Wikipedia

Dusky dolphin

Thedusky dolphin(Lagenorhynchus obscurus) is adolphinfound in coastal waters in theSouthern Hemisphere.Itsspecific epithetisLatinfor "dark" or "dim". It is very closelygeneticallyrelated to thePacific white-sided dolphin,but current scientific consensus holds they are distinct species. The dolphin's range is patchy, with major populations aroundSouth America,southwesternAfrica,New Zealand,and various oceanic islands, with some sightings aroundsouthern AustraliaandTasmania.The dusky dolphin prefers cool currents and inshore waters, but can also be found offshore. It feeds on a variety offishandsquidspecies and has flexible hunting tactics. The dusky dolphin is known for its remarkable acrobatics, having a number ofaerial behaviours.The status of the dolphin is unknown, but it has been commonly caught ingill nets.

Dusky dolphin
Diagram showing a dolphin and scuba diver from the side: the dolphin is about the same size as the human
Size compared to an average human
CITESAppendix II(CITES)[2]
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Genus: Lagenorhynchus
Species:
L. obscurus
Binomial name
Lagenorhynchus obscurus
(J. E. Gray,1828)
Subspecies
  • L. o. fitzroyi
  • L. o. obscurus
  • L. o. posidonia
Dusky dolphin range

Taxonomy

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Dusky dolphin drawings inPlate 5ofMammalogysection inMammalogy and Ornithology(1858)

It is commonly thought that the dusky dolphin was first described byJohn Edward Grayin 1828 from stuffed skin and a single skull shipped from theCape of Good Hopeto theBritish Museum.Gray first described the species asDelphinus obscurus,with thesubgenusGrampusin his 1828Specilegia Zoologica.Gray reported that the animal was captured around the Cape of Good Hope by a Captain Haviside (often misspelt "Heaviside" ) and sent to the British Museum though theRoyal College of Surgeonsin 1827.[3]

However, Gray later wrote that a similar dolphin was described asDelphinus superciliousby French surgeons and naturalistsRené Primevère Lessonand Prosper Garnot from a specimen collected off the coast ofTasmaniatwo years before his own classification.[4]Gray classifiedD. superciliousas a juniorsynonymof hisD. obscurusand credited Lesson and Garnot (1826) for their original description. Meanwhile,Charles Darwinalso described what turned out to be this species asDelphinus fitzroyifrom a specimen harpooned off Argentina in 1838. The dusky dolphin was reclassified asProdelphinus obscurusin 1885 by British naturalistWilliam Henry Flower,[5]before gaining another name,Lagenorhynchus obscurus,from American biologistFrederick W. Truein 1889.[6]

Genetics

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The dusky dolphin and thePacific white-sided dolphinare consideredphylogeneticallyrelated species. Some researchers have suggested they are the same species, but morphological and life-history evidence shows otherwise.[7]The two sister species diverged at around 1.9–3.0 million years ago.[8]Recent analysis of the mitochondrialcytochrome bgene indicates that the genusLagenorhynchus,as traditionally conceived, is not a natural (monophyletic) group.[9]Another study finds that the dusky and the Pacific white-sided dolphin form thesister groupto the (expanded) genusCephalorhynchus.If this placement is accurate, a new genus name will need to be coined to accommodate these two species.[10]It has therefore been proposed that the dusky dolphin, together with Pacific white-sided,hourglass,andPeale's dolphinare moved to the resurrected genusSagmatias.[11]

Three dusky dolphin subspecies have been classified: the African dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus obscurus), Fitzroy's dolphin (L. o. fitzroyi), and the Peruvian/Chilean dusky dolphin (L. o. posidonia).[12][13]A fourth subspecies,L. o. superciliosusor the New Zealand dusky dolphin, has been proposed but is not currently accepted.[11][14]Dusky dolphins from Argentina and southwest Africa separated 2000 generations ago from an ancestral Atlantic population and subsequently diverged without muchgene flow.[8]Most populations have low genetic diversity, with the Peruvian population being an exception.[7]Possible hybrids of dusky dolphins have been described with along-beaked common dolphin[15]and asouthern right whale dolphin.[16]

Description

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Closeup of dusky dolphin surfacing

The dusky dolphin is small to medium in length compared with other species in the family. There is significant variation in size among the different population areas. The largest dusky dolphins have been encountered off the coast of Peru, where they are up to 210 cm (6.9 ft) in length and 100 kg (220 lb) in mass. The size for dusky dolphins in New Zealand have been recorded to be a length range of 167–178 cm (66–70 in) and a weight range of 69–78 kg (152–172 lb) for females and a length range of 165–175 cm (65–69 in) and a weight range of 70–85 kg (154–187 lb) for males.[17]

Almost nosexual dimorphismoccurs in this species, although males have more curved dorsal fins with broader bases and greater surface areas.[17]The back of the dolphin is dark grey or black, and thedorsal finis distinctively two-toned; the leading edge matches the back in colour, but the trailing edge is a much lighter greyish white. The dusky dolphin has a long, light-grey patch on its fore side leading to a short, dark-grey beak. The throat and belly are white,[18]and the beak and lower jaw are dark grey. Two blazes of white colour run back on the body from the dorsal fin to the tail. Right between the white areas remains a characteristic thorn-shaped patch of dark colour, by which the species can easily be recognised. Aside from that, dusky dolphins may be confused with other members of their genus when observed at sea. It can be distinguished from thecommon dolphin,which has a more prominent and longer beak and yellow flank markings.[19]The skull of a dusky dolphin has a longer and narrower rostrum than that of anhourglass dolphinorPeale's dolphinof similar age and size.[20]

Populations and distribution

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Dusky dolphins of New Zealand

The dusky dolphin has a discontinuous semi-circumpolarrange. The dolphins can be found off the coasts of South America, southwestern Africa, southern Australia and Tasmania, New Zealand, and some oceanic islands. Off South America, they range from southern Peru toCape Hornin the west and from southernPatagoniato around36°Sin the east.[7]Its range also includes theFalkland Islands.They are particularly common fromPeninsula ValdestoMar de Plata.In comparison, they are uncommon in theBeagle Channeland the inshore waters of theTierra del Fuegoregion.[21]

Dusky dolphins are found throughout New Zealand waters. The dolphin population in this area centres aroundEast CapeandCape Palliseron theNorth IslandtoTimaruand Oamaru on theSouth Island.[22]They are especially common in the cold waters of the Southland and Canterbury currents.[22]In Africa, the dusky dolphin ranges from Lobito Bay, Angola in the north toFalse Bay,South Africa in the south.[7]Within Australian waters, dusky dolphins have been recorded in colder waters ofKangaroo Island,eastern Tasmania, andBass Strait,[19]although they are uncommon and those that are sighted there are possibly transients from New Zealand.[23]They are also found around Campbell, Auckland, and Chatham in the western South Pacific,Tristan da Cunhain the South Atlantic andÎle Amsterdam,andÎle Saint-Paulin the southern Indian Ocean.[24]

Ecology and behaviour

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Dusky dolphins atKaikōura,New Zealand
Dusky dolphinsleapingoffKaikōura

Dusky dolphins prefer cool, upwelling waters, as well as cold currents. They largely live in inshore waters and can be found up to the outer continental shelf and in similar zones in offshore islands.[22]They can move over great distances (around 780 km), but have no well-defined seasonal migrations.[7]However, dolphins off Argentina and New Zealand make inshore and offshore seasonal and diurnal movements.[7]In Argentina, dusky dolphins associate closely withsouthern right whalesandSouth American sea lions.[25]They have been found aroundbottlenose dolphins,but apparently do not interact with them, and may share feeding areas withRisso's dolphins.[25]They also associate with various seabirds, such askelp gulls,cormorants,terns,shearwaters,petrels,andalbatrosses.[25]In New Zealand, dusky dolphins mingle withcommon dolphins.[17]Dusky dolphins have also been observed withsouthern right whale dolphinsandpilot whalesoff southwestern Africa.[26]

Vocalisations and echolocation

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In general, three different types of sounds are produced by dolphins (and othertoothed whales). These are click trains, which are made of numerous individual clicks, usually broadband signals that change fromlow value to high valuequickly,[27]burst pulses, which are individual clicks with high repetition and can be heard by humans only as a buzzing sound,[28]and whistles, which are signals that are pure-tones and whose frequency varies depending on the time. Dusky dolphins produce all three sounds, but most commonly make burst pulses.[28]Whistling is more common when dusky dolphins mingle with other dolphin species such ascommon dolphins.[29]: 79 Theirecholocationsignals are broadband and of short duration, much like those other whistle-producing toothed whales.[29]: 95 They tend to have bimodal frequency spectra which peak between 40 and 50 kHz at low frequency and between 80 and 110 kHz at high frequency.[30]The species' echolocation signals are about 9–12dBlower than for the largerwhite-beaked dolphin.[30]

Foraging and predation

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Dusky dolphins

Dusky dolphins prey on a variety of fish and squid species. Common fish species eaten includeanchovies,lantern fish,pilchards,sculpins,hakes,horse mackerel,hokiandred cod.[7]They are generally coordinated hunters. Their very flexible foraging strategies can change depending on the environment.[31]In certain parts of New Zealand, where deep oceanic waters meet the shore, dusky dolphins forage indeep scattering layersat night.[31]They arrive at the hunting site individually, but form groups when in the layer.[31]The dolphins use their echolocation to detect and isolate an individual prey.[30]Groups of foraging dolphins tend to increase when the layer is near the surface and decrease when it descends.[31]

When hunting in shallower waters in New Zealand and Argentina, dusky dolphins tend to forage during the day. The dolphins chase schools of fish or squid and herd them into stationary balls.[32]They may control the school with light reflected from their white bellies.[33]Dolphins herd prey against the surface, but also horizontally against the shore, a point of land, or the hull of a boat.[32]During these times, dusky dolphins are believed to increase prey availability for other predators, including other dolphins,seabirds,sharks,andpinnipeds.In Argentina, dusky dolphins may use bird aggregations to locate and herd prey.[25]Conversely, pinnipeds and sharkstake advantageof the dolphin hunts.[34]Dusky dolphins are themselves preyed on bykiller whalesand large sharks. Dolphins avoid killer whales by swimming into shallower water.[25]Dusky dolphins are also susceptible toparasitismby certainnematode,cestode,andtrematodespecies, mostly the generaNasitremaandAnisakis,andPhyllobothrium delphini,Braunina cordiformis,andPholeter gasterophilus.[35]

Social behaviour and reproduction

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See also:Dolphin § Reproduction and sexuality

Dusky dolphins live in afission-fusion society,with most group size increases occurring during foraging and decreases in group sizes occurring during resting and traveling. In the Golfo San José off theValdes Peninsula,dolphins commonly switch between small traveling groups and large sociosexual groups, and encounter a variety of associates. Studies of dolphins offKaikōura,New Zealand, showed the dolphins normally live in large groups that split into smaller subgroups.[34]These subgroups are composed of mating adults (mating groups), mothers with calves (nursery groups) and nonbreeding adults.[34]Dusky dolphins have apromiscuousmating system in which both males and females mate with multiple partners. Mating groups are generally made of around 10 males and a single female.[34]These mating groups can be found in both shallow and deep water but more often gather near shore.[36]: 162 

Two dolphins jumping

In the mating groups, the males pursue a female in high-speed chases. Females seem to prefer males with great speed and agility rather than size, strength, or aggression.[36]: 164 : 175 Females may extend the chase as long as possible so only the best male remains.[37]Females may try to evade males that are not vigorous or lack social skill.[36]: 170 Males also may form alliances to catch females.[36]: 167–69 Unlike male bottlenose dolphins, male dusky dolphins cannot monopolise females.[36]: 166 The time when female dusky dolphins first reproduce varies between regions. New Zealand dolphins first reproduce at about seven to years, with possibly six to seven years for Argentine dolphins. A study of dusky dolphins off the coast of Peru showed the reproductive cycle lasts around 28.6 months, with mother dolphins pregnant for 12.9 months, lactating for a further 12 months, and resting for 3.7 months before the cycle begins again.[3]During copulation, females tend to be on the top.[36]: 170 As with all species where females mate with multiple partners, male dusky dolphins have large testes forsperm competition.[36]: 166 Dusky dolphins sometimes engage insexual behaviour for reasons other than reproduction,perhaps for greeting, communication, or strengthening social bonds.Homosexual behaviourbetween males has been observed.[34]Dolphins having sex for social reasons tend to be more relaxed.[36]: 175 

Females with calves tend to gather in nursery groups in shallow water. Nursery groups likely provide mothers and calves more time to rest, which is important for both. While the behaviours of nursery groups vary by month, resting is the predominant behaviour during most months.[38]: 188 The formation of nursery groups in shallow waters also allows members to hunt prey species that inhabit in these waters. Both adults and calves have been observed to chase and catch fish, and the adults may be teaching the calves how to hunt.[38]: 188–89 In contrast to shallower waters, hunting in deep water at night may be too dangerous for calves.[38]: 189 Calves are particularly vulnerable to predators like killer whales and use of shallow water by nursery groups may be a way to avoid predation.[38]: 183 Nursery groups tend to avoid mating groups.[36]: 174 Adult males in these groups will aggressively herd and chase females. They can separate calves from their mothers and harass them, as well.[38]: 185 Calves may also become even more vulnerable to predators as they become exhausted and disoriented.[38]: 185 Mother dolphins maylook after calves that are not their own.[38]: 192 

Dusky dolphin performing a flip

Aerial behaviour

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Dusky dolphins perform a number of aerial displays, including leaps, backslaps, headslaps, tailslaps, spins, and noseouts.[25]They also perform head-over-tail leaps which have been called the most "acrobatic" of the displays.[25]A headfirst re-entry is performed when a dolphin leaps entirely out of the water and positions its back in a curve while it flips the tail to land back in the water head-first. "Humping" is similar, except the snout and tail remain in the water when the dolphin is the arch.[25]Leaps, head-over-tail leaps, backslaps, headslaps, tailslaps, and spins are often done over and over again.[25]Young dusky dolphins apparently are not born with the ability to perform the leaps and must learn to master each one.[38]: 190 Calves appear to learn the leaps in this order: noisy leaps, head first re-entries, coordinated leaps, and acrobatic leaps.[38]: 190–91 Adults may perform different leaps in different contexts, and calves may independently learn how to perform leaps, as well as learn when to perform these when interacting others.[38]: 191 

Relationship with humans

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Status

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The dusky dolphin, protected in much of its range, is listed asLeast Concernby theIUCN Red Listbecause; "... Although information is sparse, several Dusky Dolphin populations are large, seemingly stable, and not subject to high levels of anthropogenic threats".[1]Dusky dolphins may fall victim to the small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile. The expansion of these fisheries could have started in Peru when the anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972.[1]Dolphins have also been caught in gill nets in New Zealand, but catches appear to have dropped since the 1970s and 1980s.[7]In Peru, dusky dolphins are killed in large numbers (10,000–15,000 per year) and used as shark bait or for human consumption, which has led to a status ofVulnerablefor the Peru subspecies.[39]The dolphins are also thought to have been harpooned off South Africa, but the numbers are not considered large.[24]

The dusky dolphin is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements.[40][41]

A pair of dusky dolphins swimming alongside a boat

Mussel farming

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The effect ofmussel farmingon dusky dolphins has been studied inAdmiralty Bay, New Zealand.[42]Dusky dolphins are commonly seen in this area, which is also where the greatest density of farming activity is proposed. Apparently, dolphins rarely enter existing farms, and when they do, they usually swim quickly up the lanes and between rows of lines and floats.[42]

Tourism

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Dusky dolphin tours off New Zealand'sSouth Island

Dusky dolphins are popular attractions for whale-watching tours. Since 1997, dolphin-watching activities have increased in Patagonia, with dusky dolphins (along withCommerson's dolphins) as the target species.[43]Tourists interested in seeing dusky dolphins grew from 1,393 in 1997 to 1,840 in 2000. Encounters with dolphins increased from 25% during 1999 to 90% in 2001.[43]Dolphin watching in this areas started as an alternative to whale watching, which was mostly based on that of thesouthern right whale.[43]Dusky dolphin watching is also popular in New Zealand, whose dolphin-watching industry begin in the late 1980s, as a side attraction to sperm whale watching. Whale and dolphin watching tours have grown with around 75 permitted dolphin tour operators.[44]: 235 New Zealand has several locations to view and swim with dusky dolphins, notably in Kaikōura andMarlborough Sounds.[44]: 236 

While dusky dolphin tourism is a larger industry in New Zealand than it is in Argentina, the effects of tourism on the dolphins seem to be lower in the former than the latter.[44]: 241 New Zealand tours are operated under permits, and are limited in number and have conditions and guidelines related to approach procedures and swim operations.[44]: 241 By contrast, no direct regulation of dolphin watching is done in Argentina.[43]As such, dolphin activities are often disturbed by touring vessels.[44]: 233–35 

See also

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References

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  40. ^"Appendix IIArchived11 June 2011 at theWayback Machine"of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). As amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2005 and 2008. Effective: 5 March 2009.
  41. ^"Convention on Migratory Species page on the Dusky dolphin".Archived fromthe originalon 3 October 2011.Retrieved31 August2011.
  42. ^abMarkowitz, Tim M.; Harlin, April D.; Würsig, Bernd; McFadden, Cynthia J. (2004). "Dusky dolphin foraging habitat: overlap with aquaculture in New Zealand".Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems.14(2): 133–49.Bibcode:2004ACMFE..14..133M.doi:10.1002/aqc.602.
  43. ^abcdCoscarella, M. A; Dans, S. L; Crespo, E. A; Pedraza, S. N. (2023)."Potential impact of unregulated dolphin watching activities in Patagonia".J Cetacean Res Manag.5:77–84.doi:10.47536/jcrm.v5i1.829.Archived fromthe originalon 8 July 2011.
  44. ^abcdeMarkowitz, T.M.; Dans, S.L.; Crespo, E.A.; Lundquist, D.L.; and Duprey, N.M.T. "Human interactions with dusky dolphins: harvest, fisheries, habitat alteration, and tourism". Pp. 211–44 in: Würsig, B., and Würsig, M., editors.The Dusky Dolphin: Master Acrobat off Different Shores.Academic Press. (2010)ISBN0-12-373723-0.

General

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  • Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals.Perrin, W. F., Wursig, B and J. G.M. Thewissen., editors. (2008) Academic Press; 2nd edition,ISBN0-12-373553-X
  • The Dusky Dolphin: Master Acrobat off Different Shores.Würsig, B., and Würsig, M., editors. (2010) Academic Press.ISBN0-12-373723-0.
  • Whales, Dolphins and. Porpoises,K. S, Norris. editor, (1977) University of California Press.ISBN0-520-03283-7
  • Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans.Thomas, J.; Kastelein, R., editors. (1990) Plenum Press.ISBN0-306-43695-7.
  • Cetacean Societies.Mann, J., editor. (2000) University of Chicago Press,ISBN0-226-50341-0.
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