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Edo period

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"Edo Japan" redirects here. For the city of Tokyo during this period, seeEdo (Tokyo).For the Canadian restaurant chain, seeEdo Japan (restaurant).

TheEdo period(Giang hộ thời đại,Edo jidai),also known as theTokugawa period(Đức xuyên thời đại,Tokugawa jidai),is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868[1]in thehistory of Japan,when the country was under the rule of theTokugawa shogunateand some 300 regionaldaimyo,or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of theSengoku period,the Edo period was characterized by prolonged peace and stability, urbanization and economic growth, strict social order,isolationistforeign policies, and popular enjoyment ofartsandculture.

In 1600,Tokugawa Ieyasuprevailed at theBattle of Sekigaharaand established hegemony over most of Japan, and in 1603 was given the titleshogunbyEmperor Go-Yōzei.Ieyasu resigned two years later in favor of his sonHidetada,but maintained power, and defeated the primary rival to his authority,Toyotomi Hideyori,at theSiege of Osakain 1615 before his death the next year. Peace generally prevailed from this point on, makingsamurailargely redundant. Tokugawa shoguns continued Ieyasu's policies of conformity, including a formalization of social classes ina strict hierarchy.By 1639, all foreigners were expelled under the policy ofsakoku,with the exception of Dutch traders on the island ofDejimainNagasaki,beginning a period of isolation. From 1635,daimyōhad to spend alternating years in the capitalEdo,where their family was required to reside permanently, in a system of "alternate attendance"in order to keep them in check.

During the Edo period, merchants greatly prospered, and laid the foundation for Japan's laterzaibatsubusiness conglomerates. Despite general restrictions on travel within the country,daimyōprocessions to and from Edo developed a network of roads and inns. A commoner culture emerged in Edo and cities such asŌsakaandKyōto,and art forms such askabukiandukiyo-eflourished. Japanese scholars developed schools ofneo-Confucianphilosophy, and samurai, now mostly employed as administrators, formalized their code of morality in thebushidocode. In 1853, Japan was opened to Western trade by United States CommodoreMatthew C. Perry,beginning theBakumatsu( "end of thebakufu") era. The Edo period came to an end in 1868 with theMeiji Restorationand theBoshin War,which restored imperial rule to Japan.

Consolidation of the shogunate

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Main article:Tokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa Ieyasu,firstshōgunof theTokugawa shogunate

Arevolutiontook place from the time of theKamakura shogunate,which existed with theTennō's court, to theTokugawa,when thesamuraibecame the unchallenged rulers in what historianEdwin O. Reischauercalled a "centralizedfeudal"form of the shogunate. Instrumental in the rise of the newbakufuwasTokugawa Ieyasu,the main beneficiary of the achievements ofOda NobunagaandToyotomi Hideyoshi.[2]Already a powerfuldaimyo(feudal lord), Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the richKantōarea. He maintained two millionkoku,or thirty-sixhectaresof land, a new headquarters atEdo,a strategically situated castle town (the futureTokyo), and also had an additional two millionkokuof land and thirty-eightvassalsunder his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control of theToyotomi clan.[citation needed]

Ieyasu's victory over the westerndaimyoat theBattle of Sekigahara(October 21, 1600, or in the oldJapanese calendar,on the 15th day of the ninth month of the fifth year of theKeichōera) gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemydaimyohouses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the westerndaimyo,but his assumption of the title ofshōgunhelped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his sonHidetada(1579–1632) asshōgunand himself as retiredshōgunin 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold atOsaka.

The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 250 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians callbakuhan,a combination of the termsbakufuandhan(domains) to describe the government and society of the period.[3]In thebakuhan,theshōgunhad national authority, and thedaimyohad regional authority. This represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly largebureaucracyto administer the mixture ofcentralizedand decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly seven millionkoku,control of the most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues.[citation needed]

Thefeudalhierarchy was completed by the various classes ofdaimyo.Closest to the Tokugawa house were theshinpan,or "related houses". There were twenty-threedaimyoon the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of the hierarchy was thefudai,or "housedaimyo",rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century, 145fudaicontrolled much smallerhan,the greatest assessed at 250,000koku.

Members of thefudaiclass staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-sevenhanformed the third group, thetozama(outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. Thetozamawere located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly ten millionkokuof productive land. Because thetozamawere the least trusted of thedaimyo,they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from centralgovernmentpositions.[citation needed]

The Tokugawa shogunate not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, but also had unprecedented power over theemperor,the court, alldaimyo,and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for theshōgun,who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.[citation needed]

A code of laws was established to regulate thedaimyohouses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, types of weapons, and numbers of troops allowed; required feudal lords to reside in Edo every other year (thesankin-kōtaisystem); prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; restricted castles to one per domain (han) and stipulated that bakufu regulations were the national law. Although thedaimyowere not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions tomilitaryand logistical support and for public works such as projects as castles, roads, bridges, and palaces.

The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of thedaimyo,thus weakening their threat to the central administration. Thehan,once military-centered domains, became mere localadministrativeunits. Thedaimyohad full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers,bureaucrats,and commoners. Loyalty was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms.[citation needed]

Foreign trade relations

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Main article:Sakoku
TheSan Juan Bautistais represented inClaude Deruet's painting ofHasekura Tsunenagain Rome in 1617, as a galleon with Hasekura's flag (red manji on orange background) on the top mast.

Like Hideyoshi, Ieyasu encouraged foreign trade but also was suspicious of outsiders. He wanted to make Edo a major port, but once he learned that the Europeans favoured ports inKyūshūand that China had rejected his plans for official trade, he moved to control existing trade and allowed only certain ports to handle specific kinds of commodities.

A bird's-eye view of Nagasaki Bay, with theDejimaforeign trading post island at mid-left (1833)

The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of theNanban trade periodduring which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built its first ocean-goingwarships,such as theSan Juan Bautista,a 500-tongalleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed byHasekura Tsunenagato the Americas and then to Europe. Also during that period, thebakufucommissioned around 720Red Seal Ships,three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such asYamada Nagamasa,used those ships throughout Asia.

Itinerary and dates of the travels of Hasekura Tsunenaga. Prior to Panama Canal, caravans carried goods across Central America.

The "Christian problem" was, in effect, a problem of controlling both the ChristiandaimyoinKyūshūand their trade with theEuropeans.By 1612, theshōgun's retainers and residents of Tokugawa lands had been ordered to forswear Christianity. More restrictions came in 1616 (the restriction of foreign trade toNagasakiandHirado,an island northwest of Kyūshū), 1622 (the execution of 120 missionaries and converts), 1624 (the expulsion of the Spanish), and 1629 (the execution of thousands of Christians).

Finally, theClosed Country Edict of 1635prohibited any Japanese from travelling outside Japan or, if someone left, from ever returning. In 1636, the Dutch were restricted toDejima,a smallartificial island—and thus, not true Japanese soil—in Nagasaki's harbor.

The shogunate perceived Christianity to be an extremely destabilizing factor, and so decided to target it. TheShimabara Rebellionof 1637–1638, in which discontented Catholic samurai and peasants rebelled against the bakufu—and Edo called in Dutch ships to bombard the rebel stronghold—marked the end of the Christian movement. During theShimabaraRebellion an estimated 37,000 people (mostly Christians) were massacred.[4]In 50 years, the Tokugawa shoguns reduced the amount of Christians to near zero in Japan.[4]

Some Christians survived by going underground, the so-calledKakure Kirishitan.Soon thereafter, the Portuguese were permanently expelled. Members of thePortuguesediplomatic mission were executed. All Japanese subjects were ordered to register at aBuddhistorShinto temple.The Dutch and Chinese were restricted, respectively, toDejimaand to a special quarter inNagasaki.Besides small trade of some outerdaimyowithKoreaand theRyukyu Islands,to the southwest of Japan's main islands, by 1641, foreign contacts were limited by the policy ofsakokuto Nagasaki.

The last Jesuit was either killed or committedapostasyby 1644.[5]By the 1660s, Christianity was almost completely eradicated. Its external political, economic, and religious influence on Japan became quite limited.[6]Only China, theDutch East India Company,and for a short period, the Portuguese, Spanish and English, enjoyed the right to visit Japan during this period, for commercial purposes only, and they were restricted to theDejimaport in Nagasaki. Other Europeans who landed on Japanese shores were put to death without trial.

Society

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Main article:Edo society
The house of the merchantFukagawa Edo MuseumArchived2013-10-29 at theWayback Machine

During the Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the emperor and court nobles (kuge), together with theshōgunanddaimyo.Older scholars believed that there wereShi-nō-kō-shō(Sĩ nông công thương,four classes)of "samurai, peasants (hyakushō), craftsmen, and merchants (chōnin) "under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants.[7]However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai are equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification.[8][9][10]

Only the peasants lived in rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in thecitiesthat were built arounddaimyocastles,each restricted to their own quarter. Edo society had an elaborate social structure, in which every family knew its place and level of prestige.[11]

At the top were the Emperor and the court nobility, invincible in prestige but weak in power. Next came the shōgun,daimyoand layers of feudal lords whose rank was indicated by their closeness to the Tokugawa. They had power. Thedaimyocomprised about 250 local lords of local "han" with annual outputs of 50,000 or more bushels of rice. The upper strata was much given to elaborate and expensive rituals, including elegant architecture, landscaped gardens,Nohdrama, patronage of the arts, and the tea ceremony.[12]

Then came the 400,000 warriors, called "samurai", in numerous grades and degrees. A few upper samurai were eligible for high office; most were foot soldiers. Since there was very little fighting, they became civil servants paid by the daimyo, with minor duties. The samurai were affiliated with senior lords in a well-established chain of command. The shogun had 17,000 samurai retainers; the daimyo each had hundreds. Most lived in modest homes near their lord's headquarters, and lived off of hereditary rights and stipends. Together these high status groups comprised Japan's ruling class making up about 6% of the total population.

After a long period of inner conflict, the first goal of the newly established Tokugawa government was to pacify the country. It created a balance of power that remained fairly stable for the next 250 years, influenced byConfucianprinciples ofsocial order.Most samurai lost their direct possession of the land: thedaimyotook over their land. The samurai had a choice: give up their sword and become peasants, or move to the city of their feudal lord and become a paid retainer. Only a few land samurai remained in the border provinces of the north, or as direct vassals of theshōgun,the 5,000 so-calledhatamoto.Thedaimyowere put under tight control of the shogunate. Their families had to reside in Edo; thedaimyothemselves had to reside in Edo for one year and in their province (han) for the next. This system was calledsankin-kōtai.[13]

Lower orders divided into two main segments—the peasants—80% of the population—whose high prestige as producers was undercut by their burden as the chief source of taxes. They were illiterate and lived in villages controlled by appointed officials who kept the peace and collected taxes. The family was the smallest legal entity, and the maintenance of family status and privileges was of great importance at all levels of society. The individual had no separate legal rights. The 1711Gotōke reijōwas compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696.[14]

Outside the four classes were the so-calledetaandhinin,those whose professions broke the taboos ofBuddhism.Etawere butchers, tanners and undertakers.Hininserved as town guards, street cleaners, and executioners. Other outsiders included the beggars, entertainers, and prostitutes. The wordetaliterally translates to "filthy" andhininto "non-humans", a thorough reflection of the attitude held by other classes that theetaandhininwere not even people.[15]

Hininwere only allowed inside a special quarter of the city. Other persecution of the hinin included disallowing them from wearing robes longer than knee-length and the wearing of hats.[15]Sometimesetavillages were not even printed on official maps. A sub-class of hinin who were born into their social class had no option of mobility to a different social class whereas the other class of hinin who had lost their previous class status could be reinstated in Japanese society.[15]

On the other hand, in practice, bothetaandhininwere recognized as owners of fields, some with very large incomes (koku) and some economic power. Their chief held the title ofDanzaemon(ja: Đạn tả vệ môn)and had the authority to issue orders toetaandhininthroughout the country, as well as jurisdiction within theetaandhinin.[9][16]

In the 19th century the umbrella termburakuminwas coined to name theetaandhininbecause both classes were forced to live in separate village neighborhoods.[17]Theeta,hininandburakuminclasses were officially abolished in 1871.[15]However, their cultural and societal impact, including some forms of discrimination, continues into modern times.[17]

Edo, 1865 or 1866.Photochromprint. Five albumen prints joined to form a panorama. Photographer:Felice Beato.

Economic development

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A scaled pocket plan of Edo

The Edo period passed on a vital commercial sector to be in flourishing urban centers, a relatively well-educated elite, a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads. Economic development during the Tokugawa period includedurbanization,increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade andhandicraftindustries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly,hanauthorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.[18]

Population

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A set of threeukiyo-eprints depictingOsaka's bustling shipping industry. By Gansuitei Yoshitoyo. 1854–1859.

By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than one million, likely the biggest city in the world at the time.[19]OsakaandKyotoeach had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many othercastle townsgrew as well.Osakaand Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods. Around the year 1700, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country in the world, at a rate of around 10–12%.[19]Half of that figure would be samurai, while the other half, consisting of merchants and artisans, would be known aschōnin.[19]

In the first part of the Edo period, Japan experienced rapid demographic growth, before leveling off at around 30 million.[20]Between the 1720s and 1820s, Japan had almostzero population growth,often attributed to lower birth rates in response to widespread famine (Great Tenmei famine1782–1788), but some historians have presented different theories, such as a high rate of infanticide artificially controlling population.[21]

At around 1721, the population of Japan was close to 30 million and the figure was only around 32 million around theMeiji Restorationaround 150 years later.[22][19]From 1721, there were regular national surveys of the population until the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate.[20]In addition, regional surveys, as well as religious records initially compiled to eradicate Christianity, also provide valuable demographic data.[20]

Economy and financial services

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Nihonbashi Fish Market Prosperity (Edo period) by UtagawaKuniyasu

The Tokugawa era brought peace, and that brought prosperity to a nation of 31 million, 80% of them rice farmers. Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 millionchōin 1600 to 3 million by 1720.[23]Improved technology helped farmers control the all-important flow of water to their paddies. The daimyos operated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade.

The system ofsankin kōtaimeant that daimyos and their families often resided in Edo or travelled back to their domains, giving demand to an enormous consumer market in Edo and trade throughout the country.[22][24]Samurai and daimyos, after prolonged peace, were accustomed to more elaborate lifestyles.[25]To keep up with growing expenditures, thebakufuand daimyos often encouraged commercial crops and artifacts within their domains, from textiles to tea.[25]The concentration of wealth also led to the development of financial markets.[22]

As the shogunate only alloweddaimyosto sell surplus rice in Edo and Osaka, large-scale rice markets developed there.[22]Each daimyo also had a capital city, located near the one castle they were allowed to maintain.[19]Daimyos would have agents in various commercial centers, selling rice and cash crops, often exchanged for paper credit to be redeemed elsewhere.[19]Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, and currency came into common use. In the cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services.[26]

Tokugawa coinage:Ōban,Koban,Ichibuban(1601–1695).

The merchants benefited enormously, especially those with official patronage. However, theNeo-Confucian ideologyof the shogunate focused the virtues of frugality and hard work; it had a rigid class system, which emphasized agriculture and despised commerce and merchants.[19]A century after the Shogunate's establishment, problems began to emerge.[19]The samurai, forbidden to engage in farming or business but allowed to borrow money, borrowed too much, some taking up side jobs as bodyguards for merchants, debt collectors, or artisans.[19]

Thebakufuanddaimyosraised taxes on farmers, but did not tax business, so they too fell into debt, with some merchants specializing in loaning to daimyos.[25]Yet it was inconceivable to systematically tax commerce, as it would make money off "parasitic" activities, raise the prestige of merchants, and lower the status of government.[19]As they paid no regular taxes, the forced financial contributions to the daimyos were seen by some merchants as a cost of doing business.[25]The wealth of merchants gave them a degree of prestige and even power over the daimyos.[25][27]

By 1750, rising taxes incited peasant unrest and even revolt. The nation had to deal somehow with samurai impoverishment and treasury deficits. The financial troubles of the samurai undermined their loyalties to the system, and the empty treasury threatened the whole system of government. One solution was reactionary—cutting samurai salaries and prohibiting spending for luxuries.[19]Other solutions were modernizing, with the goal of increasing agrarian productivity.[19]

The eighth Tokugawa shogun,Yoshimune(in office 1716–1745) had considerable success, though much of his work had to be done again between 1787 and 1793 by the shogun's chief councilorMatsudaira Sadanobu(1759–1829).[25]Other shoguns debased the coinage to pay debts, which caused inflation.[25]Overall, while commerce (domestic and international) was vibrant and sophisticated financial services had developed in the Edo period, the shogunate remained ideologically focused on honest agricultural work as the basis of society and never sought to develop a mercantile or capitalistic country.[19]

By 1800, thecommercializationof the economy grew rapidly, bringing more and more remote villages into the national economy. Rich farmers appeared who switched from rice to high-profit commercial crops and engaged in local money-lending, trade, and small-scale manufacturing. Wealthy merchants were often forced to "lend" money to the shogunate or daimyos (often never returned).[19]They often had to hide their wealth, and some sought higher social status by using money to marry into the samurai class.[19]There is some evidence that as merchants gained greater political influence in the late Edo period, the rigidclass divisionbetween samurai and merchants began to break down.[19]

A few domains, notablyChōshūandSatsuma,used innovative methods to restore their finances, but most sunk further into debt. The financial crisis provoked a reactionary solution near the end of the "Tempo era" (1830–1843) promulgated by the chief counselorMizuno Tadakuni.He raised taxes, denounced luxuries and tried to impede the growth of business; he failed and it appeared to many that the continued existence of the entire Tokugawa system was in jeopardy.[28]

Agriculture

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Ricewas the base of the economy. About 80% of the people were rice farmers.[29]Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable, so prosperity increased. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 million chō in 1600 to 3 million by 1720.[23]Improved technology helped farmers control the all-important flow of irrigation to their paddies. Thedaimyooperated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade.

Large-scale rice markets developed, centered on Edo and Ōsaka.[26]In the cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services. The merchants, while low in status, prospered, especially those with official patronage.[25]Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, currency came into common use, and the strengthening credit market encouraged entrepreneurship.[30]Thedaimyocollected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, often at around 40%-50% of the harvest.[25]The rice was sold at thefudasashimarket in Edo. To raise money, thedaimyousedforward contractsto sell rice that was not even harvested yet. These contracts were similar to modernfutures trading.

It was during the Edo period that Japan developed an advancedforest managementpolicy. Increased demand for timber resources for construction, shipbuilding and fuel had led to widespread deforestation, which resulted in forest fires, floods and soil erosion. In response theshōgun,beginning around 1666, instituted a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. The policy mandated that only theshōgunanddaimyocould authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge aboutsilvicultureand plantationforestry.[31]

Artistic and intellectual development

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Education

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Terakoya,private educational school

The first shogun Ieyasu set up Confucian academies in hisshinpandomains and otherdaimyosfollowed suit in their own domains, establishing what's known ashanschools( phiên giáo,hankō).[19][25]Within a generation, almost all samurai were literate, as their careers often required knowledge of literary arts.[19]These academies were staffed mostly with other samurai, along with some buddhist and shinto clergymen who were also learned in Neo-Confucianism and the works ofZhu Xi.When the clergy ofShintoreligion were alive, samurai, Buddhist monks were also there.[19]Beyondkanji(Chinese characters), the Confucian classics, calligraphy, basic arithmetics, and etiquette,[25]the samurai also learned various martial arts and military skills in schools.[19]

Thechōnin(urban merchants and artisans) patronized neighborhood schools calledterakoya( chùa tử phòng, "temple schools" ).[19]Despite being located in temples, theterakoyacurriculum consisted of basic literacy and arithmetic, instead of literary arts or philosophy.[19]High rates of urban literacy in Edo contributed to the prevalence of novels and other literary forms.[25]In urban areas, children were often taught by masterless samurai, while in rural areas priests from Buddhist temples or Shinto shrines often did the teaching.[25]Unlike in the cities, in rural Japan, only children of prominent farmers would receive education.[25]

In Edo, the shogunate set up several schools under its direct patronage, the most important being the neo-ConfucianShōheikō(Xương bình huỳnh)acting as a de facto elite school for its bureaucracy but also creating a network of alumni from the whole country. Besides Shoheikō, other important directly run schools at the end of the shogunate included theWagakukōdansho(Cùng học giảng nói sở,"Institute of Lectures of Japanese classics" ),specialized in Japanese domestic history and literature, influencing the rise ofkokugaku,and theIgakukan(Y học gian,"Institute of medicine" ),focusing onChinese medicine.[32]

One estimate of literacy in Edo suggest that up to a fifth of males could read, along with a sixth of women.[19]Another estimate states that 40% of men and 10% of women by the end of the Edo period were literate.[33]According to another estimate, around 1800, almost 100% of the samurai class and about 50% to 60% of thechōnin(craftsmen and merchants) class andnōmin(peasants) class were literate.[34]Some historians partially credited Japan's relatively high literacy rates for its fast development after the Meiji Restoration.[25]

As the literacy rate was so high that many ordinary people could read books, books in various genres such as cooking, gardening, travel guides, art books, scripts ofbunraku(puppet theatre),kibyōshi(satirical novels),sharebon(books on urban culture),kokkeibon(comical books),ninjōbon(romance novel),yomihonandkusazōshiwere published. There were 600 to 800 rental bookstores in Edo, and people borrowed or bought thesewoodblock printbooks. The best-selling books in this period wereKōshoku Ichidai Otoko(Life of an Amorous Man) byIhara Saikaku,Nansō Satomi HakkendenbyTakizawa BakinandTōkaidōchū HizakurigebyJippensha Ikkuand these books were reprinted many times.[35][34][36][37]

Philosophy and religion

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AWadokei,a Japanese-made clockwatch, 18th century

The flourishing of Neo-Confucianism was the major intellectual development of the Tokugawa period.[19]Confucian studies had long been kept active in Japan byBuddhistclerics, but during the Tokugawa period, Confucianism emerged from Buddhist religious control. This system of thought increased attention to a secular view of man and society. The ethicalhumanism,rationalism,and historical perspective of neo-Confucian doctrine appealed to the official class. By the mid-17th century, neo-Confucianism was Japan's dominant legal philosophy and contributed directly to the development of thekokugaku(national learning) school of thought.

AKarakuripuppetMoji-kaki dollmade byTanaka Hisashige.Using mechanical power, a puppet dips a brush into ink and writes a character on paper. 19th century

Advanced studies and growing applications of neo-Confucianism contributed to the transition of the social and political order from feudal norms to class- and large-group-oriented practices. The rule of the people or Confucian man was gradually replaced by therule of law.New laws were developed, and new administrative devices were instituted. A new theory of government and a new vision of society emerged as a means of justifying more comprehensive governance by the bakufu.

Each person had a distinct place in society and was expected to work to fulfill his or her mission in life. The people were to be ruled with benevolence by those whose assigned duty it was to rule. Government was all-powerful but responsible and humane. Although the class system was influenced by neo-Confucianism, it was not identical to it. Whereas soldiers and clergy were at the bottom of the hierarchy in the Chinese model, in Japan, some members of these classes constituted the ruling elite.

Members of the samurai class adhered to bushi traditions with a renewed interest in Japanese history and cultivation of the ways of Confucian scholar-administrators. A distinct culture known aschōnindō( "the way of the townspeople" ) emerged in cities such as Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo. It encouraged aspiration to bushido qualities—diligence, honesty, honor, loyalty, and frugality—while blendingShinto,neo-Confucian, and Buddhist beliefs. Study of mathematics, astronomy,cartography,engineering, and medicine were also encouraged. Emphasis was placed on quality of workmanship, especially in the arts.

Kaitai Shinsho,Japan's first treatise on Westernanatomy,published in 1774

Buddhism and Shinto were both still important in Tokugawa Japan. Buddhism, together with neo-Confucianism, provided standards of social behavior. Although Buddhism was not as politically powerful as it had been in the past, Buddhism continued to be espoused by the upper classes.Proscriptionsagainst Christianity benefited Buddhism in 1640 when the bakufu ordered everyone to register at a temple. The rigid separation of Tokugawa society into han, villages, wards, and households helped reaffirm local Shinto attachments. Shinto provided spiritual support to the political order and was an important tie between the individual and the community. Shinto also helped preserve a sense of national identity.

Shinto eventually assumed an intellectual form as shaped by neo-Confucian rationalism and materialism. The kokugaku movement emerged from the interactions of these two belief systems. Kokugaku contributed to the emperor-centered nationalism of modern Japan and the revival of Shinto as a national creed in the 18th and 19th centuries. TheKojiki,Nihon Shoki,andMan'yōshūwere all studied anew in the search for the Japanese spirit. Some purists in the kokugaku movement, such asMotoori Norinaga,even criticized the Confucian and Buddhist influences — in effect, foreign influences — for contaminating Japan's ancient ways. According to them, Japan was the land of thekamiand, as such, had a special destiny.[38]

During the period, Japan studied Western sciences and techniques (calledrangaku,"Dutch studies" ) through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima. The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, orwadokei,inspired by Western techniques. Among those who studied mechanical science at that time,Tanaka Hisashige,the founder ofToshiba,is worthy of special mention. Because of the technical originality and sophistication of hisMyriad year clockandkarakuripuppet,they are difficult to restore even today, and are considered to be a highly mechanical heritage prior to Japan's modernization.[39][40][41]

Art, culture and entertainment

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Red and White Plum BlossomsbyOgata Kōrin,1712-1716

In the field of art, theRinpa schoolbecame popular. The paintings and crafts of the Rinpa school are characterized by highly decorative and showy designs usinggold and silver leaves,bold compositions with simplified objects to be drawn, repeated patterns, and a playful spirit. Important figures in the Rinpa school includeHon'ami Kōetsu,Tawaraya Sōtatsu,Ogata Kōrin,Sakai HōitsuandSuzuki Kiitsu.Other than the Rinpa school,Maruyama ŌkyoandItō Jakuchūare famous for their realistic painting techniques. They produced their works under the patronage of wealthy merchants newly emerging from the economic development of this period. Following theAzuchi-Momoyama period,the painters of theKano schooldrew pictures on the walls andfusumasofcastlesand temples with the support of powerful people.[42]

Mounting forwakizashidecorated withlacquerofmaki-etechnique. 18th century

Due to the end of the period of civil war and the development of the economy, many crafts with high artistic value were produced. Among the samurai class, arms came to be treated like works of art, andJapanese sword mountingsandJapanese armourbeautifully decorated withlacquerofmaki-etechnique and metal carvings became popular. Eachhan(daimyodomain) encouraged the production of crafts to improve their finances, and crafts such as furnishings andinrobeautifully decorated with lacquer, metal or ivory became popular among rich people. TheKaga Domain,which was ruled by theMaeda clan,was especially enthusiastic about promoting crafts, and the area still boasts a reputation that surpassesKyotoin crafts even today.[43][44]

For the first time, urban populations had the means and leisure time to support a new mass culture. Their search for enjoyment became known asukiyo(the floating world), an ideal world of fashion, popular entertainment, and the discovery of aesthetic qualities in objects and actions of everyday life. This increasing interest in pursuing recreational activities helped to develop an array of new industries, many of which could be found in an area known asYoshiwara.The district was known for being the center of Edo's developing sense of elegance and refinement.[45]Established in 1617 as the city's shogunate-sanctioned prostitution district, it kept this designation about 250 years. Yoshiwara was home to mostly women who, due to unfortunate circumstances, found themselves working in this secluded environment.

Professional female entertainers (geisha), music, popular stories,Kabuki(theater) andbunraku(puppet theater), poetry, a rich literature, and art, exemplified by beautiful woodblock prints (known asukiyo-e), were all part of this flowering of culture. Literature also flourished with the talented examples of the playwrightChikamatsu Monzaemon(1653–1724) and the poet, essayist, and travel writerMatsuo Bashō(1644–1694).

The Great Wave off Kanagawa,full-colourukiyo-ewoodblock print,Hokusai,c. 1829–1832

Ukiyo-e is a genre of painting and printmaking that developed in the late 17th century, at first depicting the entertainments of thepleasure districtsof Edo, such as courtesans and kabuki actors.Harunobuproduced the first full-colournishiki-eprints in 1765, a form that has become synonymous to most with ukiyo-e. The genre reached a peak in technique towards the end of the century with the works of such artists asKiyonagaandUtamaro.As the Edo period came to an end a great diversity of genres proliferated: warriors, nature, folklore, and the landscapes ofHokusaiandHiroshige.The genre declined throughout the rest of the century in the face of modernization that saw ukiyo-e as both old-fashioned and laborious to produce compared to Western technologies. Ukiyo-e was a primary part of the wave ofJaponismethat swept Western art in the late 19th century.

The Edo period was characterized by an unprecedented series of economic developments (despite termination of contact with the outside world) and cultural maturation, especially in terms of theater, music, and other entertainment. For example, a poetic meter for music called kinsei kouta-chō was invented during this time[46]and is still used today in folk songs. Music and theater were influenced by the social gap between the noble and commoner classes, and different arts became more defined as this gap widened.[47]

Several different types ofkabukiemerged. Some, such asshibaraku,were only available at a certain time of year, while some companies only performed for nobles. Fashion trends, satirization of local news stories, and advertisements were often part of kabuki theater, as well.[47]Along with kabuki, storytelling entertainments were popular among the common people, and people enjoyedrakugo,a comical story, andkōdan,a historical story, in a dedicated theater calledyose.[48]The most popular sport wassumo.

Eating out became popular due to urbanization. Particularly popular among ordinary people werestalls serving fast foodsuch assoba,sushi,tempura,andunagi,tofurestaurants, teahouses andizakaya(Japanese-style pubs). A number ofryoteialso opened to serve high-class food. People enjoyed eating at restaurants by buying books that listed restaurant ratings that imitated sumo rankings.[49][50]

Gardening was a popular pastime. Especially in Edo, residences of daimyo (feudal lords) of each domain were gathered, and many gardeners existed to manage these gardens, which led to the development of horticultural techniques. Among people,cherry blossoms,morning glories,Japanese irisesandchrysanthemumswere especially popular, andbonsaiusing deep pots became popular. Not only did people buy plants and appreciate flowers, but they were also enthusiastic about improving the varieties of flowers, so specialized books were published one after another. For example, Matsudaira Sadatomo produced 300 varieties of iris and published a technical book.[51]

Traveling became popular among people because of the improvement of roads and post towns. The main destinations were famous temples andShinto shrinesaround the country, and eating and drinking at the inns and prostitution were one of the main attractions. What people admired most was the visit toIse Grand Shrineand the summit ofMount Fuji,which are considered the most sacred places in Japan. The Ise Grand Shrine in particular has been visited by an enormous number of visitors.[52][53]

Historical documents record that 3.62 million people visited the shrine in 50 days in 1625. 1.18 million people visited it in three days in 1829 when the grand festival held every 20 years (Shikinen Sengu) was held. It was a once-in-a-lifetime event for people living in remote areas, so they set up a joint fund for each village, saved their travel expenses, and went on a group trip. Local residents ofIse Grand ShrineandMount Fujiused to send specialized advertising personnel to various parts of Japan to solicit trips to local areas to make money from tourism.[52][53]

  • Art, culture
  • Reading stand withMt. Yoshino,decorated with lacquer ofmaki-etechnique. 18th century
  • Ukiyo-e based on kabuki actors became popular.Ichikawa Danjūrō Vin the popular kabuki playShibaraku,byUtagawa Kunimasa,1796
  • Ukiyo-e depictingSushi,byHiroshige
  • A boarding place for a ferry on theMiya River,which is crowded with people visiting Ise Grand Shrine. By Hiroshige

Fashion

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Outer kimono for a young woman (uchikake), 1840–1870,Khalili Collection of Kimono

Clothing acquired a wide variety of designs and decorative techniques, especially forkimonoworn by women.[54]The main consumers of kimono were the samurai who used lavish clothing and other material luxuries to signal their place at the top of the social order.[55]Driven by thisdemand,the textile industry grew and used increasingly sophisticated methods of weaving,dyeing,andembroidery.[55]Over this period, women adopted brighter colours and bolder designs, whereas women's and men's kimono had been very similar.[56]The rise of amerchant classfuelled more demand for elaborate costumes. While ordinary kimono would usually be created by women at home, luxurious silk kimono were designed and created by specialist artists who were usually men.[57]

Inro and Netsuke, 18th century
Ladies fashion in 1700s by Utagawa Toyokuni

A kind of kimono specific to the military elite is thegoshodokior "palace court style", which would be worn in the residence of a military leader (ashōgunordaimyo). These would have landscape scenes, among which there are other motifs usually referencing classic literature.[58]Samurai men would dress with a more understated design with geometrical designs concentrated around the waist.[59]Theyogi,or sleeping kimono, is a thickly wadded form of wearable bedding, usually with simple designs.[60]

A style calledtsuma moyōhad rich decoration from the waist down only, and family emblems on the neck and shoulders. These would be worn by women of the merchant class.[61]The kimono of merchant-class women were more subdued than those of the samurai, but still with bold colours and designs representing nature.[62]

Red was a popular colour for wealthy women, partly because of its cultural association with youth and passion, and partly because the dye – derived fromsafflower[63]– was very expensive, so a bright red garment was an ostentatious display of wealth.[64]Indian fabrics, brought to Japan byDutchimporters, were received with enthusiasm and found many uses.[65]Japanese designers started printing designs that were influenced by the Indian patterns.[66]Some garments used fabric imported from Britain or France. Ownership of these exotic textiles signified wealth and taste, but they were worn as undergarments where the designs would not be seen.[67]

Inroandnetsukebecame popular as accessories among men. Originally, inro was a portable case to put a seal or medicine, and netsuke was a fastener attached to the case, and both were practical tools. However, from the middle of the Edo period, products with high artistic value appeared and became popular as male accessories. Especially samurai and wealthy merchants competed to buy inro of high artistic value. At the end of the Edo period, the artistic value of inro further increased and it came to be regarded as an art collection.[68][69]

End of the shogunate

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Main article:Bakumatsu

Decline of the Tokugawa

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Dai-Roku Daiba( thứ 6 đài tràng ) or "No. 6 Battery", one of the original Edo-era battery islands
One of the cannons of Odaiba, now at theYasukuni Shrine.80-pound bronze, bore: 250mm, length: 3830mm

The end of this period is specifically called thelate Tokugawa shogunate.The cause for the end of this period is controversial but is often recounted as resulting from the forcedopening of Japan to the world,byCommodore Matthew Perryof theUS Navy,whosearmada(known by the Japanese as "the black ships") fired weapons fromEdo Bay.Severalartificial land masseswere created to block the range of the armada, and this land remains in what is presently called theOdaibadistrict.

The Tokugawa did not eventually collapse simply because of intrinsic failures. Foreign intrusions helped to precipitate a complex political struggle between thebakufuand a coalition of its critics. The continuity of the anti-bakufumovement in the mid-19th century would finally bring down the Tokugawa. Historians consider that a major contributing factor to the decline of the Tokugawa was "poor management of the central government by theshōgun,which caused the social classes in Japan to fall apart ".[attribution needed][70]From the outset, the Tokugawa attempted to restrict families' accumulation of wealth and fostered a "back to the soil" policy, in which the farmer, the ultimate producer, was the ideal person in society.

The standard of living for urban and rural dwellers alike grew significantly during the Tokugawa period. Better means of crop production, transport, housing, food, and entertainment were all available, as was more leisure time, at least for urban dwellers. The literacy rate was high for a preindustrial society (by some estimates the literacy rate in the city of Edo was 80 percent), and cultural values were redefined and widely imparted throughout the samurai andchōninclasses.

Despite the reappearance ofguilds,economic activities went well beyond the restrictive nature of the guilds, and commerce spread and a money economy developed. Although government heavily restricted the merchants and viewed them as unproductive and usurious members of society, the samurai, who gradually became separated from their rural ties, depended greatly on the merchants and artisans for consumer goods, artistic interests, andloans.In this way, a subtle subversion of the warrior class by thechōnintook place.

A struggle arose in the face of political limitations that theshōgunimposed on the entrepreneurial class. The government ideal of anagrarian societyfailed to square with the reality of commercial distribution. A huge government bureaucracy had evolved, which now stagnated because of its discrepancy with a new and evolving social order. Compounding the situation, the population increased significantly during the first half of the Tokugawa period. Although the magnitude and growth rates are uncertain, there were at least 26 million commoners and about four million members of samurai families and their attendants when the first nationwide census was taken in 1721. Drought, followed by crop shortages and starvation, resulted in twenty great famines between 1675 and 1837. During the Tokugawa period, there were 154 famines, of which 21 were widespread and serious.[71]

Starving peasants during theGreat Tenmei famine

TheGreat Tenmei famine(1782 until 1788) was the worst famine in the Edo period.[72]Many crops were damaged due to bad weather, serious cold and the1783 eruption of Mount Asama.[73][72]A worsening factor of the Great Tenmei famine was a drop in global temperatures due to the eruption of theIcelandicvolcanoLakiin 1783.[72]The spread of the famine was largely due to mismanagement of the Shogunate and the clan.[72]

Peasant unrest grew, and by the late 18th century, mass protests over taxes and food shortages had become commonplace. Newly landless families became tenant farmers, while the displaced rural poor moved into the cities. As the fortunes of previously well-to-do families declined, others moved in to accumulate land, and a new, wealthy farming class emerged. Those people who benefited were able to diversify production and to hire laborers, while others were left discontented. Many samurai fell on hard times and were forced into handicraft production and wage jobs for merchants.

Although Japan was able to acquire and refine a wide variety of scientific knowledge, the rapid industrialization of the West during the 18th century created a material gap in terms of technologies and armament between Japan and the West, forcing it to abandon its policy of seclusion, which contributed to the end of the Tokugawa regime.

Western intrusions were on the increase in the early 19th century. Russian warships and traders encroached onKarafuto(calledSakhalinunder Russian and Soviet control) and on theKuril Islands,the southernmost of which are considered by the Japanese as the northern islands ofHokkaidō.A British warship entered Nagasaki harbour searching for enemy Dutch ships in 1808, and other warships andwhalerswere seen in Japanese waters with increasing frequency in the 1810s and 1820s. Whalers and trading ships from the United States also arrived on Japan's shores. Although the Japanese made some minor concessions and allowed some landings, they largely attempted to keep all foreigners out, sometimes using force.Rangakubecame crucial not only in understanding the foreign "barbarians"but also in using the knowledge gained from the West to fend them off.

By the 1830s, there was a general sense of crisis. Famines andnatural disastershit hard, and unrest led to a peasant uprising against officials and merchants in Osaka in 1837. Although it lasted only a day, the uprising made a dramatic impression. Remedies came in the form of traditional solutions that sought to reform moral decay rather than address institutional problems. Theshōgun's advisers pushed for a return to the martial spirit, more restrictions on foreign trade and contacts, suppression ofrangaku,censorship of literature, and elimination of "luxury" in the government and samurai class.

Others sought the overthrow of the Tokugawa and espoused the political doctrine ofsonnō jōi(revere the emperor, expel the barbarians), which called for unity under imperial rule and opposed foreign intrusions. Thebakufupersevered for the time being amidst growing concerns over Western successes in establishing colonial enclaves in China following theFirst Opium Warof 1839–1842. More reforms were ordered, especially in the economic sector, to strengthen Japan against the Western threat.

Japan turned down a demand from the United States, which was greatly expanding its own presence in the Asia-Pacific region, to establishdiplomaticrelations whenCommodore James Biddleappeared inEdo Baywith two warships in July 1846.

End of seclusion

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Matthew Calbraith Perry
Landing of Commodore Perry, Officers and Men of the Squadron To meet the Imperial Commissioners atKurihamaYokosukaMarch 8th, 1854

When CommodoreMatthew C. Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. The chairman of the senior councillors,Abe Masahiro(1819–1857), was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat tonational security,Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of thedaimyowho wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe decided to compromise by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (orTreaty of Kanagawa) opened two ports to American ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence inShimoda,a seaport on theIzu Peninsula,southwest of Edo. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the U.S. and Japan (Harris Treaty), opening still more areas to American trade, was forced on thebakufufive years later.

The resulting damage to thebakufuwas significant. The devalued price for gold in Japan was one immediate, enormous effect.[74]The European and American traders purchased gold for its original price on the world market and then sold it to the Japanese for triple the price.[74]Along with this, cheap goods from these developed nations, like finished cotton, flooded the market forcing many Japanese out of business.[74]Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of thebakufu.In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of thefudai,had consulted with theshinpanandtozama daimyo,further undermining the already weakenedbakufu.In theAnsei Reform(1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, a naval training school with Dutch instructors was set up at Nagasaki, and a Western-stylemilitary schoolwas established at Edo; by the next year, the government was translating Western books. Opposition to Abe increased withinfudaicircles, which opposed openingbakufucouncils totozama daimyo,and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors byHotta Masayoshi(1810–1864).

At the head of the dissident faction wasTokugawa Nariaki,who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. TheMito school—based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, the turning back of the West, and the founding of a world empire under the divineimperial house.

In the final years of the Tokugawas, foreign contacts increased as more concessions were granted. The new treaty with the United States in 1859 allowed more ports to be opened to diplomatic representatives, unsupervised trade at four additional ports, and foreign residences in Osaka and Edo. It also embodied the concept of extraterritoriality (foreigners were subject to the laws of their own countries but not to Japanese law). Hotta lost the support of keydaimyo,and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of thebakufu,rejected Hotta's request and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When theshōgundied without anheir,Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son,Tokugawa Yoshinobu(or Keiki), forshōgun,a candidate favored by theshinpanandtozama daimyo.Thefudaiwon the power struggle, however, installing Tokugawa Yoshitomi, arresting Nariaki and Keiki, executingYoshida Shōin(1830–1859), a leadingsonnō-jōiintellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu, and signing treaties with the United States and five other nations, thus ending more than 200 years of exclusion.

Recently[when?]some scholars[who?]have suggested that there were more events that spurred this opening of Japan. Yoshimune, eighth Tokugawashōgunfrom 1716 to 1745, started the firstKyōhō reformsin an attempt to gain more revenue for the government.[75]In 1767 to 1786Tanuma Okitsugualso initiated some unorthodox economic reforms to expand government income.[75]This led his conservative opponents to attack him and take his position as he was forced from government in disgrace.[75]Similarly,Matsudaira Sadanobulaunched theKansei Reformsin 1787–1793 to stabilize rice prices, cut government costs, and increase revenues.[75]The final economic reform of theTenpōera of 1841–1843 had similar objectives. Most were ineffective and only worked in some areas. These economic failings would also have been a force in the opening of Japan, as Japanese businessmen desired larger markets. Some scholars also point to internal activism for political change. The Mito school had long been an active force in demanding political changes, such as restoring the powers of the Emperor. This anger can also be seen in the poetry of Matsuo Taseko (a woman who farmed silkworms in the Ina Valley) fromHirata Atsutane'sSchool of National Learning:

"It is disgusting
the agitation over thread
In today's world
Ever since the ships
from foreign countries
came for the jeweled
silkworm cocoons
to the land of the gods and the Emperor
Peoples hearts
awesome though they are,
are being pulled apart
and consumed by rage. "

— Matsuo Taseko, Gordon 2008, p. 52

This inspired many anti-Tokugawa activists as they blamed the bakufu for impoverishing the people and dishonoring the emperor.[76]

Tokugawa Yoshinobuin later life

Bakumatsu modernization and conflicts

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Main article:Bakumatsu

During the last years of thebakufu,orbakumatsu,thebakufutook strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target ofanti-Western sentimentthroughout the country.

The army and the navy were modernized. A naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as AdmiralEnomoto.French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such asYokosukaand Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of theshōgunalready possessed eight Western-style steam warships around the flagshipKaiyō Maru,which were used against pro-imperial forces during theBoshin Warunder the command of AdmiralEnomoto.AFrench military missionwas established to help modernize the armies of thebakufu.

Kanrin Maru,Japan's first screw-driven steam warship, 1855
Samurai in western clothing of the Tokugawa Shogunate Army (1866)

Revering the emperor as a symbol of unity, extremists wrought violence and death against the Bakufu and Han authorities and foreigners. Foreign naval retaliation in theAnglo-Satsuma Warled to still another concessionary commercial treaty in 1865, but Yoshitomi was unable to enforce the Western treaties. Abakufuarmy was defeated when it was sent to crush dissent in theSatsumaandChōshū Domainsin 1866. Finally, in 1867,Emperor Kōmeidied and was succeeded by his underaged sonEmperor Meiji.

Tokugawa Yoshinobureluctantly became head of the Tokugawa house andshōgun.He tried to reorganize the government under the emperor while preserving theshōgun's leadership role. Fearing the growing power of the Satsuma and Chōshūdaimyo,otherdaimyocalled for returning theshōgun's political power to the emperor and a council ofdaimyochaired by the former Tokugawashōgun.Yoshinobu accepted the plan in late 1867 and resigned, announcing an "imperial restoration". The Satsuma, Chōshū, and otherhanleaders and radical courtiers, however,rebelled,seized theimperial palace,and announced their own restoration on January 3, 1868.

Following theBoshin War(1868–1869), thebakufuwas abolished, and Yoshinobu was reduced to the ranks of the commondaimyo.Resistance continued in the North throughout 1868, and thebakufunaval forcesunder AdmiralEnomoto Takeakicontinued to hold out for another six months inHokkaidō,where they founded the short-livedRepublic of Ezo.

Although the Edo Period would soon end,Bushidovalues would continue to influence Japanese society long after the samurai ceased to exist.

The Edo Period would also have a lasting impact on modern art and culture. The Edo Period lives on in plays, books, anime, and especiallyjidaigeki(historical period dramas), such as the classic samurai films ofAkira Kurosawa.Kurosawa's films would influence Spaghetti Westerns, and even Star Wars.[77]

Events

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Era names

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Theimperial erasproclaimed during the Edo period were:[78]

Eras during the Edo period
Era name Japanesekanji Approximate years
Keichō Khánh trường 1596～1615
Genna Nguyên cùng 1615～1624
Kan'ei Khoan vĩnh 1624～1644
Shōhō Chính bảo 1644～1648
Keian Khánh an 1648～1652
Jōō Thừa ứng 1652～1655
Meireki Minh lịch 1655～1658
Manji Vạn trị 1658～1661
Kanbun Khoan văn 1661～1673
Enpō Duyên bảo 1673～1681
Tenna Thiên cùng 1681～1684
Jōkyō Trinh hưởng 1684～1688
Genroku Nguyên lộc 1688～1704
Hōei Bảo vĩnh 1704～1711
Shōtoku Chính đức 1711～1716
Kyōhō Hưởng bảo 1716～1736
Genbun Nguyên văn 1736～1741
Kanpō Khoan bảo 1741～1744
Enkyō Duyên hưởng 1744～1748
Kan'en Khoan duyên 1748～1751
Hōreki Bảo lịch 1751～1764
Meiwa Minh cùng 1764～1772
An'ei An vĩnh 1772～1781
Tenmei Bình minh 1781～1789
Kansei Khoan chính 1789～1801
Kyōwa Hưởng cùng 1801～1804
Bunka Văn hóa 1804～1818
Bunsei Văn chính 1818～1830
Tenpō Thiên bảo 1830～1844
Kōka Hoằng hóa 1844～1848
Kaei Gia vĩnh 1848～1854
Ansei An chính 1854～1860
Man'en Vạn duyên 1860～1861
Bunkyū Văn lâu 1861～1864
Genji Nguyên trị 1864～1865
Keiō Khánh ứng 1865～1868
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Main article:Edo period in popular culture

The Edo period is the setting of many works of popular culture. These include novels, comics, stageplays, films, television shows, animated works, and manga.

There is a cultural theme park calledEdo Wonderland Nikko Edomurain theKinugawa Onsenarea ofNikkō, Tochigi,north of Tokyo.

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^"Tokugawa Period (1603 – 1868)".Japan Module - University of Pittsburgh.Retrieved2023-09-05.
  2. ^"daimyo | Significance, History, & Facts".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved2022-10-03.
  3. ^Hall & McClain 1991,pp. 128–182
  4. ^ab"Japan, Christianity and the West during the Edo period".Facts and Details.August 26, 2014. Archived fromthe originalon March 15, 2022.
  5. ^Hall & McClain 1991,pp. 369–370
  6. ^Hall & McClain 1991,p. 370
  7. ^Beasley 1972,p. 22
  8. ^“Sĩ nông công thương” や “Tứ dân bình đẳng” の dùng từ が sử われていないことについて.Tokyo Shoseki(in Japanese). Archived fromthe originalon 30 November 2023.Retrieved7 March2024.
  9. ^abĐệ 35 hồi sách giáo khoa から『 sĩ nông công thương 』が tiêu えた ー sau biên ー lệnh cùng 3 năm quảng báo うき “ウキカラ” 8 nguyệt hào.Uki, Kumamoto(in Japanese). Archived fromthe originalon 30 August 2023.Retrieved7 March2024.
  10. ^Người 権 ý thức の アップデート(PDF).Shimonoseki(in Japanese). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 June 2023.Retrieved7 March2024.
  11. ^Hall, John W. (Autumn 1974). "Rule by Status in Tokugawa Japan".Journal of Japanese Studies.1(1):39–49.doi:10.2307/133436.JSTOR133436.
  12. ^Totman 2000,pp. 225–230.
  13. ^Michael Wert,Samurai: A Concise History(2019).
  14. ^Lewis 2003,pp. 31–32
  15. ^abcdFrédéric 2002,p. 313
  16. ^Đạn tòa vệ môn.Kotobank(in Japanese). Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2024.Retrieved7 March2024.
  17. ^abFrédéric 2002,p. 93
  18. ^Kozo Yamamura, "Toward a reexamination of the economic history of Tokugawa Japan, 1600–1867."Journal of Economic History33.3 (1973): 509-546.online
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