the conquest of Sumer bySargon of Akkad,many Sumerian deities weresyncretizedwithEast Semiticones.The goddess Inanna, syncretized with the East Semitic Ishtar, became popular,with temples across Mesopotamia.

The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treatedAnšar(laterAššur) andKišaras primordial deities.Mardukwas a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as theirnational god.Marduk's iconography is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid".

Indo-European

Main article:Proto-Indo-European religion

Germanic

The Kirkby Stephen Stone, discovered inKirkby Stephen,England, depicts a bound figure, who some have theorized may be the Germanic godLoki.

Main articles:List of Germanic deities,Germanic paganism,Germanic mythology,Common Germanic deities,Æsir,andVanir

InGermanic languages,the terms cognate with 'god' such asOld English:godandOld Norse:guðwere originally neuter but became masculine, as in modern Germanic languages, afterChristianisationdue their use in referring to theChristian god.

InNorse mythology,Æsir(singularássorǫ́ss) are the principal group of gods,while the termásynjur(singularásynja) refers specifically to the femaleÆsir.These terms, states John Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force" ), and are cognate withOld English:os(aheathengod) andGothic:anses.

Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed asVanir,and are associated with fertility. TheÆsirand theVanirwent to war,according to the Nordic sources. The account inYnglinga sagadescribes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors (hostages),and intermarried.

The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between theÆsirand theVanirwhich were considered scandalous by the other side.The goddessFreyjaof theVanirtaught magic to theÆsir,while the two sides discover that whileÆsirforbidmating between siblings,Vaniraccepted such mating.

Templeshostingimagesof Germanic gods (such asThor,OdinandFreyr), as well as pagan worship rituals, continued inScandinaviainto the 12th century, according to historical records. It has been proposed that over time, Christian equivalents were substituted for the Germanic deities to help suppresspaganismas part of theChristianisation of the Germanic peoples.Worship of the Germanic gods has been revived in the modern period as part of thenew religious movementofHeathenry.

Greek

Zeus,the king of the gods inancient Greek religion,shown on a goldstaterfromLampsacus(c.360–340 BCE)

Corinthianblack-figureplaque ofPoseidon,the Greek god of the seas (c.550–525 BCE)

Atticwhite-groundred-figuredkylixofAphrodite,the Greek goddess of love, riding a swan (c.46–470 BCE)

Bust ofAthena,the Greek goddess of wisdom, copy after a votive statue of Kresilas in Athens (c. 425BCE)

Main articles:List of Greek mythological figures,Greek mythology,Ancient Greek religion,andTwelve Olympians

Theancient Greeksrevered both gods and goddesses.These continued to be revered through the early centuries of the common era, and many of the Greek deities inspired and were adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities.The Greek religion was polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts.The deities were largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human behavior.

Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and arecognates.Eos,the Greek goddess of the dawn, for instance, is cognate to IndicUshas,RomanAuroraand LatvianAuseklis.Zeus,the Greek king of gods, is cognate to LatinIūpiter,Old GermanZiu,and IndicDyaus,with whom he shares similar mythologies.Other deities, such asAphrodite,originated from theNear East.

Greek deities varied locally, but many shared panhellenic themes, celebrated similar festivals, rites, and ritual grammar.The most important deities in the Greek pantheon were theTwelve Olympians:Zeus,Hera,Poseidon,Athena,Apollo,Artemis,Aphrodite,Hermes,Demeter,Dionysus,Hephaestus,andAres.Other important Greek deities includedHestia,HadesandHeracles.These deities later inspired theDii Consentesgalaxy of Roman deities.

Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities.Among these were the goat-legged godPan(the guardian of shepherds and their flocks),Nymphs(nature spiritsassociated with particular landforms),Naiads(who dwelled in springs),Dryads(who were spirits of the trees),Nereids(who inhabited the sea), river gods,satyrs(a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by theErinyes(or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.

The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic.Walter Burkertdescribes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts".They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects, a specific and flawed personality.They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances.Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspiredvotive offeringsfor favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased.

Roman

Main articles:List of Roman deities,Roman mythology,Religion in ancient Rome,andCapitoline Triad

4th-centuryRoman sarcophagusdepicting the creation of man byPrometheus,with major Roman deities Jupiter, Neptune, Mercury, Juno, Apollo, Vulcan watching

The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek.The more famed deities, found in the mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune, Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules.The non-Greek major deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most ancient).Some of the non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in theMinoanorancient Egyptiancivilization.

The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals, rituals and sacrifices led byflamines(priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in the votive rituals for deities.Deities were also maintained in home shrines (lararium), such as Hestia honored in homes as the goddess of fire hearth.This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other cultures.

Ancient Roman scholars such as Varro and Cicero wrote treatises on the nature of gods of their times.Varro stated, in hisAntiquitates Rerum Divinarum,that it is the superstitious man who fears the gods, while the truly religious person venerates them as parents.Cicero, in hisAcademica,praised Varro for this and other insights.According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers.The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.The Roman deities continued to be revered in Europe through the era of Constantine, and past 313 CE when he issued the Edict of Toleration.

Native American

Inca

Inti Raymi, a winter solstice festival of the Inca people, reveresInti,the sun deity—offerings include round bread and maize beer

Main articles:Inca mythology,Religion in the Inca Empire,andInca religion in Cusco

TheInca culturehas believed inViracocha(also calledPachacutec) as thecreator deity.Viracochahas been an abstract deity to Inca culture, one who existed before he created space and time.All other deities of the Inca people have corresponded to elements of nature.Of these, the most important ones have beenInti(sun deity) responsible for agricultural prosperity and as the father of the first Inca king, andMama Quchathe goddess of the sea, lakes, rivers and waters.Intiin some mythologies is the son ofViracochaandMama Qucha.

Inca Sun deity festival

Oh creator and Sun and Thunder,
be forever copious,
do not make us old,
let all things be at peace,
multiply the people,
and let there be food,
and let all things be fruitful.

—Inti Raymi prayers

Inca people have revered many male and female deities. Among the feminine deities have beenMama Kuka(goddess of joy),Mama Ch'aska(goddess of dawn),Mama Allpa(goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes calledMama PachaorPachamama),Mama Killa(moon goddess) andMama Sara(goddess of grain).During and after the imposition of Christianity duringSpanish colonialism,the Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities throughsyncretism,where they overlay the Christian God and teachings over their original beliefs and practices.The male deityIntibecame accepted as the Christian God, but the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been retained and continued thereafter into the modern era by the Inca people.

Maya and Aztec

Main articles:List of Maya gods and supernatural beings,Maya religion,List of Aztec gods and supernatural beings,andAztec mythology

InMaya culture,Kukulkanhas been the supremecreator deity,also revered as the god ofreincarnation,water, fertility and wind.The Maya people builtstep pyramid templesto honorKukulkan,aligning them to theSun's position on the springequinox.Other deities found at Maya archaeological sites includeXib Chac—the benevolent male rain deity, andIxchel—the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess.TheMaya calendarhad 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days ofUayeb); each month had a presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals.

Quetzalcoatl in theCodex Borgia

A deity with aspects similar toKulkulkanin the Aztec culture has been calledQuetzalcoatl.However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed byChristian missionaries.The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records.InAztec culture,there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheisticincarnationsof one another (similar to theavatarconcept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces.The Aztec deities were often represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines.

Polynesian

Deities of Polynesia carved from wood (bottom two are demons)

Main article:Polynesian narrative

ThePolynesian peopledeveloped a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of islands having different names for the same idea. There are great deities found across the Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island.

TheMāori people,of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being asIo,who is also referred elsewhere asIho-Iho,Io-Mataaho,Io Nui,Te Io Ora,Io Matua Te Koraamong other names.TheIodeity has been revered as the original uncreated creator, with power of life, with nothing outside or beyond him.Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon includeTangaloa(god who created men),La'a Maomao(god of winds),Tu-MatauengaorKu(god of war),Tu-Metua(mother goddess),Kane(god of procreation) andRangi(sky god father).

The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of creation, the nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of the dead.

Abrahamic

Christianity

Holy Trinity(1756–1758) bySzymon Czechowicz,showingGod the Father,God the Son,and theHoly Spirit,all of whom are revered in Christianity as a single deity

Main articles:God in Christianity,Trinity,God the Father,God the Son,Jesus in Christianity,Holy Spirit in Christianity,Names of God in Christianity,andChristian theology

Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and denominations accept the concept of the HolyTrinity.Modern orthodox Christians believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal,cosubstantialpersons:God the Father,God the Son,and theHoly Spirit.The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity ashomooúsios(ὁμοούσιος; "of the same substance" ) was theChurch FatherOrigen.Although most early Christian theologians (includingOrigen) wereSubordinationists,who believed that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit,this belief was condemned as heretical by theFirst Council of Nicaeain the fourth century, which declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal.Christians regard the universe as an element in God's actualizationand the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is "the unity and relation of theFatherand the Son ".According to George Hunsinger, the doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ is deemed to be a full deity with theChristian crossas his icon.

The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, theCouncil of Chalcedonin 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor confused".Jesus Christ, according to theNew Testament,is the self-disclosure of the one, true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the incarnation of God.

Islam

Main articles:Allah,Ilah,God in Islam,andNames of God in Islam

Ilah,ʾIlāh(Arabic:إله;plural:آلهةʾālihah), is anArabicword meaning "god".It appears in the name of the monotheistic god of Islam asAllah(al-Lāh).which literally means "the god" in Arabic.Islam is strictly monotheisticand the first statement of theshahada,or Muslim confession of faith, is that "there is noʾilāh(deity) but Allah (God) ",who is perfectly unified and utterly indivisible.

The termAllahis used by Muslims for God. ThePersianwordKhuda(Persian: خدا) can be translated as god, lord or king, and is also used today to refer toGod in IslambyPersian,Urdu,TatandKurdishspeakers. TheTurkicword for god isTengri;it exists asTanrıinTurkish.

Judaism

The tetragrammaton inPhoenician(12th century BCE to 150 BCE),Paleo-Hebrew(10th century BCE to 135 CE), and squareHebrew(3rd century BCE to present) scripts

Main articles:God in Judaism,Yahweh,Tetragrammaton,Elohim,andNames of God in Judaism

Judaism affirms the existence of one God (Yahweh, or YHWH), who is not abstract, but He who revealed himself throughout Jewish history particularly during the Exodus and the Exile.Judaism reflects a monotheism that gradually arose, was affirmed with certainty in the sixth century "Second Isaiah", and has ever since been the axiomatic basis of its theology.

The classical presentation of Judaism has been as a monotheistic faith that rejected deities and related idolatry.However, states Breslauer, modern scholarship suggests that idolatry was not absent in biblical faith, and it resurfaced multiple times in Jewish religious life.The rabbinic texts and other secondary Jewish literature suggest worship of material objects and natural phenomena through the medieval era, while the core teachings of Judaism maintained monotheism.

According to Aryeh Kaplan, God is always referred to as "He" in Judaism, "not to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God", but because "there is no neuter in the Hebrew language, and the Hebrew word for God is a masculine noun" as he "is an active rather than a passive creative force".

Mandaeism

Main article:Hayyi Rabbi

Further information:Mandaeism

InMandaeism,Hayyi Rabbi(lit=The Great Life), or 'The Great Living God',is the supreme God from which all thingsemanate.He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of the material world,Yushaminemanated from Hayyi Rabbi as the "Second Life.""The principles of the Mandaean doctrine: the belief of the only one great God, Hayyi Rabbi, to whom all absolute properties belong; He created all the worlds, formed the soul through his power, and placed it by means of angels into the human body. So He createdAdam and Eve,the first man and woman. "Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.

Asian

Anitism

Left:Bakunawadepicted in a Bisaya sword hilt; Right: Ifugao rice deity statues

Further information:Indigenous Philippine folk religions,Philippine mythology,andList of Philippine mythological figures

Anitism,composed of an array of indigenous religions from the Philippines, has multiple pantheons of deities. There are more than a hundred differentethnic groups in the Philippines,each having their own supreme deity or deities. Each supreme deity or deities normally rules over a pantheon of deities, contributing to the sheer diversity of deities in Anitism.The supreme deity or deities of ethnic groups are almost always the most notable.

For example,Bathalais the Tagalog supreme deity,Mangechay is the Kapampangan supreme deity,Malayariis the Sambal supreme deity,Melu is the Blaan supreme deity,Kaptan is the Bisaya supreme deity,and so on.

Buddhism

Left: Buddhist deity inSsangbongsain South Korea; Right: Chinese deity adopted into Buddhism

Further information:Creator in BuddhismandBuddhist deities

Although Buddhists do not believe in acreator deity,deities are an essential part of Buddhist teachings about cosmology,rebirth,andsaṃsāra.Buddhist deities (such asdevasandbodhisattvas) are believed to reside in a pleasant, heavenly realm withinBuddhist cosmology,which is typically subdivided into twenty six sub-realms.

Devas are numerous, but they are still mortal;they live in the heavenly realm, then die and are reborn like all other beings.A rebirth in the heavenly realm is believed to be the result of leading an ethical life and accumulating very goodkarma.Adevadoes not need to work, and is able to enjoy in the heavenly realm all pleasures found on Earth. However, the pleasures of this realm lead to attachment (upādāna), lack of spiritual pursuits, and therefore nonirvana.Nonetheless, according to Kevin Trainor, the vast majority of Buddhistlay peoplein countries practicingTheravadahave historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices because they are motivated by their potential rebirth into thedevarealm.Thedevarealm in Buddhist practice in Southeast Asia and East Asia, states Keown, include gods found in Hindu traditions such asIndraandBrahma,and concepts inHindu cosmologysuch asMount Meru.

MahayanaBuddhism also includes different kinds of deities, such as numerousBuddhas,bodhisattvasandfierce deities.

Hinduism

Left:Ganeshagod of new beginnings, remover of obstacle; Right:Saraswati,goddess of knowledge and music

Main articles:Hindu deities,Deva (Hinduism),Devi,God in Hinduism,Ishvara,andBhagavan

The concept of God varies inHinduism,it being a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanninghenotheism,monotheism,polytheism,panentheism,pantheismandmonismamong others.

In the ancientVedictexts of Hinduism, a deity is often referred to asDeva(god) orDevi(goddess).The root of these terms mean "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent isdevi.In the earliest Vedic literature, allsupernatural beingsare calledAsuras.Over time, those with a benevolent nature become deities and are referred to asSura,Deva or Devi.

Devas or deities in Hindu texts differ from Greek or Romantheodicy,states Ray Billington, because many Hindu traditions believe that a human being has the potential to be reborn as adeva(ordevi), by living an ethical life and building up saintlykarma.Such adevaenjoys heavenly bliss, till the merit runs out, and then thesoul(atma = gender female) is reborn again intoSaṃsāra.Thus deities are henotheistic manifestations, embodiments and consequence of the virtuous, the noble, the saint-like living in many Hindu traditions.

Shinto

Main article:Shinto

Shinto ispolytheistic,involving the veneration of many deities known askami,or sometimes asjingi.In Japanese, no distinction is made here between singular and plural, and hence the termkamirefers both to individualkamiand the collective group ofkami.Although lacking a direct English translation,the termkamihas sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit".The historian of religionJoseph Kitagawadeemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading",and various scholars urge against translatingkamiinto English.In Japanese, it is often said that there areeight millionkami,a term which connotes an infinite number,and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere.They are not regarded asomnipotent,omniscient,or necessarilyimmortal.

Taoism

Main article:Taoism

Taoism is polytheistic religion. The gods and immortals ( thần tiên ) believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian". "Gods" refers to deities and there are many kinds, that is,heaven gods/celestials ( thiên thần ), earth spirits ( mà chỉ ), wuling ( vật linh,animism,the spirit of all things ),netherworld gods ( địa phủ thần linh ),gods of human body ( nhân thể chi thần ),gods of human ghost ( người quỷ chi thần ) etc. Among these "gods" such as heaven gods/celestials ( thiên thần ),earth spirits ( mà chỉ ),netherworld gods ( âm phủ thần linh ),gods of human body ( nhân thể chi thần ) exist innately. "Xian" is acquired the cultivation of the Tao, persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.

Jainism

Padmavati, a Jain guardian deity

Main articles:God in JainismandDeva (Jainism)

Jainismdoes not believe in a creator, omnipotent, omniscient, eternal God; however, the cosmology of Jainism incorporates a meaningfulcausality-driven reality, including four realms of existence (gati), one of them beingdeva(celestial beings, gods).A human being can choose and live an ethical life, such as being non-violent (ahimsa) against all living beings, and thereby gain merit and be reborn asdeva.

Jain texts reject a trans-cosmic God, one who stands outside of the universe and lords over it, but they state that the world is full ofdevaswho are in human-image with sensory organs, with the power of reason, conscious, compassionate and with finite life.Jainism believes in the existence of thesoul(Self,atman) and considers it to have "god-quality", whose knowledge and liberation is the ultimate spiritual goal in both religions. Jains also believe that the spiritual nobleness of perfected souls (Jina) anddevasmake them worship-worthy beings, with powers of guardianship and guidance to betterkarma.In Jain temples or festivals, the Jinas and Devas are revered.

Zoroastrianism

Investiture of Sassanid emperorShapur II(center) withMithra(left) and Ahura Mazda (right) atTaq-e Bostan,Iran

Main article:Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda(/əˌhʊrəˌmæzdə/);is theAvestanname for the creator and sole God ofZoroastrianism.The literal meaning of the wordAhurais "mighty" or "lord" andMazdaiswisdom.Zoroaster,the founder of Zoroastrianism, taught that Ahura Mazda is the most powerful being in all of the existenceand the only deity who is worthy of the highest veneration.Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is not omnipotent because hisevil twinbrotherAngra Mainyuis nearly as powerful as him.Zoroaster taught that thedaevaswere evil spirits created by Angra Mainyu to sow evil in the worldand that all people must choose between the goodness of Ahura Mazda and the evil of Angra Mainyu.According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu and good will triumph over evil once and for all.Ahura Mazda was the most important deity in the ancientAchaemenid Empire.He was originally represented anthropomorphically,but, by the end of theSasanian Empire,Zoroastrianism had become fully aniconic.

Skeptical interpretations

The Greek philosopherDemocritusargued that belief in deities arose when humans observed natural phenomena such aslightningand attributed such phenomena to supernatural beings.

See also:Evolutionary origin of religions,Evolutionary psychology of religion,andNeurotheology

Attempts to rationally explain belief in deities extend all the way back to ancient Greece.The Greek philosopherDemocritusargued that the concept of deities arose when human beings observed natural phenomena such as lightning,solar eclipses,and the changing of the seasons.Later, in the third century BCE, the scholarEuhemerusargued in his bookSacred Historythat the gods were originally flesh-and-blood mortal kings who wereposthumously deified,and that religion was therefore the continuation of these kings' mortal reigns, a view now known asEuhemerism.Sigmund Freudsuggested that God concepts are a projection of one's father.

A tendency to believe in deities and other supernatural beings may be an integral part of the human consciousness.Children are naturally inclined to believe in supernatural entities such as gods, spirits, and demons, even without being introduced into a particular religious tradition.Humans have an overactive agency detection system,which has a tendency to conclude that events are caused by intelligent entities, even if they really are not.This is a system which may have evolved to cope with threats to the survival of human ancestors:in the wild, a person who perceived intelligent and potentially dangerous beings everywhere was more likely to survive than a person who failed to perceive actual threats, such as wild animals or human enemies.Humans are also inclined to think teleologically and ascribe meaning and significance to their surroundings, a trait which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity.This may have developed as a side effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people are thinking.

Stories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact, animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses that remember what happened in them, etc.).As belief in deities spread, humans may have attributed anthropomorphic thought processes to them,leading to the idea of leaving offerings to the gods and praying to them for assistance,ideas which are seen in all cultures around the world.

Sociologists of religionhave proposed that the personality and characteristics of deities may reflect a culture's sense of self-esteem and that a culture projects its revered values into deities and in spiritual terms. The cherished, desired or sought human personality is congruent with the personality it defines to be gods.Lonely and fearful societies tend to invent wrathful, violent, submission-seeking deities, while happier and secure societies tend to invent loving, non-violent, compassionate deities.Émile Durkheimstates that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. According to Matt Rossano, God concepts may be a means of enforcingmoralityand building more cooperative community groups.

See also

• Aeon (Gnosticism)
• Apotheosis
• Deicide
• Existence of God
• Hero cult
• Imperial cult
• List of deities
• List of deities in fiction
• Odinism
• Third man factor

Sources

• Bocking, Brian (1997).A Popular Dictionary of Shinto(revised ed.). Richmond: Curzon.ISBN978-0-7007-1051-5.
• Boyd, James W.; Williams, Ron G. (2005). "Japanese Shinto: An Interpretation of a Priestly Perspective".Philosophy East and West.55(1): 33–63.doi:10.1353/pew.2004.0039.S2CID144550475.
• Cali, Joseph; Dougill, John (2013).Shinto Shrines: A Guide to the Sacred Sites of Japan's Ancient Religion.Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.ISBN978-0-8248-3713-6.
• Earhart, H. Byron (2004).Japanese Religion: Unity and Diversity(fourth ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.ISBN978-0-534-17694-5.
• Hardacre, Helen (2017).Shinto: A History.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-062171-1.
• Kitagawa, Joseph M.(1987).On Understanding Japanese Religion.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-10229-0.
• Littleton, C. Scott(2002).Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places.Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-521886-2.OCLC49664424.
• Nelson, John K. (1996).A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine.Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.ISBN978-0-295-97500-9.
• Offner, Clark B. (1979). "Shinto". In Norman Anderson (ed.).The World's Religions(fourth ed.). Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 191–218.

Further reading

• Baines, John(2001).Fecundity Figures: Egyptian Personification and the Iconology of a Genre(Reprint ed.). Oxford: Griffith Institute.ISBN978-0-900416-78-1.