Wikipedia

Demon

For other uses, seeDemon (disambiguation).Not to be confused withDaimon.
"Evil spirit" and "Evil spirits" redirect here. For the film, seeEvil Spirit(film).For the album, seeEvil Spirits(album).

Ademonis a malevolentsupernaturalentity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs infolklore,mythology,religion,andliterature;these beliefs are reflected inmediaincludingcomics,fiction,film,television,andvideo games.Belief in demons probably goes back to thePaleolithic age,stemming from humanity's fear of the unknown, the strange and the horrific.[1]Inancient Near Eastern religionsand in theAbrahamic religions,includingearly Judaism[2]and ancient-medievalChristian demonology,a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity that may causedemonic possession,calling for anexorcism.Large portions ofJewish demonology,a key influence onChristianityandIslam,originated from a later form ofZoroastrianism,and was transferred to Judaism during thePersian era.[3]

Bronze statuette of theAssyro-Babyloniandemon kingPazuzu,c. 800–700 BCE,Louvre

Demons may or may not also be considered to be devils: minions ofthe Devil.[1]In many traditions, demons are independent operators, with different demons causing different types of evils (destructive natural phenomena, specific diseases, etc.). In religions featuring a principal Devil (e.g. Satan) locked in an eternal struggle with God, demons are often also thought to be subordinates of the principal Devil. As lesserspiritsdoing the Devil's work, they have additional duties— causing humans to havesinfulthoughts and tempting humans to commit sinful actions.[4]

The originalAncient Greekworddaimōn(δαίμων) did not carry negative connotations, as it denotes a spirit or divine power.[5]The Greek conception of adaimōnnotably appears in the philosophical works ofPlato,where it describes the divine inspiration ofSocrates.In Christianity, morally ambivalentdaimōnwere replaced by demons, forces of evil only striving for corruption.[6]Such demons are not the Greek intermediary spirits, but hostile entities, already known in Iranian beliefs.[7]InWestern esotericismandRenaissance magic,which grew out of an amalgamation ofGreco-Roman magic,JewishAggadah,and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may beconjuredand controlled.

Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions andocculttraditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In contemporaryWestern esoterictraditions, demons may be used as metaphors for inner psychological processes ( "inner demons" ).

Etymology

Further information:Daemon (classical mythology),Agathodaemon,Cacodemon,Daimonic,andEudaimonia
Mephistopheles(amedievaldemon fromGerman folklore) flying overWittenberg,in alithographbyEugène Delacroix.

TheAncient Greekwordδαίμων(daimōn) denotes a spirit or divine power, much like theLatingeniusornumen.Daimōnmost likely came from the Greek verbdaiesthai( "to divide" or "distribute" ).[8]The Greek conception of adaimōnnotably appears in the philosophical works ofPlato,where it describes the divine inspiration ofSocrates.The original Greek worddaimōndoes not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of theKoineδαιμόνιον(daimonion),[5]and later ascribed to any cognate words sharing the root.

The Greek terms do not have any connotations of evil or malevolence. In fact,εὐδαιμονία(eudaimonia,which literally translates as "good-spiritedness" ) meanshappiness.By the early centuries of theRoman Empire,cult statueswere seen, byPagansand their Christian neighbors alike, as inhabited by the numinous presence of theGreco-Roman gods:"Like pagans, Christians still sensed and saw the gods and their power, and as something, they had to assume, lay behind it, by an easy traditional shift of opinion they turned these pagandaimonesinto malevolent 'demons', the troupe ofSatan.Far into theByzantine period,Christians eyed their cities' old pagan statuary as a seat of the demons' presence. It was no longer beautiful, it was infested. "[9]The term had first acquired its negative connotations in theSeptuaginttranslation of theHebrew Bibleinto Greek, which drew on the mythology ofancient Semitic religions.This was then inherited by the Koine text of theNew Testament.

The English use ofdemonas synonym for devils goes back at least as far as about 825. The German word (Dämon), however, is different from devil (Teufel) and demons as evil spirits, and akin to the original meaning ofdaimon.[10]The WesternModern eraconception of ademon,as in theArs Goetia,derives seamlessly from the ambientpopular cultureofLate Antiquity.

Ancient Egypt

Ram-headed demon. The hands probably outstretch to hold two snakes. From a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt. End of the 18th Dynasty, around 1325 BCE

The exact definition of "demon" inEgyptologyposed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancientEgyptian languagelacks a term for the modern English "demon".[11][12]Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans.[13]By that, they share some resemblance to the Greek daimon. However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink.[12]Demons in this culture appeared to be subordinative and related to a specific deity, yet they may have occasionally acted independently of the divine will. The existence of demons can be related to the realm of chaos, beyond the created world.[11]But even this negative connotation cannot be denied in light of the magical texts. The role of demons in relation to the human world remains ambivalent and largely depends on context.

Ancient Egyptian demons can be divided into two classes: "guardians" and "wanderers".[13][14]"Guardians" are tied to a specific place; their demonic activity is topographically defined and their function can be benevolent towards those who have the secret knowledge to face them.[15]Demons protecting the underworld may prevent human souls from entering paradise. Only by knowing the right charms is the deceased able to enter theHalls of Osiris.[16]Here, the aggressive nature of the guardian demons is motivated by the need to protect their abodes and not by their evil essence. Accordingly, demons guarded sacred places or the gates to the netherworld. During thePtolemaicandRoman period,the guardians shifted towards the role ofgenius lociand they were the focus of local and private cults.

The "wanderers" are associated with possession, mental illness, death and plagues. Many of them serve as executioners for the major deities, such asRaorOsiris,when ordered to punish humans on earth or in the netherworld.[15]Wanderers can also be agents of chaos, arising from the world beyond creation to bring about misfortune and suffering without any divine instructions, led only by evil motivations. The influences of the wanderers can be warded off and kept at the borders of the human world by the use of magic, but they can never be destroyed. A sub-category of "wanderers" are nightmare demons, which were believed to cause nightmares by entering a human body.[11]

China

Main articles:Mara (demon),Yaoguai,andZhiguai xiaoshuo

See also:List of supernatural beings in Chinese folklore

Carving of a yaksha ( dạ xoa )

Chinese folktale, legend and literature are replete with malevolent supernatural creatures who are often rendered "demons" in English translations. These include categories of beings such as the yaoYêu- shapeshifters with the power to cause insanity, to inflict poison, and to bring about disease, and the mo ma - derived from Indian mythology and entering through the influence of Buddhism. In folk belief, these beings are responsible for misfortune, insanity, and illness, and any number of strange phenomena that could not easily be accounted for. Epilepsy and stroke, which led to either temporary or permanent contortions, were generally seen as the results of demonic possession and attacks ( trúng tà ).

In the imperial era, anxiety over unexplained serial murders, missing persons, accidents or diseases sometimes led to instances of mass panic requiring imperial intervention. Exorcism was a court function during the Zhou dynasty, led by ritual specialists known asfangshi.In later dynaties, roving Taoist sorcerers, Buddhist monks, as well as eccentric folk magicians, plied their services in warding off, exorcising, countering or defeating these demons through the use of amulets, charms, spells, and chants.

In mainland China, belief in demons is very rare. Today, these beings appear primarily as antagonists in the fantasy genre, and especially in entertainment aimed at children and young adults.

In folklore

Belief in wilderness demons[17]haunted China from the very earliest periods and persisted throughout the late imperial era. In the Xia dynasty, nine bronze cauldrons with their forms were cast to help the common people to identify and to avoid them.[18]Classical texts in the Zhou and Warring-States period distinguish between the demons of mountains and forests (the seductiveChimeiYêu quái ),[19]demons of trees and rocks (a necrophagous fever-demon, theWangliangQuỷ quái ),[19]subterranean demons of the earth and of decay (the goat-like and necrophagous Fenyang mồ dương (lit. "grave-goat" ),[20]who caused disease and miscarriage) and fever demons born from water (Wangxiang võng tượng,a child-like being with red eyes).[21]These demons were said to be born of aberrant qi (breath or energy), known to accost and kill travellers, and held responsible for sickness. People also feared the Muling mộc linh lit. "tree spirit" (also muzhong mộc sưng lit. "tree swelling" ) - demons forming over time in trees of immense age, capable of inflicting disease and killing human passers-by and birds flying overhead. Examples include thepenghouBành hầu (lit. "drumbeat marquis" ), a demon associated with camphor trees in mountain forests, and which takes the form of a human-headed dog, and in the southern provinces, the banana-leaf spirits.

From the Tang dynasty onwards, belief in shapeshifting foxes, tigers and wolves, amongst other creatures, also featured in Chinese folk belief, partly due to the existence of outlawed fox-spirit cults. Fox Demons ( hồ yêu )[22]are described as cunning and lustful, capable of clairvoyance, and of inflicting disease and poisoning at will. They are sometimes seen as beings requiring worship to be appeased or placated. Tiger Demons ( hổ yêu )[23]and Wolf Demons ( lang yêu )[24]are ravening beings roaming large territories for prey, taking the form of humans to conveniently insert themselves into communities and settlements. Tiger demons are described as being enslave the souls of humans they have killed, turning them into minions. In the superstitious climate of the previous centuries, people mistaken as tigers and wolves in human disguise were often put to death or starved in their cells by magistrates.

Fish ( cá yêu ) and snake demons ( xà yêu )[25]are said to have attempted to assault Confucius. Even insects are capable of being demonic. In one tale, the sighting of a Centipede Demon ( con rết yêu ) in the form of an old woman without eyes is said to have led to the sickness and death of an entire household.

One notable demon not in the above categories includes the Heisheng or Heiqi hắc khí ( "Black Calamity" or "Black Air" ), a kind of roving vapour demon that inflicts damage to persons and property wherever it roams, sometimes killing where it goes. Another are undefined Poltergeists, sometimes afflicting monasteries, causing serious nuisances, and unable to be exorcised.

In religion

Demons in the religious sense are known as Mo ( ma ) and are generally derived from Indian lore through Buddhism. These include the man-eating, night-flying luocha la sát (raksasha) and the yecha dạ xoa (yaksha). These have also entered Chinese folk religion and Taoism. Another closely related term, highlighting their spiritual deviance and moral corruption, is Xie ( tà ).

In literature

Aside from recurring in Chinese superstition of the imperial era, they also appear as antagonists, and sometimes protagonists, in multiple genres of Chinese literature. These include mythic literature (Shen Mo Xiaoshuo (lit. "Gods and demons novels")), in records about paranormal or occult activity (Zhi Guai ( "lit. Records of the Strange" )), and in tales about cultivators of supernatural power and immortality (Xian Xia (lit. "Immortal Hero" )) fiction. These demons are often examples or close variants of the type and kind that exist in folk belief. They also appear in entertainment designed for children and young adults, especially in comics (manhua), cartoons (anime), and computer games.

Disambiguation

The termsYao ( yêu ),Mo ( ma ), Gui ( quỷ ), Guai ( quái ) and Xie ( tà ) are their various two-character combinations often used to refer to these creatures, but of these terms, only Mo ( ma ) denotes demons in the religious sense.

China has two classes of beings that might be regarded as demons, and which are generally translated as such:

  • Yao ( yêu )[26][27][28][29]- a kind of uncanny supernatural creature, usually with the power to shapeshift, to poison or to cause disease, and to bewilder or enthrall. They are associated with sorcery or sorcery-like powers. They are not always evil in the sense that Western demons or the Chinesemo( ma ) are but are represented as having malevolent tendencies and as creatures of ill-omen. They are often invoked as an explanation for strange events, bizarre occurrences, mysterious diseases and horrible accidents. They resemble theunseelie faeof Celtic legend and folklore in their powers and predisposition - and are sometimes translated as "faeries" or "daemons" rather than "demons".
  • Mo ( ma )[28]- derived from the "Mara" of Buddhism and are almost always evil. This kind of being is morally corrupted and rebels against the moral law and heavenly principle. Taoist cultivators, fallen Buddhist monks, gods and mortals who have succumbed to an evil inclination are said to have become demonic or become diabolical - "ru mo". ( nhập ma ). As such it is often a condition and a state, rather than always being directly the result of a certain innate heritage. Furthermore, certain beings derived directly from Indian mythology, such as the "luocha" ( "La sát" or raksasha) and "yecha" ( "Dạ xoa" or yaksha), however are classed as being innately demonic ( ma ) types by heritage but are nevertheless represented as being capable of repentance or turning to good.

Both the indigenousYao ( yêu )and the Indian-influenced Mo ( ma ) feature prominently in Chinese legends and folktales about the supernatural and the uncanny, and these days are staples of popular culture and fantasy fiction in games, movies and books.

Mesopotamia

Further information:Ancient Mesopotamian underworld § Demons
Ancient Sumeriancylinder sealimpression showing the godDumuzidbeing tortured in theUnderworldbygallademons

The ancient Mesopotamians believed that theunderworldwas home to many demons,[30]which are sometimes referred to as "offspring ofarali".[30]These demons could sometimes leave the underworld and terrorize mortals on earth.[30]One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known asgalla;[31]their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur.[31]They are frequently referenced in magical texts,[32]and some texts describe them as being seven in number.[32]Several extant poems describe thegalladragging the godDumuzidinto the underworld.[33]Like other demons, however,gallacould also be benevolent[33]and, in a hymn from KingGudeaofLagash(c.2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the greatgallaofGirsu".[33]

Lamashtuwas a demonic goddess with the "head of a lion, the teeth of a donkey, naked breasts, a hairy body, hands stained (with blood?), long fingers and fingernails, and the feet ofAnzû".[34]She was believed to feed on the blood of human infants[34]and was widely blamed as the cause ofmiscarriagesandcot deaths.[34]Although Lamashtu has traditionally been identified as a demoness,[35]the fact that she could cause evil on her own without the permission of other deities strongly indicates that she was seen as a goddess in her own right.[34]Mesopotamian peoples protected against her usingamuletsandtalismans.[34]She was believed to ride in her boat on the river of the underworld[34]and she was associated with donkeys.[34]She was believed to be the daughter ofAn.[34]

Pazuzuis a demonic god who was well known to the Babylonians and Assyrians throughout the first millennium BCE.[36]He is shown with "a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings".[36]He was believed to be the son of the godHanbi.[37]He was usually regarded as evil,[36]but he could also sometimes be a beneficent entity who protected against winds bearing pestilence[36]and he was thought to be able to force Lamashtu back to the underworld.[38]Amulets bearing his image were positioned in dwellings to protect infants from Lamashtu[37]and pregnant women frequently wore amulets with his head on them as protection from her.[37]

Šul-pa-e's name means "youthful brilliance", but he was not envisioned as youthful god.[39]According to one tradition, he was the consort of Ninhursag, a tradition which contradicts the usual portrayal of Enki as Ninhursag's consort.[39][40]In one Sumerian poem, offerings made to Šhul-pa-e in the underworld and, in later mythology, he was one of the demons of the underworld.[39]

According toThe Jewish Encyclopedia,originally published in 12 volumes from 1901 to 1906, "InChaldeanmythology the seven evil deities were known asshedu,storm-demons, represented in ox-like form. "[41]They were represented aswinged bulls,derived from the colossal bulls used as protectivejinnof royal palaces.[citation needed]

Judaism

See also:DybbukandSamael

There are differing opinions in Judaism about the existence or non-existence of demons (shedimorse'irim).[41]Some Rabbinic scholars assert that demons have existed in Talmudic times, but do not exist regularly in present. When prophecy,divine presence,anddivine inspirationgradually decreased, the demonic powers of impurity have become correspondingly weak, too.[42]

Hebrew Bible

TheHebrew Biblementions two classes of demonic spirits, these'irimand theshedim.The wordshedim(singshedorsheyd) appears in two places in the Hebrew Bible.[43]These'irim(sing.sa'ir,"male goat" ) are mentioned once inLeviticus 17:7,[41]probably a recollection ofAssyriandemons in the shape of goats.[44]They might be a metaphorical symbol for life-threatening animals, such ashyenas,ostrichs,andjackals.[45]Theshedim,however, are not pagan demigods, but the foreign gods themselves. Both entities appear in a scriptural context ofanimalorchild sacrificeto non-existentfalse gods.[41][46]

Various diseases and ailments were ascribed to demons, particularly those affecting the brain and those of internal nature. Examples includecatalepsy,headache,epilepsyand nightmares. There also existed a demon of blindness, "Shabriri" (lit. "dazzling glare" ) who rested on uncovered water at night and blinded those who drank from it.[47]

Demons supposedly entered the body and caused the disease while overwhelming or "seizing" the victim. To cure such diseases, it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, at which theEssenesexcelled.[41]Josephus,who spoke of demons as "spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them", but which could be driven out by a certainroot,[48]witnessed such a performance in the presence of the EmperorVespasian[49]and ascribed its origin toKing Solomon.In mythology, there were few defences againstBabylonian demons.The mythicalmaceSharurhad the power to slay demons such asAsag,a legendarygalluoredimmuof hideous strength.

Talmudic tradition and Midrashim

Further information:Midrash

In theJerusalem Talmud,notions ofshedim( "demons" or "spirits" ) are almost unknown or occur only very rarely, whereas in theBabylonian Talmudthere are many references toshedimand magical incantations. The existence ofshedimin general was not questioned by most of the BabylonianTalmudists.As a consequence of the rise of influence of the Babylonian Talmud over that of the Jerusalem Talmud, late rabbis, in general, took as fact the existence ofshedim,nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality.[50]However, rationalists likeMaimonidesandSaadia Gaonand others explicitly denied their existence, and completely rejected concepts of demons, evil spirits, negative spiritual influences, attaching and possessing spirits. They thought the essential teaching aboutshedimand similar spirits is, that they should not be an object of worship, not a reality to be acknowledged or feared.[51]Their point of view eventually became mainstream Jewish understanding.[41]

The opinion of some authors is not clear.Abraham ibn Ezrastates that insane people can see the image ofse'irim,when they go astray and ascribe to them powers independent from God. It is not clear from his work, if he considered these images ofse'irimas manifestations of actual spirits or merely delusions.[citation needed]Despite academic consensus,Rabbisdisputed that Maimonides denied the existence of demons entirely. He would only dispute the existence of demons in his own life time, but not that demons had existed once.[52]

Occasionally anangelis calledsatanin the Babylon Talmud. Butsatansdo not refer to demons as they remain at the service of God: "Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns".[53]

Aggadictales from the Persian tradition describe theshedim,themazziḳim( "harmers" ), and theruḥin( "spirits" ). There were alsolilin( "night spirits" ),ṭelane( "shade", or "evening spirits" ),ṭiharire( "midday spirits" ), andẓafrire( "morning spirits" ), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake".[54][41]According to someaggadicstories, demons were under the dominion of a king or chief, usuallyAsmodai.[55]

Kabbalah

InKabbalah,demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth).[56]After they are created, they assume an existence on their own. Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation.[57]Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons aspunishing angels of destruction.They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently.[58]

Other demonic entities, such as theshedim,might be considered benevolent. TheZoharclassifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals.[59]

Second Temple Judaism

See also:Apotropaic magic

The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from theWatchersorNephilim,who are first mentioned inGenesis 6and are the focus of1 EnochChapters 1–16, and also inJubilees10. The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of theFlood.[60]In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men.Ethiopic Enochrefers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans. According to theBook of Enoch,sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants. The Book of Enoch shows that thesefallen angelscan lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge. Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth.Dale Martindisagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct. The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves.[61]The spirits are stated in Enoch to "corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow".[62][63]

The Book of Jubilees conveys that sin occurs whenCainanaccidentally transcribes astrological knowledge used by the Watchers.[64]This differs from Enoch in that it does not place blame on the angels. However, in Jubilees 10:4 the evil spirits of the Watchers are discussed as evil and still remain on Earth to corrupt humans. God binds only 90% of the Watchers and destroys them, leaving 10% to be ruled byMastema.Because the evil in humans is great, only 10% would be needed to corrupt and lead humans astray. These spirits of the giants are also referred to as "the bastards" in the apotropaic prayerSongs of the Sage,which lists the names of demons the narrator hopes to expel.[65]

To theQumrancommunity during theSecond Temple period,this apotropaic prayer was assigned, stating: "And, I the Sage, declare the grandeur of his radiance in order to frighten and terri[fy] all the spirits of the ravaging angels and the bastard spirits, demons, Liliths, owls" (Dead Sea Scrolls,"Songs of the Sage", Lines 4–5).[66][67]

Indian religions

Hinduism

See also:SurapadmanandNarakasura
The Army of Super Creatures – from The Saugandhika Parinaya Manuscript (1821 CE)

In theVeda,gods (deva) and anti-gods (asura) both share the upper world. It is only by the time of theBrahmanasthat they are said to inhabit the underworld. The identification ofasurawithdemonsstems from the description of asura as "formerly gods" (pūrvadeva). The gods are said to have claimed heaven for themselves and tricked the demons, ending on earth. During the Vedic period, gods aid humans against demons. By that, gods secure their own place in heaven, using humans as tools to defeat their cosmic enemies.[68]

Asura,in the earliest hymns of theRigveda,originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad. Since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the wordasura,representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old PersianAhura.Ancient Hinduism tells thatDevas(also calledsuras) andAsurasare half-brothers, sons of the same fatherKashyapa;although some of the Devas, such asVaruna,are also called Asuras. Later, duringPuranicage,AsuraandRakshasacame to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings.Daitya(lit. sons of the mother "Diti"),Danava(lit. sons of the mother "Danu"),Maya Danava,Rakshasa(lit. from "harm to be guarded against" ), and asura are incorrectly translated into English as "demon".[69]

With increase inasceticismduring the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods.[68]Ascetic humans or ascetic demons were supposed to be more powerful than gods. Pious, highly enlightened Asuras and Rakshasas, such asPrahladaandVibhishana,are not uncommon. The Asura are not fundamentally against the gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall. Many people metaphorically interpret the Asura as manifestations of the ignoble passions in the human mind and as symbolic devices. There were also cases of power-hungry asuras challenging various aspects of the gods, but only to be defeated eventually and seek forgiveness.

Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one'skarma.Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by theYamaand are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits (VetalasandPishachas) are recognized in the later Hindu texts. According to Hinduism, demons are not inherently evil beings, but good by following theirdharmawhat is being evil and deceitful. However, nothing is purely evil or good, and a demon could eventually abandon his demonic nature.

Buddhism

Further information:Mara (demon)

Belief in demons does not constitute an essential feature in Buddhism. However, since belief in demons were common during the rise of Buddhism, they are integrated into thecycle of Saṃsāra.[1]Accordingly, their malevolent condition is due to their badkarmafrom their previous lives. When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons.[1]

Iranian demons

Zoroastrianism

Div-e Sepid,literally "white demon", the chieftain of demons from the epic Shahnameh
Arzhang Div(The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)
Black Div (The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)
Rostam carried byAkvan Div(cropped)
Main article:Daeva

TheZorastrian beliefin demons (Daeva,laterdiv)[70]had strong influence on theAbrahamic religions,especiallyChristianityandIslam. Inhell,demons continue to torment the damned.[71]

Book 3 of the Denkarddescribes demons as the opposite of the creative power of God. As such, they cannot create, but only corrupt, and thus, evil is merely the corruption of the good. Since demons can only destroy, they will ultimately destroy themselves. Chapter 30 questions the reality of demons, since their existence seem to rely on their destruction of good. Therefore, Ahriman and his demons would miss any substance and exist only as absence of good.[70]

Manichaeism

Manichaeismwas a major religion[72]founded in the third century AD by theParthian[73]prophetMani(c. 216–274 AD), in theSasanian Empire.[74]One of its key concepts is the doctrine ofTwo Principles and Three Moments.Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of theworld of darknesson the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever.[75]Thus, evil and demons played a significant role within Manichaean teachings.

There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology.[76]The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness isdyw(dev).[76]Before the demons attacked the realm of light, they have been in constant battle and intercourse against each other.[76]It is only in the realm of darkness demons are described in their physical form. After their assault on the world above, they have been overcome by the Living Spirit, and imprisoned in the structure of the world.[76]From that point onwards, they impact human's ethical life, and appear as personified ethical qualities, mostly greed, envy, grief, and wrath (desire for destruction).[76]

Ibn al-Jawzi,in his workTalbīs Iblīs(devils' delusion), credits the Manichaeans with believing that eachLightandDarkness(God and the Devil) consist of four bodies and one spirit. The bodies ofLight(God) were referred to asangels,while the bodies ofDarkness(Devil) were referred to asifrits.LightandDarknesswould multiple by angels and demons respectively.[77]

InThe Book of Giants,one ofthe canonical seven treatisesalso known from Jewishintertestamental literature,theGrigori(egrēgoroi) beget giant half-demon offspring with human woman. In the Middle Persian version of theBook of Giantsthey are referred to askʾw,while in theCopticKephalaiaasgigas.[76]In accordance with some interpretations ofGenesis 6:1–4,[78]the giant offspring became the ancient tyrannic rulers over mankind, until overthrown by theangels of punishment.Nonetheless, these demons are still active in themicrocosm,such asĀzandĀwarzōg.[76]Views on stars (abāxtarān) are mixed. On one hand, they are regarded as light particles of the world soul fixed in the sky. On the other hand, stars are identified with powers hindering the soul from leaving the material world.[76]TheThird Messenger(Jesus) is said to have chained up demons in the sky. Their offspring, thenephilim(nĕf īlīm) orasrestar(āsarēštārān),AšqalūnandNebrō’ēlin particular, play instrumental roles in the creation of Adam and Eve.[76]According to Manichaeism, the watchers, known as angels in Jewish lore, are not considered angels, but demons.[76]

In theShahnameh

Gate of Citadel of semnan 9.Rustamslaying the Div-e Sepid (White Div)

The poem begins with the kings of thePishdadian dynasty.They defeat and subjugate the demonic divs.Tahmurascommanded the divs and became known asdīvband(binder of demons).Jamshid,the fourth king of the world, ruled over both angels and divs, and served as a high priest of Ahura Mazda (Hormozd). Like his father, he slayed many divs, however, spared some under the condition they teach him new valuable arts, such as writing in different languages.[79]After a just reign over hundreds of years, Jamshid grew haughty and claimed, because of his wealth and power, divinity for himself. Whereupon God withdraws his blessings from him, and his people get unsatisfied with their king. With the ceasing influence of God, the devil gains power and aids Zahhak to usurp the throne.[79]Jamshid dies sawn in two by two demons. Tricked by Ahriman (or Iblis), Zahhak grew two snakes on his shoulders and becomes the demonic serpent-king.[80]The KingKay Kāvusfails to conquer the legendary Mazandaran, the land of divs and gets captured.[81]To save his king, Rustam takes a journey and fights throughseven trials.Divs are among the common enemies Rustam faces, the last one the Div-e Sepid, the demonic king of Mazandaran.

The div in the Shahnameh might include both demonic supernatural beings as well as evil humans.[82]

Rustam's battle against the demonic may also have a symbolic meaning: Rustam represents wisdom and rationality, fights the demon, embodiment of passion and instinct.[83]: 115 Rustam's victory over the White Div is also a triumph over men's lower drives, and killing the demon is a way to purge the human soul from such evil inclinations. The killing of the White Div is an inevitable act to restore the human king's eyesight.[83]: 115 Eliminating the divs is an act of self-preservation to safeguard the good in oneself's, and the part acceptable in a regulated society.[83]: 115 

Native North American demons

Wendigo

Main articles:WendigoandWechuge

TheAlgonquianpeople traditionally believe in a spirit called awendigo.The spirit is believed to possess people who then becomecannibals.InAthabaskanfolklore, there is a belief inwechuge,a similar cannibal spirit.

Middle Eastern and Central Asian demons

Alislaying demons with his swordZulfiqarin a Persian manuscript. As evident from the poetry of Sanā'ī Ghaznavī, the sword is believed to be made from fire (آتش), able to kill not only a body but also a soul.[84]

Ideas of demons (often calledDīv/Dēw) inArmenia,Turkic countries,[85]andAlbania[86]derive fromPersian imagery.[87]At this time, the demons are more anthropomorphized and morally complex than their original Persian counterparts (daeva).[88](p 37)However, a general negative association remains during the Islamic period.[89]

Common features of these Middle Eastern demons are their immortality and pernicious nature, they can turn invisible, and can be enslaved when pierced by a silver needle.[90]Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded.[91]Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring.[92]Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence.[93]In some tales, supernatural powers are attributed to them, such as causing sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone.[94]

Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, thebasmalah( "invocation of the name of Allah" ) is used to ward off demons,[95]while among Armenians, the symbol of the cross is utilized.[90]

The origin of the demons is explained byAbu Ali Bal'ami's interpretation ofTarikh al-Tabarias the possibly first creation ofGod(Allah). The demons would have reigned for 70,000 years until they have been replaced by the jinn (peri). Only then, 5000 years later, the angels (firis̲h̲ta) were sent withIblisas their leader to chase them away and the story ofAdambegins.[88]: 40 According to theSüleymanname,written during the time ofSuleiman the Magnificent,demons were created in the time between theparīand the angels from the fires of the stars and smoke.[96]Due to theIslamicbelief-system prevailing in Middle Eastern and Central Asian culture at the time, authors emphasized that demons only exist by God's will and not as an independent or even accidental part of the world.[97]Muslim authors sometimes identified the demons with the devils andifritsof Islamic tradition, as the Quran asserts that it is God who controls both the angels and devils.[98](p452)

Christianity

Old Testament

The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent.[99][100]: 447 Though there are evil spirits sent byYHWH,they can hardly be calleddemons,since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity.[100]: 448 First then theHebrew Bible was translated into Greek,the "gods of other nations" were merged into a single category of demons (daimones) with implied negativity.[101]

The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses andfortune-telling.The Jewish translators rendered them all as demons, depicting their power as nullified comparable to the description of shedim in theTanakh.Although all these supernatural powers were translated, none were angels, despite sharing a similar function to that of the Greek Daimon. This established a dualism between the angels on God's side and negatively evaluated demons of pagan origin.[102]Their relationship to the God-head became the main difference between angels and demons, not their degree of benevolence. Both angels and demons might be fierce and terrifying. However, the angels act always at service of the high god of the Israelites, differing from the pagan demons, who represent the powers of foreign deities.[103]The Septuagint refers to evil spirits as demons (daimon).[citation needed]

New Testament

Medieval illuminationfrom the Ottheinrich Folio depicting theexorcism of the Gerasene demoniacby Jesus

Through the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, and 46 times in reference todemonic possessionorexorcisms.[104]Some old English Bible translations such asKing James Versiondo not have the word 'demon' in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries ofJesus,demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; causes of misery, suffering, and death.[104]They are not tempters, but the cause of pain, suffering, and maladies, both physical and mental. Temptation is reserved for the devil only.[105]Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits who must be sacrificed for the appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity, contrary to some pagan depictions ofspirit possession.They are explicitly said to be ruled by the Devil orBeelzebub.[106]Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, likeIrenaeus,Justin Martyr,Clement of Alexandria,andLactantiusassumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings.[107]Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons.[108]Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies.[109]

Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books

A demon fromThe Ladder of Divine Ascent,written in Georgian byNikrai.
Main articles:PseudepigraphaandDeuterocanonical books
See also:Book of Tobit,Book of Enoch,andBook of Jubilees

Demons are included in biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (Exodus 12:21–29). In theBook of Jubilees,which is considered canonical only by theEthiopian Orthodox Church,[110]this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4)

In theGenesis flood narrative,the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (Genesis 6:12). In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence ofMastema.In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job".[111]In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits.

In theTestament of Solomon,written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demonAsmodeusexplains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants".Beelzeboul,the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods.[108]

Christian demonology

Main articles:Christian demonology,Exorcism in Christianity,Exorcism in the Catholic Church,andDemonic possession § Christianity
The Torment of Saint Anthony(1488) byMichelangelo,depictingSaint Anthonybeing assailed by demons
Death and the Miser(detail), aHieronymus Boschpainting,National Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C.
Painting ofSaint Francis Borgiaperforming anexorcism,as depicted byGoya

SinceEarly Christianity,demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures.[112]Christian demonology is studied in depth within theRoman Catholic Church,[113]although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons.[114][115]

Building upon the few references todaimonin the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers ofapocryphafrom the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture.

While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent,Origenargued againstCelsusthat daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up asfallen angelsand thus equal to demons.[116]

Manyascetics,like Origen andAnthony the Great,described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil,[117]in contrast to benevolent angels advising good. According toLife of Anthony,written in Greek around 360 byAthanasius of Alexandria,most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations, and temptations. But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threaten him even more intensely.[118]

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagitedescribedevilas "defiancy" and does not giveevilan ontological existence. He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void"and the unreal, away from God.[10]

Michael Psellosproposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" (phantastikos) to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into:

  • Leliouria:The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon
  • Aeria:Demons of the air below the moon
  • Chthonia:Inhabiting the land
  • Hyraia/Enalia:Dwelling in the water
  • Bypochtbonia:They live beneath the earth
  • Misophaes:The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell

Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology.[119]

The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform manyexorcismseach year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.[120]

At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposeddemonic hierarchies.

In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewishsatan,to be servants of God. According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority.[121]According to theBritannica Concise Encyclopedia,demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices.[122]

Mandaeism

Main article:Demons in Mandaeism
See also:MandaeismandRuha

InMandaeism,theWorld of Darkness(alma d-hšuka), also referred to asSheol,is theunderworldlocated belowTibil(Earth). It is ruled by its kingUr(Leviathan) and its queenRuha,mother of theseven planetsandtwelve constellations.The great darkOcean of Sup(or Suf) lies in the World of Darkness.[123]The great dividing river ofHitfun,analogous to the riverStyxinGreek mythology,separates the World of Darkness from theWorld of Light.[124] Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness includelilith,nalai(vampire),niuli(hobgoblin),gadalta(ghost),satani(Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits.[123][124]

Gnosticism

Gnosticismlargely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially onPlatonism.In accordance with Platonism, they regarded theideaas good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil.[125]The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with anArchon(demonic ruler).[125]These demons rule over the earth and the realm of planets, representing different desires and passions.[126]According toOrigen,theOphitesdepicted the world as surrounded by the demonicLeviathan.[126]

Like in Christianity, the termdaimonswas used for demons and refers to both the Archons as well as to their demonic assistants.Judas Iscariotis, in theGospel of Judas,portrayed as thethirtheenth daimonfor betraying Jesus and a supporter of the Archons.[127]

Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in theApocryphon of Johnin which they are said to have helped construct the physicalAdam[128]and inPistis Sophiawhich states they are ruled over byHekateand punish corrupt souls.[129]

Islam

Demons depicted in theBook of Wonders,a late 14th-century Arabic manuscript
Examples of the Jinn of the Air depicted on Seljuk 13th century tilework from Kubad Abad

InIslamicbeliefs, demons are roughly of two types:[130]Jinnanddevils(Arabic:شَيَاطِين,romanized:šayāṭīnorPersian:دیو,romanized:dīv).[131][132]The jinn are parts ofpre-Islamic Arabian beliefs,although their exact origin is unclear.

The presence of jinn inpre-Islamic Arabian beliefsis not only testified by the Quran, but also by pre-Islamic literature in the seventh century.[133]: 54 The jinn were made responsible for various diseases, mental illnesses, and demonic possession,[134](p 122)but also venerated for means of protection.[135]The distinction between a deity and a jinni in pre-Islamic times is not always clear. In the regions north to theHejaz,PalmyraandBaalbek,the termsjinniandilah(deity) were often used interchangeably.[136]Emilie Savage-Smith,asserts that malicious jinn and good gods were distinct in pre-Islamic Arabia, but admits that such distinction is not absolute.[137]Julius Wellhausendistinguishes between the jinn worshipped in private and deities worshipped in public.[137]: 39 Likewise, some Muslim Quran commentators identify thepre-Islamic Arabian deities,most notablyManat,al-Latandal-Uzza,with jinn.[138]

Muslims generally adopt the belief that jinn can possess people.[139]In the tradition ofAsh'ari,it has been considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah"(ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a).[140]The demonic features of jinn are, however, virtually absent in theQuran.According to the Quran, the jinn can neither benefit nor harm humans, in contrast to demons from thebiblical tradition.[141](p181, 185)The Quran uses the termjinnto refer to foreign inseen anthropomorphic creatures in general, frequently paired withins(known humans), emphasizing the status of jinn as equal in regards of their creation and rejecting the pre-Islamic belief that jinn share divinity with the Creator.[141](p181)

While the jinn are morally ambivalent, the devils are inherently malevolent beings and closer to the devils of theJudeo-Christian tradition.[142]: 286 In contrast to the jinn, devils are usually not described with human-like features, but are created from fire too, which explains some extraordinary abilities among both creatures.[141][143]The primary function of devils is to tempt humans (and jinn) to sin. They are, however, sent by God and endowed with immortality until the world ceases to exist.[144][145](p278)[146](p452)Prayers are used to ward off their attacks, dissolving them temporarily. Both jinn and devils feature in Islamicmagical practises.However, summoning a devil requires acts againstGod's lawsand is thereforeforbidden(haram). Such acts may include illicit blood-sacrifices, abandoning prayer, and rejecting fasting.[147]

According to a tradition mentioned intafsīr(authorized Quranic exegesis) attributed toibn Abbas,the devils have been dismissed by God when he createdAdam.[148]According to theQuran,when God created Adam, he ordered the angels to bow before the newest creation. However,Iblis(Satan) refuses to do so and is consequently punished. He explains that the devils observed the jinn causing corruption on earth, whereupon they were sent to chase away the jinn from the surface. When God created a successor to the jinn, they protested and those who remained in protest, have been punished with hell.[149]

Bahá'í Faith

In theBahá'í Faith,demons are not regarded as independent evil spirits as they are in some faiths. Rather, evil spirits described in various faiths' traditions, such as Satan, fallen angels, demons and jinn, are metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God and follows his lower nature. Belief in the existence of ghosts and earthbound spirits is rejected and considered to be the product of superstition.[150]

Occultism

Inoccultism,demons are often seen as beneficial and useful, lacking an inherent negative connotation.[151]While some people fear demons, or attempt to exorcise them, others willfully attempt to summon them for knowledge, assistance, or power.William of Conches(c. 1090/1091– c. 1155/1170s) understands 'demon' closer to the Greek 'daimon', reserving the concept of the "devil" only for the "demons of the lower regions":

You think, as I infer from your words, that a demon is the same as a devil, which is not the case. For a demon is said to be any invisible being using reason, as if knowing. Of these the two high orders are called calodemons, that is, 'good knowing ones', the lower order is called cacodemon, that is, 'evil knowing one', for calos means 'good', cacos 'bad'.[152]

The ceremonial magician usually consults agrimoire,which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process calledtheurgy.The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known asgoetia,a word derived from the Greek word "goes",which originally denoteddiviners,magicians,healers, andseers.[153]

In modernity

The classiconi,a Japanese ogre-like creature which often has horns and often translated into English as "demon".

TheAge of Enlightenmentconceptualizes humans asautonomous individuals,mostly independent from outer invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate.[154]Previously, the world was understood to be inhabited by various spirits and demons. With the rise of therationalistic school of thought,the existence of foreign unknown forces was increasingly rejected.[154]Demons were explained as non-existent. Visions of demons and ghosts were explained as the products of one's own mind. By labelling local deities and demons as superstition, local religious ideas were banished, supporting the promotion of nationwide gods and religions.[155]Because of that, demons became increasingly associated with delusions. Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States.[154]The notion of possession was at odds with Western philosophy, such as theAmerican Dreamandcapitalism,which implies the belief that everyone is responsible for their own fate and not at the mercy of external forces.[154]

Psychological approach

Islamic world

A minority of Muslim scholars in the Medieval Age, often associated with theMuʿtazilaand theJahmītes,denied that demons (jinn, devils, divs etc.) have physicality and asserted, they could only affect the mind bywaswās(Arabic:وَسْوَاس,'demonic whisperings in the mind').[140](p 73)[156]Some scholars, likeibn Sina,[157](p 89)rejected the reality of jinn altogether.Al-Jāḥiẓandal-Masʿūdī,explained jinn and demons as merely psychological phenomena.

In hisKitāb al-Hayawān,al-Jāḥiẓ states that jinn and demons are the product of loneliness. Such a state induces people to mind-games, causingwaswās.[142](p36)Al-Masʿūdī is similarly critical regarding the reality of demons. He states that alleged demonic encounters are the result of fear and "wrong thinking". Alleged encounters are then told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems. When they grow up, they remember such stories in a state of fear or loneliness. This encourages their imaginations, resulting in another alleged demonic encounter.[142](p37)

Western world

PsychologistWilhelm Wundtremarked that "among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones."[158]Sigmund Freuddeveloped this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have diedrecentlyshows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons. "[159]

M. Scott Peck,an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject,People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil[160]andGlimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption.[161]Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. InPeople of the Liehe provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder. InGlimpses of the DevilPeck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested inexorcismin order to debunk themythofpossessionby evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known topsychologyorpsychiatry.Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil.[162]

Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversialMalachi Martin,aRoman Catholicpriest and a formerJesuit,despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator.[163]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^abcdBrandon 1970.
  2. ^Angelini 2021.
  3. ^Boyce 1987;Duchesne-Guillemin 1988.
  4. ^Nixey 2018,Chapter 2, "The Battleground of Demons".
  5. ^abLiddell & Scott n.d.
  6. ^Rees 2012,p.81.
  7. ^Brown 1970,p. 28.
  8. ^"Demon".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 7 May 2012.Retrieved12 April2012.
  9. ^Lane Fox 1988,p. 137.
  10. ^abRussell 1986,p. 37.
  11. ^abcLucarelli 2010,p. 2.
  12. ^abBhayro & Rider 2017,p.53.
  13. ^abLucarelli 2010,p. 3.
  14. ^Bhayro & Rider 2017,p. 55.
  15. ^abLucarelli 2010,p. 4.
  16. ^Greenbaum 2015,p. 120.
  17. ^Strassberg, Richard E.A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures in the Guideway through the Mountains and Seas.p. 42.
  18. ^Strassberg, Richard E.A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from the Guideways through the Mountains and Seas.p. 201.
  19. ^abDe Groot (1907). "2, On Spectres of Mounts and Forests".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 495–496.
  20. ^De Groot (1907). "4, On Ground-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 535–536.
  21. ^De Groot (1907). "3, On Water-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 521–522.
  22. ^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 576–599.
  23. ^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.p. 544.
  24. ^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 563–565.
  25. ^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5.pp. 626–633.
  26. ^De Groot.The Religious System of China: Volume 5.p. 469.
  27. ^De Groot.The Religious System of China, Volume 5.p. 814.
  28. ^abDe Groot.The Religious System of China, Volume 5.p. 466.
  29. ^Dore, Henry SJ.Researches into Chinese Superstitions.pp. 241, 277.
  30. ^abcBlack & Green 1992,p. 180.
  31. ^abBlack & Green 1992,p. 85.
  32. ^abBlack & Green 1992,pp. 85–86.
  33. ^abcBlack & Green 1992,p. 86.
  34. ^abcdefghBlack & Green 1992,p. 116.
  35. ^Black & Green 1992,pp. 115–116.
  36. ^abcdBlack & Green 1992,p. 147.
  37. ^abcBlack & Green 1992,p. 148.
  38. ^Black & Green 1992,pp. 147–148.
  39. ^abcBlack & Green 1992,p. 173.
  40. ^George 1999,p. 225.
  41. ^abcdefgHirsch et al. 1906.
  42. ^Taylor 2020,pp. 190–191.
  43. ^Psalm 106:37,Deuteronomy 32:17
  44. ^McCraw & Arp 2017,p. 9.
  45. ^Hutter 2011.
  46. ^Plaut 2005,p. 1403.
  47. ^Isaacs 1998,p.96.
  48. ^Bellum Judaeorumvii. 6, § 3
  49. ^"Antiquities" viii. 2, § 5
  50. ^Kohler 2020,p. 123.
  51. ^Kohler 2020,p. 124.
  52. ^Taylor 2020,pp. 185–188.
  53. ^Pes. 112b; compare B. Ḳ. 21a
  54. ^(Targ. Yer. to Deuteronomy xxxii. 24 and Numbers vi. 24; Targ. to Cant. iii. 8, iv. 6; Eccl. ii. 5; Ps. xci. 5, 6.)
  55. ^Targ. to Eccl. i. 13; Pes. 110a; Yer. Shek. 49b
  56. ^Dennis 2016,p.[page needed].
  57. ^Taylor 2020,p. 185.
  58. ^Taylor 2020,p. 182.
  59. ^Taylor 2020,p. 184.
  60. ^Hanneken Henoch 2006,pp. 11–25.
  61. ^Martin 2010.
  62. ^Enoch 15:11
  63. ^VanderKam 1999.
  64. ^Jubilees 8
  65. ^Vermes 2011,p. 375.
  66. ^García Martínez 1994.
  67. ^García Martínez 2002.
  68. ^abO'Flaherty, W. D., Doniger, W. (1988). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Indien: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 65-95
  69. ^Asian Mythologies. (1993). Vereinigtes Königreich: University of Chicago Press. p. 52
  70. ^abEduljee, K. E. "Zoroastrian Heritage." On-line at<http:// heritageinstitute /zoroastrianism(2014).
  71. ^Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993).The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research.McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP.ISBN978-0-7735-1144-6.
  72. ^R. van den Broek, Wouter J. HanegraaffGnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern TimesSUNY Press, 1998ISBN978-0-7914-3611-0p. 37
  73. ^Yarshater, EhsanThe Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
  74. ^"Manichaeism".New Advent Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 12 March 2007.Retrieved4 October2013.
  75. ^Willis Barnstone, Marvin MeyerThe Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications2009ISBN978-0-834-82414-0page 575-577
  76. ^abcdefghij"Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".Archivedfrom the original on 2019-04-27.Retrieved2019-04-27.
  77. ^David S. Margoliouth;The Devil's Delusion by Ibn al-Jawzi,1935, Bd. 1, chapter: Account of the way wherein he deludes the Dualists.
  78. ^Lester L. Grabbe,An Introduction to First Century Judaism: Jewish Religion and History in the Second Temple PeriodArchived2022-01-14 at theWayback Machine(Continuum International Publishing Group 1996ISBN978-0567085061), p. 101
  79. ^abShah, Portrayed in Shah Tahmasp’S. "Twin Spirits Angels and Devils Portrayed in Shah Tahmasp’S Shah Nameh Duncan Haldane." Paradise and Hell in Islam (2012): 39.
  80. ^Iranian Studies: Volume 2: History of Persian Literature from the Beginning of the Islamic Period to the Present Day. (2016). Niederlande: Brill. p. 23
  81. ^Volume XII, Harem I–Illuminationism, 2004.
  82. ^Vol. VII, Fasc. 4, pp. 428-431
  83. ^abcMelville, Charles, and Gabrielle van den Berg, eds. Shahnama Studies II: The Reception of Firdausi's Shahnama. Vol. 5. Brill, 2012.
  84. ^Bakr, Sarmad Mohammad. "The Structural Level in the Sufi Poetry."
  85. ^Karakurt, Deniz (2011).Türk Söylence Sözlüğü[Turkish Mythological Dictionary](PDF).Deniz Karakurt. p. 90.ISBN9786055618032.(OTRS: CC BY-SA 3.0)
  86. ^Elsie, Robert (2007)."Albanian Tales".In Haase, Donald (ed.).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Folktales and Fairy Tales.Vol. 1:A–F.Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24.ISBN9780313049477.OCLC1063874626.
  87. ^Friedl, E. (2020).Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, saints, people.United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 85.
  88. ^abAbedinifard, Mostafa; Azadibougar, Omid; Vafa, Amirhossein, eds. (2021).Persian Literature as World Literature.Literatures as World Literature. USA: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 40–43.ISBN978-1501354205,ISBN9781501354205
  89. ^The Good, the Bad and the Beautiful: The Survival of Ancient Iranian Ethical Concepts in Persian Popular Narratives of the Islamic Period p. 24
  90. ^abAsatrian, Garnik (2013). "Armenian Demonology: A Critical Overview".Iran and the Caucasus.17(1). Brill: 9–25.doi:10.1163/1573384X-20130103.
  91. ^The Good, the Bad and the Beautiful: The Survival of Ancient Iranian Ethical Concepts in Persian Popular Narratives of the Islamic Period p. 24
  92. ^The Good, the Bad and the Beautiful: The Survival of Ancient Iranian Ethical Concepts in Persian Popular Narratives of the Islamic Period p. 24
  93. ^"Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".
  94. ^Pedram Khosronejad The People of the Air Healing and Spirit Possession in South of Iran in: Shamanism and Healing Rituals in Contemporary Islam and Sufism, T.Zarcone (ed.) 2011, I.B.Tauris
  95. ^Zhanar, Abdibek, et al. "The Problems of the Mythological Personages in the Ancient Turkic Literature." Asian Social Science 11.7 (2015): 341.
  96. ^ÇAKIN, Mehmet Burak. "SÜLEYMÂN-NÂME’DE MİTOLOJİK BİR UNSUR OLARAK DÎVLER." Turkish Studies-Language and Literature 14.3 (2019): 1137-1158.
  97. ^Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86
  98. ^Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.
  99. ^Greenbaum 2015,p. 127.
  100. ^abAnne Marie Kitz. "Demons in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East".Journal of Biblical Literature,vol. 135, no. 3, 2016, pp. 447–464.JSTOR10.15699/jbl.1353.2016.3074.Accessed 16 May 2021.
  101. ^Greenbaum 2015,p. 129.
  102. ^Martin 2010,p. 664.
  103. ^Martin 2010,p. 666.
  104. ^abGreenbaum 2015,pp. 136–138.
  105. ^H. A. Kelly (30 January 2004).The Devil, Demonology, and Witchcraft: Christian Beliefs in Evil Spirits.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9781592445318.p. 104
  106. ^Demons and the Devil in Ancient and Medieval Christianity.2011. Netherlands: Brill. p. 104
  107. ^Annette Yoshiko Reed (2005).Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521853781.p. 149
  108. ^abMartin 2010,p. 670.
  109. ^James W. Boyd (1975).Satan and Māra: Christian and Buddhist Symbols of Evil.Brill Archive.ISBN9789004041738.p. 47
  110. ^Harris, Stephen L.,Understanding the Bible.Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. It is considered one of thepseudepigraphabyProtestant,Roman Catholic,andEastern OrthodoxChurches
  111. ^Moshe Berstein (2000). "Angels at the Aqedah: A Study in the Development of a Midrashic Motif".Dead Sea Discoveries7, p. 267.
  112. ^Orlov, Andrei A. (2015).Divine Scapegoats: Demonic Mimesis in Early Jewish Mysticism.New York: SUNY Press. p. 4.ISBN9781438455846.
  113. ^"Exorcism"Archived2019-03-25 at theWayback Machine.Sancta Missa – Rituale Romanum.1962. Canons Regular of St. John Cantius
  114. ^Hansen, Chadwick (1970),Witchcraft at Salem,p. 132, Signet Classics, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 69-15825
  115. ^Modica, Terry Ann (1996),Overcoming The Power of The Occult,p. 31, Faith Publishing Company,ISBN1-880033-24-0
  116. ^Jeffrey Burton Russell (1987).Satan: The Early Christian Tradition.Ithaca: Cornell University Press.ISBN9780801494130.p. 132.
  117. ^David L Bradnick (2017).Evil, Spirits, and Possession: An Emergentist Theology of the Demonic.Brill.ISBN978-9-004-35061-8.p. 30
  118. ^Brakke, D. (2009).Demons and the Making of the Monk: Spiritual Combat in Early Christianity.Harvard University Press. p. 157
  119. ^Russell 1986,p.[page needed].
  120. ^Corapi, John (February 9, 2004)."Angels and Demons – Facts not Fiction".fathercorapi.Archived fromthe originalon 2004-04-05.
  121. ^Chiu, S. N. (2000). "Historical, Religious, and Medical Perspectives of Possession Phenomenon".Hong Kong Journal of Psychiatry.10(1).
  122. ^"Demon" in Britannica Concise Encyclopedia,
  123. ^abAldihisi, Sabah (2008).The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba(PhD). University College London.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-10-25.Retrieved2021-12-07.
  124. ^abAl-Saadi, Qais Mughashghash; Al-Saadi, Hamed Mughashghash (2019). "Glossary".Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book(2 ed.). Drabsha.
  125. ^abZarieva, N. P., Iliev, K., Krsteva, M., & Donev, D. (2019). The Origins of the Seven Deadly Sins. Yearbook-Faculty of Philology, 10(14), 49-53.
  126. ^abGreenbaum 2015,p. 162.
  127. ^DeConick, April D. "The Gospel of Judas: A Parody of Apostolic Christianity." The Non-Canonical Gospels. T&T Clark, 2008. 96-109.
  128. ^Marvin Meyer;Willis Barnstone(June 30, 2009). "The Secret Book of John (The Apocryphon of John - The Secret Revelation of John)".The Gnostic Bible.Shambhala.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-23.Retrieved2021-11-02.
  129. ^George R. S. Mead(1963). "140".Pistis Sophia.Jazzybee Verlag.ISBN9783849687090.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-27.Retrieved2021-11-02.
  130. ^Erdağı, D. Evil in Turkish Muslim horror film: the demonic in “Semum”. SN Soc Sci 4, 27 (2024).https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-024-00832-w
  131. ^Charles MathewesUnderstanding Religious EthicsJohn Wiley & SonsISBN978-1-405-13351-7.p. 249
  132. ^Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "Angels", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 17 August 2021.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23204.First published online: 2009. First print edition: 9789004181304, 2009, 2009-3
  133. ^Zeitlin, I. M. (2007).The Historical Muhammad.United Kingdom: Wiley.ISBN978-0-745-63998-7.
  134. ^el-Zein, Amira (2009).Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.ISBN978-0-8156-5070-6.
  135. ^ "cin".TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi.
  136. ^ʻAẓmah, ʻ. (2014). The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity: Allah and His People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 293
  137. ^abMagic and Divination in Early Islam. (2021). Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.
  138. ^Pantić, Nikola. Sufism in Ottoman Damascus: Religion, Magic, and the Eighteenth-century Networks of the Holy. Taylor & Francis, 2023. chapter 3
  139. ^Rassool, G. Hussein (2015-07-16).Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice.Routledge. p. 58.ISBN978-1-31744-125-0.
  140. ^abIslam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.
  141. ^abcSinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.
  142. ^abcNünlist, Tobias (2015).Dämonenglaube im Islam[Demonic Belief in Islam] (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.ISBN978-3-110-33168-4.
  143. ^Erdağı, D. Evil in Turkish Muslim horror film: the demonic in “Semum”. SN Soc Sci 4, 27 (2024).https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-024-00832-w
  144. ^Teuma, E. (1984). More on Qur'anic jinn. Melita Theologica, 39(1–2), 37–45.
  145. ^YOUNG, M. J. L. (1966)."THE TREATMENT OF THE PRINCIPLE OF EVIL IN THE QUR'ĀN".Islamic Studies.5(3): 275–281.JSTOR20832847.RetrievedNovember 7,2021.
  146. ^Sinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.
  147. ^Travis Zadeh.Commanding Demons and Jinn: The Sorcerer in Early Islamic Thought.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014. pp. 142-149
  148. ^Erdağı, D. "Evil in Turkish Muslim horror film: the demonic in 'Semum'".SN Soc Sci4, 27 (2024).doi:10.1007/s43545-024-00832-w.
  149. ^Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "Angels", in:Encyclopaedia of Islam,THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Devin J. Stewart. Consulted online on 3 March 2024.http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23204.First published online: 2009. First print edition:ISBN9789004181304,2009, 2009-3
  150. ^Smith, Peter (2008).An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 112.ISBN978-0-521-86251-6.
  151. ^Saif, Liana. The Arabic influences on early modern occult philosophy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
  152. ^Saif, Liana. The Arabic influences on early modern occult philosophy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
  153. ^Drury & Hume (2013),p.124.
  154. ^abcdRehmann, Luzia Sutter (2023).Dämonen und unreine Geister: Die Evangelien, gelesen auf dem Hintergrund von Krieg, Vertreibung und Trauma(in German). Gütersloher Verlagshaus.ISBN978-3641292973.
  155. ^Josephson-Storm, Jason Ānanda (2018). "The superstition, secularism, and religion trinary: Or re-theorizing secularism".Method & Theory in the Study of Religion.30(1): 1–20.doi:10.1163/15700682-12341409.
  156. ^Dein, Simon, and Abdool Samad Illaiee. "Jinn and mental health: looking at jinn possession in modern psychiatric practice." The Psychiatrist 37.9 (2013): 290-293.
  157. ^Rosen, L. (2008). Varieties of Muslim Experience: Encounters with Arab Political and Cultural Life. Ukraine: University of Chicago Press.
  158. ^Freud (1950),p. 65, quoting Wundt (1906, 129).
  159. ^Freud (1950)
  160. ^Peck, M. S.(1983).People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil.Simon and Schuster.ISBN9780671454920.
  161. ^Peck, M. S.(2005).Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption.Free Press.ISBN9780743254670.
  162. ^The exorcistArchived2017-04-20 at theWayback Machine,an interview with M. Scott Peck by Rebecca Traister published inSalonArchived2005-12-19 at theWayback Machine
  163. ^The Patient Is the ExorcistArchived2008-10-05 at theWayback Machine,an interview with M. Scott Peck by Laura Sheahen

Works cited

  • Angelini, Anna (2021). "Les dieux des autres: entre «démons» et «idoles»".L'imaginaire du démoniaque dans la Septante: Une analyse comparée de la notion de "démon" dans la Septante et dans la Bible Hébraïque.Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism (in French). Vol. 197.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp. 184–224.doi:10.1163/9789004468474_008.ISBN978-90-04-46847-4.
  • Bhayro, Siam; Rider, Catherine (2017).Demons and Illness from Antiquity to the Early-Modern Period.Brill.ISBN978-9-004-33854-8.
  • Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary.Austin: University of Texas Press.ISBN0714117056.
  • Boyce, Mary (1987).Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World.London: William's Trust.
  • Brandon, S. G. F., ed. (1970).A Dictionary of Comparative Religion.Charles Scribner's Sons.ISBN978-0297000440.
  • Brown, Peter (1970). "Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Age". In Douglas, Mary (ed.).Witchcraft Confessions and Accusations.Tavistock Publications.ISBN978-0422732000.
  • Dennis, Geoffrey W. (2016).The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic and Mysticism(2nd ed.). Llewellyn Worldwide.ISBN978-0-738-74814-6.
  • Drury, Neville; Hume, Lynne (2013).The Varieties of Magical Experience: Indigenous, Medieval, and Modern Magic.Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1440804182.
  • Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988). "Zoroastrianism".Encyclopedia Americana.Vol. 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813–815.
  • Freud, Sigmund(1950).Totem and Taboo:Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics.Translated by Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-00143-3.
  • García Martínez, Florentino (1994).The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English.Leiden: E. J. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-10088-6.
  • García Martínez, Florentino (2002). "Magic in the Dead Sea Scrolls". In Bremmer, Jan N.; Veenstra, Jan R. (eds.).The Metamorphosis of Magic from Late Antiquity to the Early Modern Period.Leuven: Peeters.ISBN978-90-429-1227-4.
  • George, Andrew (1999)."Glossary of Proper Nouns".The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian.London, New York City, Melbourne, Toronto, New Delhi, Auckland, and Rosebank, South Africa: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-044919-8.
  • Greenbaum, Dorian Gieseler (2015).The Daimon in Hellenistic Astrology: Origins and Influence.Brill.ISBN978-9004306219.
  • Hanneken Henoch, T. R. (2006).Angels and Demons in the Book of Jubilees and Contemporary Apocalypses.[full citation needed]
  • Hirsch, Emil G.; Gottheil, Richard; Kohler, Kaufmann; Broydé, Isaac (1906)."Demonology".Jewish Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 2014-11-07.Retrieved2014-10-29.
  • Hutter, Manfred; et al. (2011). "Demons and Spirits".Religion Past and Present.doi:10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_COM_03364.
  • Isaacs, Ronald H. (1998).Ascending Jacob's Ladder: Jewish Views of Angels, Demons, and Evil Spirits.Jason Aronson.ISBN978-0-7657-5965-8.
  • Kohler, K. (2020).Jewish Theology.Outlook Verlag.ISBN978-3752378504.
  • Lane Fox, Robin (1988).Pagans and Christians.San Francisco: Harper & Row.ISBN978-0060628529.
  • Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert(n.d.)."δαιμόνιον".A Greek–English Lexicon.Perseus.Archivedfrom the original on 2020-11-13.Retrieved2021-02-20.
  • Lucarelli, Rita (2010)."Demons (benevolent and malevolent)".UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology.
  • Martin, Dale Basil (2010). "When Did Angels Become Demons?".Journal of Biblical Literature.129(4): 657–677.doi:10.2307/25765960.JSTOR25765960.
  • McCraw, Benjamin W.; Arp, Robert (2017).Philosophical Approaches to Demonology.Routledge.ISBN978-1-315-46675-0.
  • Nixey, Catherine (2018).The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.ISBN978-0544800939.
  • Plaut, W. Gunther (2005).The Torah: A Modern Commentary.Union for Reform Judaism.
  • Rees, Valery (2012).From Gabriel to Lucifer: A Cultural History of Angels.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN978-0-857-72162-4.
  • Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986).Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages.Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0801494291.OCLC557921104.
  • Taylor, Pinchas (2020).A Jewish Guide to the Mysterious.Torah Lab Publishers.ISBN978-1946351890.
  • VanderKam, James C. (1999). "The Angel Story in The Book Of Jubilees". In Chazon, Esther G.; Stone, Michael E. (eds.).Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha And Pseudepigrapha In Light Of The Dead Sea Scrolls.Leiden: Brill. pp. 151–170.
  • Vermes, Geza (2011).The complete Dead Sea scrolls in English.London: Penguin.[ISBN missing]
  • Wundt, W.(1906).Mythus und Religion,Teil II (Völkerpsychologie,Band II). Leipzig.

Further reading

Wikiquote has quotations related toDemon.
Look upδαίμωνordemonin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toDemons.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demon&oldid=1235428097"