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Ecclesia and Synagoga

EcclesiaandSynagoga,orEcclesia et SynagogainLatin,meaning "Church and Synagogue" (the order sometimes reversed), are a pair of figures personifying theChurchand theJewishsynagogue,that is to sayJudaism,found in medieval Christian art. They often appear sculpted as large figures on either side of a churchportal,as in the most famous examples, those atStrasbourg Cathedral.They may also be found standing on either side of the cross inscenes of theCrucifixion,especially inRomanesque art,and less frequently in a variety of other contexts.[1]

The originalEcclesiaandSynagogafrom the portal ofStrasbourg Cathedral,now in themuseumand replaced by replicas

The two female figures are usually young and attractive;Ecclesiais generally adorned with a crown,chaliceand cross-topped staff, looking confidently forward. In contrast,Synagogais blindfolded and drooping, carrying a broken lance (possibly an allusion to theHoly Lancethat stabbedChrist) and theTablets of the LaworTorah scrollsthat may even be slipping from her hand.[2]The staff and spear may have pennants flying from them. In images of theCrucifixion,Ecclesiamay hold a chalice that catches thebloodspurting from the side of Christ; she often holds the chalice as anattributein other contexts.[3]Attributes sometimes carried bySynagogainclude a male sheep or goat or just its head, signifyingOld Testament sacrifice,in contrast toEcclesia's chalice which represents the ChristianEucharist.The Ram also signifies alleged Jewish lustfulness and supposed Judaic focus on the flesh, in contrast to the Lamb, signifying the importance of the spirit in Christianity. In turn,Synagoga's female vulnerability and blindness suggest a raped woman and untrustworthiness. If not blindfolded,Synagogausually looks down.[4]Other elements suggest defeat.Ecclesiahas an earlier history, and inmedieval artSynagogaoccasionally appears alone in various contexts, but the pair, orEcclesiaby herself, are far more common. Further subjects where the pair may sometimes be found are theTree of Jesse,and theNativity.[5]

The first appearance ofEcclesiaandSynagoga(as an old man) in theDrogo Sacramentary,c. 830

The figures ofEcclesiaandSynagogaare sometimes traced to the influence of the 5th-centuryAltercatio Ecclesiae et Synagogae,a Latin dialoge from Roman Africa.[6]The first appearance of such figures in aCrucifixionis in ahistoriated initialin theDrogo Sacramentaryof c. 830, but thoughEcclesiaalready has most of her usual features already present, the figure representing the Jews or theOld Covenantis here a seated white-haired old man.[7]The pair, now with a female Jewish partner, are then found in several laterCarolingiancarved ivoryreliefpanels of theCrucifixionforbook covers,dating from around 870,[8]and remain common in miniatures and various small works until the 10th century. They are then less common inCrucifixionsin the 11th century, but reappear in the 12th century in a more strongly contrasted way that emphasizes the defeat ofSynagoga;it is at this point that a blindfoldedSynagogawith a broken lance becomes usual. The figures continue to be found inCrucifixionsuntil the early 14th century, and occur later in various contexts but are increasingly less common. The surviving portal figures mainly date from the 13th century.[9]

Background in literature

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The relationship between Church and Synagogue was discussed for a long period, ultimately influencing the depictions found in later visual representations. The tone of these varied in their tolerance or otherwise.Augustine,for example, depicts the Old Testament as being the same as the new, but "covered with a veil". TheAltercatio Ecclesiae et Synagogaeis in this tradition, popularised in Europe much later as larger numbers of Jews arrived.[10]The idea ofSynagogaas blind can be found in this literature. Another common comparison made is to equate the Synagogue with a concubine or female slave, and the Jews to her illegitimate offspring, while the Church is the true Bride, sometimes employing the story of Abraham's children by Hagar and Sarah to complete the metaphor.[11]

Meaning

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Ecclesia,left, with chalice, andSynagoga,right, blindfold, turned away and dropping her crown. She is also holding a Ram's head, a symbol of Jewish sacrificial practices and attachment to the flesh, in aCrucifixionfrom a Germanpsalter,c. 1260

The medieval figures reflect the Christian belief, sometimes calledSupersessionism,thatJesuswas theJewish Messiah,and thatJudaismas a religion was therefore made unnecessary, by its own tenets, once Christianity was established, and that all Jews should convert. Today opposed bydual-covenant theology,this belief was universal in the medieval church.Synagoga's blindfold reflected the refusal of medieval Jews to "see" this point, which was regarded as stubborn.[12]TheGospel of Matthew(27, 51) related that theVeil of the Temple,covering the entrance to theHoly of Holies,tore at the moment of Christ's death on the cross, which was taken to symbolize the moment of the replacement of Judaism by Christianity as the true religion, hence the presence of the pair inCrucifixionscenes.[13]

The blind coveringSynagoga's eyes derived from the letter ofSaint PaulatII Corinthians3:13-16:[14]

We are not like Moses, who would put a veil over his face to prevent the Israelites from seeing the end of what was passing away. 14 But their minds were made dull, for to this day the same veil remains when the old covenant is read. It has not been removed, because only in Christ is it taken away. 15 Even to this day when Moses is read, a veil covers their hearts. 16 But whenever anyone turns to the Lord, the veil is taken away.

The figure ofSynagogais usually shown as in some way fallen. The blindfold is also symbolic of this, but other indications can include presentation in a prone position, or possessing a broken staff, or a crown or scroll that is slipping. Sometimes a devil or serpent rather than a blindfold shields her eyes from the word of God. This contrasts with the upright presentation of the victoriousEcclesia.[15]

The sculpted portal figures are generally found on the cathedrals of larger cities in northern Europe that had significant Jewish communities, especially in Germany, and apart from their theological significance, were certainly also intended to remind Jews of their place in a Christian society, by projecting "an ideal of Jewish submission within an ideally ordered Christian realm".[16]They are therefore very prominent, but not very common. Many Jews, like Christians, conducted business in churches, and would pass the figures as they came and went.

Leo Spitzerhas claimed that unlike many medieval depictions of Jewish figures (other than those from theHebrew Bible), there is very rarely any element of a hostile caricature in the depiction ofSynagogawho, if clearly defeated, is often strikingly beautiful, as at Strasbourg.[17]Henry Abramsonhowever contextualises the figure ofSynagogaas being particularly marginalised, as both Jewish and a woman. AsSynagogais also blindfolded, she would be seen as vulnerable, particularly to rape. Within a medieval mindset, any form of extramarital sex including rape would make a woman permanently untrustworthy. The figure ofSynagogais often accompanied by a Ram, symbolising unrestrained Jewish sexual forces and a focus on the flesh rather than the spirit, symbolised by the Christian Lamb. SometimesSynagogawill interact with the Ram in a way to suggest lust and even oral or penetrative sex.[18]

Synagogafrom the 13th-century pair atBamberg Cathedral

Some English depictions include ahorned MosesaccompanyingSynagoga.[19]A horned Moses has usually been thought to be purely the result of a mistranslation byJerome,but some of the medieval depictions have been interpreted as overtly antisemitic.[20]

Evolution of the imagery

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It is often recognised that that the hostility implicit in later depictions is not found in the earliest ones.[21]Nina Rowe relates the figures to Late Antique uses of personifications, including contrasting figures of orthodox Christianity and either paganism orheresy,especiallyArianism,[22]and suggests that the identity of "Synagoga"was more variable before the millennium, withJerusalemor itsTemplebeing alternative identifications.[23]She describes the revival in use of the pair, now couched in more combative terms, as a reaction both to the influx into Western Europe of larger Jewish populations during the late 10th to the 12th centuries, and also to theTwelfth-century Renaissance,which involved contacts between Christian and Jewish scholars, who discussed their different interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. This made Christian theologians, mostly monastic, much more aware than previously of the existence of a vibrant Jewish theological tradition subsequent to the writing of the Hebrew Bible. Previously, Early Medieval Christians had likened the Jews to, as they were described byAugustine,"librarians" or "capsarii",a class of servant that was in charge of carrying books, but did not actually read them.[24]The increased contacts therefore had the paradoxical effect of making monasteries more aware that there was an alternative tradition ofexegesisand scholarship, and stimulating them to counter this.

There was also a tradition of dramatized disputations between the two figures, which reached its height somewhat later than depictions in art, but had a similar geographical distribution.[25]Usage of the figures declined in the Renaissance and later periods, as the religious dimension of antisemtism receded, but continued inPassionplays up to the present.[26]During the 14th century the pair become much rarer, replaced inCrucifixionscenes by large numbers of figures of soldiers and disciples, but some examples are found in the 15th century and later.[27]

Examples and distribution

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There are examples on the portals of the cathedrals atMinden,BambergandFreiburg Minsterin Germany, as well asNotre Dame de ParisandMetzin France. In England there are remains of pairs, after damage or destruction in theEnglish Reformation,from the cathedrals ofRochester,Lincoln,andWinchester;[28]claims that such remains also existed atSalisbury,frequently repeated in internet sources, can not be substantiated.[a]A single figure ofSynagogacan be found atHereford.[29]The cathedrals of the two largest commercial centres, London and York, both date from later periods, but may have had them on earlier buildings. Surviving from thechapter houseofYork Minsterare over life-size paintings on oak from a group of 48 supporting the roof vault and stained glass figures from the vestibule.[30]Synagogaand a horned Moses withoutEcclesiaappear in the window of the north choir aisle atCanterbury Cathedral,while a number of English church figures, screens and fonts also present the pair.[31]A number of English manuscripts also have drawings of the pair, sometimes also with a horned Moses.[19]Châlons Cathedraland theBasilique Saint-Denishave versions instained glass,respectively large and small.Synagogaalso appears on theCloisters Cross,piercing the Lamb.[32]

A rare carvedmisericordatErfurt Cathedralshows the pairjoustingon horses; unsurprisingly,Ecclesiais winning. As with many misericords, this was probably intended as a humorous version oficonographytreated with full seriousness in more prominent locations.[33]

Ecclesiaalone

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Ecclesiaenthroned,Prüfening Abbey,Bavaria,12th century

The personification ofEcclesiapreceded her coupling withSynagogaby several centuries. A number of biblical passages, including those describing Christ as a "bridegroom" led early in the history of the church to the concept of the church as theBride of Christ,which was shown in art using a queenly personification. The church was in this context sometimes conflated with theVirgin Mary,leading to the concept ofMaria Ecclesia,or Mary as the church, which is an element, now usually unrecognised, in the theology behind much of the art showing the Virgin as a queen.[34]

Parableof theWise and Foolish Virgins(top registers),Speculum Humanae Salvationis,Darmstadt,c. 1360

An earlier appearance of two female figures is in the now heavily restoredapsemosaic ofSanta Pudenzianain Rome (402-417), where two female figures behind a row of apostles hold wreaths over Saints Paul and Peter respectively, and towards an enthroned Christ. These are usually taken to represent the "Church of the Gentiles" and "Church of the Jews" - i.e. groups within theEarly Christian Churchwhich still reflected their pre-conversion backgrounds. The figures are hardly differentiated.[35]A mosaic atSanta Sabinain Rome appears to have similar figures, though the Peter and Paul are now missing and only known from an old drawing.

Wise and Foolish Virgins

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High medieval depictions of the New Testamentparableof theWise and Foolish Virginssometimes used the iconography ofEcclesiaandSynagoga.This is not done in the German portal sculptures, several on the same buildings that feature figures ofEcclesiaandSynagoga,as for example Strasbourg and Minden Cathedrals. It can be seen very clearly in theDarmstadtmanuscript of theSpeculum Humanae Salvationisillustrated here, from about 1360, where the leading virgins of each group have all the attributes ofEcclesiaandSynagoga,and the lamp of the leading Wise Virgin has become a chalice. The interpretation of the parable in terms of wise Christian and foolish Jewish virgins, the latter missing the wedding party, long remained common in sermons and theological literature, and has been argued to be present inHandel'soratorioMessiah(1741).[36]

Modern developments

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SynagogaandEcclesiain Our Time,Saint Joseph's University, as of July 2016.

The pair as a subject has often been avoided by modern artists, but afterNapoleonoccupiedMilanin 1805, he ordered the completion of the façade ofMilan Cathedral,to include secularized representations ofSynagogaandEcclesia,symbolizing the legal equality of all religions under the French regime.Synagogastands upright, holding the Ten Commandments, whileEcclesiais portrayed as the Lady of Liberty, complete with crown and torch.[37]

They each have a painting (1919) byJohn Singer Sargentin theBoston Public Library,as part of a larger scheme.[38]

In 2014,[39]Saint Joseph's UniversityinPhiladelphiacommissioned a large sculpture by Joshua Koffman showing the pair in harmony.[39]The sculpture was commissioned to mark the 50th anniversary of theNostra aetatedeclaration that called for a more cooperative approach to the relationship between Catholicism and Judaism. Both personifications wear crowns and hold their respective Holy Scriptures, representing their respective covenants with God and suggesting the notion of learning from one another.[39]The finalised bronze cast of the sculpture was dedicated on 25 September 2015 and blessed byPope Francison 27 September.[40][41] Pope Francis was a natural choice to bless the sculpture as only a year or so prior to the installation, Pope Francis wrote:

We hold the Jewish people in special regard because their covenant with God has never been revoked, for “the gifts and the call of God are irrevocable” (Rom 11:29).… Dialogue and friendship with the children of Israel are part of the life of Jesus’ disciples. The friendship which has grown between us makes us bitterly and sincerely regret the terrible persecutions which they have endured, and continue to endure, especially those that have involved Christians. God continues to work among the people of the Old Covenant and to bring forth treasures of wisdom which flow from their encounter with his word. For this reason, the Church also is enriched when she receives the values of Judaism.—Pope Francis,Evangelii Gaudium,§247-249.[42][43]

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toEcclesia and Synagoga.

Notes

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  1. ^The misunderstanding originates in theEcclesiaetSynagogaarticle on the subject in the Encyclopaedia Judaica. However, the sources quoted there do not speak of representations of the pair at Salisbury Catheral, but in two medieval illustrated manuscripts, possibly originating in the Salisbury area (Sarum Missal, John Rylands Library Ms. 24 f.153r and Amesbury Psalter, All Souls Library Oxford Ms. 24 f. 5), cf.Edwards 1955

Citations

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  1. ^See Schiller's Index, or Chapter III, pp. 31–66, in Schreckenburg
  2. ^Michael, 42
  3. ^Schiller, II, 159
  4. ^Schiller, II, 112
  5. ^Schiller, I, 17, 19, 73–76
  6. ^Hillgarth, p. 3n, lists authors who have advanced this hypothesis. Weber, p. 73, expresses doubt.
  7. ^Rose, 9; Schiller, II, 110; Rose,9
  8. ^Rowe, 52, says there are seven late Carolingian ivory book covers, which she discusses, 57–59
  9. ^Schiller, II, 110–112; Schreckenburg, 31–34; Rose, 9-11
  10. ^Hillaby & Hillaby 2013,p. 346.
  11. ^Schlauch 1939,p. 454.
  12. ^Rowe, 18
  13. ^Schiller, II, 110–112
  14. ^Lewis, 548, note 24;II Corinthians, 3 (NIV, UK)
  15. ^Abramson 1996,p. 8-11.
  16. ^Rowe, 81-83, 81 quoted
  17. ^Spitzer, 358-359
  18. ^Abramson 1996,p. 11-12.
  19. ^abEdwards 1955,p. 71-75.
  20. ^Mellinkoff 1970,pp. 133–137,Strickland 2003,pp. 106–7,Bertman 2009,pp. 101–103
  21. ^Edwards 1955,pp. 63–64.
  22. ^Rowe, 40–47
  23. ^Rowe, 58–61
  24. ^Rowe, 61–62, 62 quote
  25. ^Spitzer, 357-358
  26. ^Heil
  27. ^Schreckenburg, 61
  28. ^EcclesiaetSynagoga,Encyclopaedia Judaica
  29. ^Brooks & Pevsner 2012,p. 274-7.
  30. ^Alexander & Binski, 346-347
  31. ^Edwards 1955,p. 66-71.
  32. ^Heslop 1994,p. 459.
  33. ^Schreckenburg, 61
  34. ^Wechsler, 73, 75–77
  35. ^Kitzinger, 42
  36. ^Marissen, 188-191
  37. ^Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2014
  38. ^Boston Public Library 2015
  39. ^abcInstitute for Jewish-Catholic Relations
  40. ^Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2015b
  41. ^Brown 2015
  42. ^Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2015c
  43. ^Bergoglio 2013,p. §247-249

References

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  • Abramson, Henry(1996). "A Ready Hatred: Depictions of the Jewish Woman in Medieval Antisemitic Art and Caricature".Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research.62:1–18.doi:10.2307/3622591.JSTOR3622591.
  • Alexander, Jonathan & Binski, Paul (eds),Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400,Royal Academy/Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1987
  • Bergoglio, Jorge Mario (24 November 2013)."Evangelii Gaudium: Apostolic Exhortation on the Proclamation of the Gospel in Today's World".
  • Bertman, Stephen (2009). "The Antisemitic Origin of Michelangelo's Horned Moses".Shofar.27(4). Purdue University Press: 95–106.doi:10.1353/sho.0.0393.JSTOR42944790.
  • "Boston Public Library, Sargent murals".Archived fromthe originalon 2015-09-03.Retrieved2015-09-29.
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  • Brown, Dotty (28 September 2015)."Pope Francis Makes Surprise Stop To Bless Sculpture Symbolizing Catholic Unity With Jews".The Forward.Retrieved29 September2015.
  • Edwards, Lewis (1955). "Some English Examples of the Mediaeval Representation of Church and Synagogue".Transactions.18.Jewish Historical Society of England: 63–75.JSTOR29777922.
  • Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013).The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN9780230278165.OL28086241M.
  • Kitzinger, Ernst,Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century,1977, Faber & Faber,ISBN0571111548(US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
  • Heil, J. (2017). "Ecclesia et Synagoga". In Diner, D. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Cultures Online.Brill.doi:10.1163/2468-8894_ejhc_COM_0190.
  • Heslop, T.A.(1994). "Review: The Cloisters Cross: Its Art and Meaning".The Burlington Magazine.136(1096): 459–60.
  • Hillgarth, Jocelyn N., ed. (1999).Altercatio ecclesiae et synagogae.Brepols.
  • Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University."Sculpting a New Tradition".Saint Joseph's University.Archived fromthe originalon 27 February 2017.Retrieved27 February2017.
  • Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University."The Medieval Motif of Synagoga and Ecclesia (Page as of 8 October 2014)".Saint Joseph's University.Archived fromthe originalon 8 October 2014.Retrieved18 August2023.
  • Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University."Synagoga and Ecclesia in Our Time - SJU Dedicates Its Nostra Aetate Sculpture; Blessed by Pope Francis Two Days Later".Saint Joseph's University.Retrieved18 August2023.
  • "The Story of the Sculpture that Enshrines the Institute's Mission".Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University. Archived fromthe originalon 2019-07-19.Retrieved2020-12-24.
  • Lewis, Suzanne, "Tractatus adversus Judaeos in the Gulbenkian Apocalypse",The Art Bulletin,Vol. 68, No. 4 (Dec., 1986), pp. 543–566,JSTOR
  • Michael, Robert,A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church,2008, Macmillan,ISBN978-0-230-60388-2
  • Marissen, Michael, "Rejoicing against Judaism in Handel's Messiah",The Journal of Musicology,Vol. 24, No. 2 (Spring 2007), pp. 167–194, University of California Press, DOI: 10.1525/jm.2007.24.2.167,JSTOR
  • Mellinkoff, Ruth (1970).The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought.California Studies in the History of Art. Vol. 14. University of California Press.ISBN0520017056.
  • Rose, Christine, "The Jewish Mother-in-law; Synagoga and theMan of Law's Tale",in Delany, Sheila (ed),Chaucer and the Jews: Sources, Contexts, Meanings,2002, Routledge,ISBN0-415-93882-1,ISBN978-0-415-93882-2,google books
  • Rowe, Nina,The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century,2011, Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-19744-9,ISBN978-0-521-19744-1,google books
  • Schiller, Gertud,Iconography of Christian Art,(English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, Vol. I, 1971,ISBN0-85331-270-2,Vol. II, 1972,ISBN0-85331-324-5
  • Schlauch, Margaret (1939). "The Allegory of Church and Synagogue".Speculum.14(4). Medieval Academy of America: 448–464.doi:10.2307/2849533.JSTOR2849533.
  • Schreckenberg, Heinz,The Jews in Christian Art,1996, Continuum, New York,ISBN0-8264-0936-9(this devotes Chapter III, pp. 31–66, to the theme)
  • Spitzer, Leo, review ofDie religiöse Disputation in der europäischen Dichtung des Mittelalters: I. Der allegorische Streit zwischen Synagoge und Kircheby Hiram Pflaum,Speculum,Vol. 13, No. 3 (Jul., 1938), pp. 356–360, Medieval Academy of America,JSTOR
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  • Strickland, Debra Higgs (2003).Saracens, demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art.Princeton: Princeton University Press.ISBN0691057192.
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