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Dog whistle (politics)

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Inpolitics,adog whistleis the use ofcoded or suggestive languagein political messaging to garner support from a particular group without provoking opposition. The concept is named afterultrasonicdog whistles,which are audible to dogs but not humans. Dog whistles use language that appears normal to the majority but communicates specific things to intended audiences. They are generally used to convey messages on issues likely to provoke controversy without attracting negative attention.[not verified in body]

Origin and meaning

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According toWilliam Safire,the termdog whistlein reference to politics may have been derived from its use in the field ofopinion polling.Safire quotes Richard Morin, director of polling forThe Washington Post,as writing in 1988:

subtle changes in question-wording sometimes produce remarkably different results... researchers call this the "Dog Whistle Effect": Respondents hear something in the question that researchers do not.[1]

He speculates that campaign workers adapted the phrase from political pollsters.[1]

In her 2006 bookVoting for Jesus: Christianity and Politics in Australia,academic[clarification needed]Amanda Lohreywrites that the goal of the dog-whistle is to appeal to the greatest possible number of electors while alienating the smallest possible number. She uses as an example politicians choosing broadly appealing words such as "family values",which have extra resonance for Christians, while avoiding overt Christian moralizing that might be a turn-off for non-Christian voters.[2]

Australian political theoristRobert E. Goodinargues that the problem with dog-whistling is that it undermines democracy, because if voters have different understandings of what they were supporting during a campaign, the fact that they were seeming to support the same thing is "democratically meaningless" and does not give the dog-whistler apolicy mandate.[3]

History and usage

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Australia

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The term was first picked up inAustralian politicsin the mid-1990s, and was frequently applied to the political campaigning ofJohn Howard.[4]Throughouthis 11 yearsasAustralian prime ministerand particularly in his fourth term, Howard was accused of communicating messages appealing to anxious Australian voters usingcode wordssuch as "un-Australian", "mainstream", and "illegals".[5][6]

One notable example was the Howard government's message on refugee arrivals. His government's tough stance onimmigrationwas popular with voters, but was accused of using the issue to additionally send veiled messages of support to voters withracistleanings,[7]while maintainingplausible deniabilityby avoiding overtly racist language.[8]Another example was the publicity of theAustralian citizenship testin 2007.[8]It has been argued that the test may appear reasonable at face value, but is really intended to appeal to those opposing immigration from particular geographic regions.[9]

Canada

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During the2015 Canadian federal election,theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) reported on a controversy involving theConservative partyleader, incumbent Prime MinisterStephen Harper,using the phrase "old-stock Canadians" in a debate, apparently to appeal to his party's base supporters. Commentators, including pollsterFrank Gravesand former Quebec Liberal MPMarlene Jennings,saw this as a codeword historically used against non-white immigrants.[10]

Midway through the election campaign, the Conservative Party had hired Australian political strategistLynton Crosbyas a political adviser when they fell to third place in the polls - behind theLiberal Partyand theNew Democratic Party.[11]On 17 September 2015, during a televised election debate, Stephen Harper, while discussing the government's controversial decision to remove certain immigrants and refugee claimants from accessing Canada's health care system, made reference to "Old Stock Canadians"as being in support of the government's position. Marlene Jennings called his words racist and divisive, as they are used to exclude Canadians of colour.[10]

Indonesia

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Darmawan Prasodjo[id]notes the use of the concept of "strong leadership" as a dog whistle in the context ofIndonesian politics.[12]

United Kingdom

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Lynton Crosby,who had previously managedJohn Howard's four election campaigns in Australia, worked as aConservative Partyadviser during the2005 UK general election,and the term was introduced to British political discussion at this time.[1]In whatGoodincalls "the classic case" of dog-whistling,[3]Crosby created a campaign for the Conservatives with the slogan "Are you thinking what we're thinking?": a series of posters, billboards, TV commercials and direct mail pieces with messages like "It's not racist to impose limits on immigration" and "how would you feel if a bloke on early release attacked your daughter?"[13]focused on controversial issues like insanitary hospitals, land grabs by squatters and restraints on police behaviour.[14][15]

During theEU Referendum,theLeave campaignwas accused by members of theRemain campaignsuch asLabourMPYvette Cooperand thenGreenMPCaroline Lucasof stirring up racial hatred againstEastern Europeansandethnic minoritiesthroughanti-immigrationdog whistles.[16]Vote Leavedistanced itself fromLeave.EUandUKIPafter theBreaking Pointposter, showing predominantlySyrianandAfghan refugeesnear theCroatia-Slovenia borderwith the solewhiteperson in the image being obscured by text.Boris Johnsonstated it was "not our campaign" and "not my politics".[17]

During the2024 General Election,Reform UKwas accused of racist dog whistling when leaderNigel Faragestated that the thenPrime MinisterRishi Sunak,who is ofIndiandescent, "doesn't understand our culture"[18]and "is not patriotic"[19]after leaving commemorations for the 80th anniversary ofD-Dayearly.

United States

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20th century

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The phrase "states' rights",literally referring to powers of individual state governments in the United States, was described in 2007 by journalist David Greenberg inSlateas "code words" for institutionalized segregation and racism.[20]States' rightswas the banner under which groups like theDefenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Libertiesargued in 1955 against school desegregation.[21]In 1981, formerRepublican PartystrategistLee Atwater,when giving an anonymous interview discussing formerpresidentRichard Nixon'sSouthern strategy,speculated that terms like "states' rights" were used for dog-whistling:[22][23][24]

Atwater was contrasting this with then-PresidentRonald Reagan's campaign, which he felt "was devoid of any kind of racism, any kind of reference". However,Ian Haney López,an American law professor and author of the 2014 bookDog Whistle Politics,described Reagan as "blowing a dog whistle" when the candidate told stories about "Cadillac-driving 'welfare queens' and 'strapping young bucks' buying T-bone steaks withfood stamps"while he was campaigning for the presidency.[25][26][27]He argues that such rhetoric pushes middle-class white Americans to vote against their economic self-interest in order to punish "undeserving minorities" who, they believe, are receiving too much public assistance at their expense. According to López, conservative middle-class whites, convinced by powerful economic interests that minorities are the enemy, supported politicians who promised to curb illegal immigration and crack down on crime but inadvertently also voted for policies that favor the extremely rich, such as slashing taxes for top income brackets, giving corporations more regulatory control over industry and financial markets,union busting,cutting pensions for future public employees, reducing funding for public schools, and retrenching the social welfare state. He argues that these same voters cannot link rising inequality which has affected their lives to the policy agendas they support, which resulted in a massive transfer of wealth to the top 1 percent of the population since the 1980s.[28][29]

In the U.S., the phrase "international bankers" is a well-known dog whistle code for Jews. Its use as such is derived from the anti-Semitic fabricationThe Protocols of the Elders of Zion.It was frequently used by the fascist-supporting radio personalityCharles Coughlinon his national show. His repeated use of the term was a factor in the distributor CBS opting not to renew his contract.[30]The word "globalists" is similarly widely considered an anti-Semitic dog whistle.[31][32][33][34]

21st century

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JournalistCraig Ungerwrote that PresidentGeorge W. BushandKarl Roveused coded "dog-whistle" language in political campaigning, delivering one message to the overall electorate while at the same time delivering quite a different message to a targetedevangelical Christianpolitical base.[35]William Safire,inSafire's Political Dictionary,offered the example of Bush's criticism during the2004 presidential campaignof theU.S. Supreme Court's 1857Dred Scottdecision denying theU.S. citizenshipof anyAfrican American.To most listeners the criticism seemed innocuous, Safire wrote, but "sharp-eared observers" understood the remark to be a pointed reminder that Supreme Court decisions can be reversed, and a signal that, if re-elected, Bush might nominate to the Supreme Court a justice who would overturnRoe v. Wade.[1]This view is echoed in a 2004Los Angeles Timesarticle byPeter Wallsten.[36]

DuringBarack Obama's campaign and presidency, a number of left-wing commentators described various statements about Obama as racist dog-whistles. During the2008 Democratic primaries,writer Enid Lynette Logan criticizedHillary Clinton's campaign's reliance on code words and innuendo seemingly designed to frame Barack Obama's race as problematic, saying Obama was characterized by the Clinton campaign and its prominent supporters as anti-white due to his association with Rev.Jeremiah Wright,as able to attract only black votes, as anti-patriotic, a drug user, possibly a drug seller, and married to an angry, ungrateful black woman.[37]A light-hearted 2008 article byAmy ChozickinThe Wall Street Journalquestioned whether Obama was too thin to be elected president, given the average weight of Americans; commentatorTimothy Noahwrote that this was a racist dog-whistle, because "When white people are invited to think about Obama's physical appearance, the principal attribute they're likely to dwell on is his dark skin."[38]In a 2010 speech,Sarah Palincriticized Obama, saying "we need a commander in chief, not a professor of law standing at the lectern".Harvardprofessor (and Obama ally)Charles Ogletreecalled this attack racist, because the true idea being communicated was "that he's not one of us".[39]MSNBC commentatorLawrence O'Donnellcalled a 2012 speech byMitch McConnell,in which McConnell criticized Obama for playing too much golf, a racist dog-whistle because O'Donnell felt it was meant to remind listeners of black golferTiger Woods,who at the time was going through an infidelity scandal.[40]

During the 2016 presidential election campaign and on a number of occasions throughout his presidency,Donald Trumpwas accused of using racial and antisemitic "dog whistling" techniques by politicians and major news outlets.[41][42][43][44][45]New York TimescolumnistRoss Douthatremarked that the Trump campaign "slogan 'Make America Great Again' can be read as a dog-whistle to some whiter and more Anglo-Saxon past".[46]

FormerFox NewsanchorTucker Carlsonhas been reported to use dog-whistling tactics on his former commentary showTucker Carlson Tonight.[47][48][49]

During the 2018 gubernatorial race in Florida,Ron DeSantiscame under criticism for comments that were allegedly racist, saying: "The last thing we need to do is to monkey this up by trying to embrace a socialist agenda with huge tax increases and bankrupting the state. That is not going to work. That's not going to be good for Florida."[50]DeSantis was accused of using the verb "monkey" as a racist dog whistle; his opponent,Andrew Gillum,was an African American. DeSantis denied that his comment was meant to be racially charged.[51]

Terms such as "woke","CRT",and"DEI"have been described as dog whistle againstBlack people.[52][53][54][55][56][57][58]

Italy

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Roberto SavianoofThe Guardianclaimed that Italian right-wing politicianGiorgia Meloniused theMussolini-era slogan "God, homeland, family" as a dog-whistle to signal her anti-immigration stance, and in 2019, she used her identity as a dog whistle, proclaiming at a rally: "I am Giorgia, I am a woman, I am a mother, I am Italian, I am a Christian."[59]Washington Postcolumnist Philip Bump contended that Meloni has used the term "financial speculators"[60]as a dog-whistle to concealantisemitism.

Criticism

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Academics disagree on whether the dog-whistle notion has conceptual validity and furthermore on the mechanisms by which discourses identified as dog-whistles function. For instance, the sociologistBarry Hindesscriticized Josh Fear's andRobert E. Goodin's respective attempts to theorize dog-whistles on the grounds that they did not pass theWeberiantest of value neutrality: "In the case of the concept of ‘dog-whistle politics,' we find that the investigator's—in this case, Fear's—disapproval enters into the definition of the object of study. Goodin avoids this problem, clearly signalling his disapproval—for example, with his ‘particularly pernicious' (2008, p. 224)—but not letting it interfere with his own conceptualisation of the phenomenon. The difficulty here is that this abstinence leaves him with no real distinction between the general phenomena of coded messaging […] and dog whistling in particular, leaving us to suspect that dog whistling should be seen not so much as a novel form of rhetoric, but rather, to borrow an image fromThomas Hobbes'Leviathan,as a familiar form misliked. "[61]

In effect, the philosopher Carlos Santana corroborates Hindess' criticism of the dog-whistle notion as being dependent on the investigator's social and moral values during his own attempted definition, writing: "We don't want every instance of bi-level meaning in political discourse to count as dog whistles, because not every instance of political doublespeak is problematic in the way prototypical dog whistles like welfare queen and family values are. Some, like backhanded compliments to political rivals, aren't a major source of social ills. Some, like aspirational hypocrisy (Quill 2010) and deliberate doublespeak meant to bring diverse constituencies together (Maloyed 2011), might even be socially beneficial. Keep in mind what makes dog whistles problematic: they harm disadvantaged groups, undermine our ability to have a functioning plural society, and muddle our ability to reliably hold political figures responsible for their actions. Given our interest in addressing these harms, it makes sense to limit our definition of dog whistles to the types of bi-level meaning which engender them."[62]

For another instance of criticism, albeit from another direction, the psychologistSteven Pinkerhas remarked that the concept of dog whistling allows people to "claim that anyone says anything because you can easily hear the alleged dogwhistles that aren't in the actual literal contents of what the person says".[63]

Mark Libermanhas argued that it is common for speech and writing to convey messages that will only be picked up on by part of the audience, but that this does not usually mean that the speaker is deliberately conveying a double message.[64]

Finally, Robert Henderson andElin McCreadyargue thatplausible deniabilityis a key characteristic of dog whistles.[65]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^abcdSafire, William(2008).Safire's Political Dictionary(Revised ed.). New York:Oxford University Press.p. 190.ISBN978-0-19-534334-2.
  2. ^Lohrey, Amanda (2006).Voting for Jesus: Christianity and Politics in Australia.Melbourne: Black Inc. pp.48–58.ISBN1-86395-230-6.
  3. ^abGoodin, Robert E. (2008).Innovating Democracy: Democratic Theory and Practice after the Deliberative Turn(Reprint ed.).Oxford University Press.pp.224–228.ISBN978-0-19-954794-4.
  4. ^Grant Barrett,The official dictionary of unofficial English,McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006, p. 90
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  53. ^Young, Damon (September 26, 2022)."Woke is now a dog whistle for Black. What's next?".Washington Post.RetrievedFebruary 8,2025.
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  57. ^Gray Streeter, Leslie (December 7, 2021)."'A dog whistle and a lie': Black parents on the critical race theory debate ".Washington Post.RetrievedFebruary 8,2025.
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  59. ^"Giorgia Meloni is a danger to Italy and the rest of Europe | Italy | The Guardian".amp.theguardian.Archivedfrom the original on July 18, 2023.RetrievedJuly 19,2023.
  60. ^That Giorgia Meloni speech captivating the U.S. right doesn't make senseArchivedJanuary 5, 2023, at theWayback MachineWashington Post,Philip Bump, September 27, 2022
  61. ^Hindess, Barry (August 31, 2023).Whistling the Dog.Australia National University Press. pp.143–154.ISBN9781925021868.JSTORj.ctt13www0c.12.Archivedfrom the original on December 2, 2022.RetrievedAugust 22,2023.
  62. ^Santana, Carlos (2022)."What's wrong with dog-whistles".Journal of Social Philosophy.53(3):387–403.doi:10.1111/josp.12409.S2CID233649655.Archivedfrom the original on August 23, 2023.RetrievedAugust 23,2023.
  63. ^Bailey, Ronald (July 10, 2020)."Steven Pinker Beats Cancel Culture Attack".Reason magazine.Archivedfrom the original on July 14, 2020.RetrievedSeptember 25,2020.
  64. ^Liberman, Mark (September 26, 2006)."The comma was really a dog whistle".University of Pennsylvania.Archivedfrom the original on October 13, 2020.RetrievedAugust 28,2020.
  65. ^Henderson, Robert; McCready, Elin (2018)."How Dogwhistles Work".New Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence.Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10838. pp.231–240.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-93794-6_16.ISBN978-3-319-93793-9.S2CID51876325.Archivedfrom the original on July 16, 2023.RetrievedOctober 4,2020.

General and cited references

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Further reading

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