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Elihu Yale

For the American military officer, seeElihu Yale (captain).

Elihu Yale(5 April 1649 – 8 July 1721) was aBritish-Americancolonialadministrator and philanthropist.

Elihu Yale
President of Fort St. George
In office
25 July 1687 – 3 October 1692
Preceded byWilliam Gyfford
Succeeded byNathaniel Higginson
In office
8 August 1684 – 26 January 1685
Preceded byWilliam Gyfford (Agent)
Succeeded byWilliam Gyfford
Personal details
Born(1649-04-05)5 April 1649
Boston,Colony of Massachusetts,British America
Died8 July 1721(1721-07-08)(aged 72)
London,England
Signature

Born inBoston,Massachusetts, Yale lived in America only as a child, and spent the rest of his life inEngland,Wales,andIndia.

He became a clerk for theEast India CompanyatFort St. George,laterMadras,and eventually rose to thePresidencyof the settlement. He was later removed from the post under charges of corruption for self-dealing, and required to pay a fine.[1]

In 1699, he returned to Britain with a considerable fortune, around £200,000 (equivalent to £35.3 million in 2023),[2]mostly made by selling diamonds, and spent his time and wealth in philanthropy and art collecting.[3][4]

He was the primary benefactor ofYale College,nowYale University,which was named in his honor, following a donation of books, portraits, and textiles at the request of Rev.Cotton Mather,aHarvard Universitygraduate. He had no male heir, and no descendants of his have survived past his grandchildren.[5]

In the 21st century, Yale's connections toslavery in Indiabegan to be more closely explored, a process assisted by the digitalisation and online publication of the East India Company's records.[6]In 2020,Peter Salovey,president of Yale University, launched the Yale and Slavery Research Project to explore the university's historical links with slavery and colonialism, including Elihu Yale's role.[7]

Early life

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Yale was born inBoston,Massachusetts,to David Yale (1613–1690), a wealthy Boston merchant and attorney toRobert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick,and Ursula Knight; he was the grandson of Ann Yale (born Lloyd), daughter of BishopGeorge Lloyd.[8]After the death of her first husband, Thomas Yale Sr. (1587–1619), son of ChancellorDavid Yale,Anne Yale marriedTheophilus Eaton,ambassador to Denmark. Eaton was the co-founder of two of theThirteen British Colonies,which are represented on theFlag of the United States,mainly through theMassachusetts Bay Colonyand theNew Haven Colony,and was the brother ofNathaniel Eaton,Harvard's firstHeadmasterandPresident designate,at the founding of Harvard in 1636.

His son, Samuel Eaton, the uncle of Elihu, was also involved in the foundation of Harvard, being one of the seven founder members of theHarvard Corporation,the governing board and charter thatincorporatedthe college in 1650. It was they, along with Elihu's uncle and aunt,Thomas Yale Jr.,and Anne Yale Jr., who brought the reconstituted Eaton/Yale familyto America, while other members of the family stayed in England. Their estates in Wales were Plas-yn-Yale and Plas Grono, and Elihu's brother was London merchant Thomas Yale, later ambassador to theKing of Siamfor theEast India Company.[9]

Elihu's father, David Yale, would later come from London toNew Haven Colonywith his stepfather,Theophilus Eaton,in 1639.[10]He moved to Boston in 1641[11]and met and married Elihu Yale's mother, Ursula, in 1643.[11]In 1652, at the age of three, Elihu Yale leftNew England,as David Yale took his family back to London.[8]While documentation of this period is sparse, a letter suggests that David Yale remained a successful merchant and settled his family in theHanseaticmerchant district "SteelyardCourt ".[12]In 1662, at the age of thirteen, Elihu Yale entered the private school ofWilliam Dugard,but Dugard died a few months after Elihu Yale enrolled.[13]Yale likely lived through theGreat Plague of Londonand theGreat Fire of London.[14]

East India Company

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Seaview ofFort St. George,theEast India Company's headquarters inMadras,1700s

In 1670, Yale joined theBritish East India Company,starting as aclerkatEast India HouseinLondon.[15]Among the board was theEarl of Berkeley,Sir Samuel Barnardiston,Vice-AdmiralJohn Robinson,and ChairmanSir Andrew Riccard.[15]Yale's uncle, Connecticut Gov.Edward Hopkins,was also one of the shareholders.[15]It is possible that Yale had business training in his father's merchantcounting housebeforehand.[15]He then sailed to India in December 1671 on one of theEast Indiamen,on a voyage that would take six months, with the eminent dangers ofpirates,storms and diseases.[16]

He landed inMadrason June 23, 1672, atFort St. George,where Portuguese, English andHindulived.[15]He then learned the rules of Gov.William Langhorne,some of which being the interdiction to start aduel,to desert the fort, or to blaspheme, and met with FatherEphrem de Nevers.[17]At the time, theEast India Companywas already exporting to Europespices,pepper,precious stones,Chineseporcelains,Japanese screens, and cottoncloth.[18]In 1674, Yale was sent to negotiate the potential establishment of a new factory, and by February, was allowed to deal in private trade, which includedpearls,diamonds,rubies,sapphires,neckcloths,clovesandnutmegs.[19]By 1677, Gov.Langhornewas accused of corruption by competitors within theCompany.[20]The directors were always suspicious, and with huge fortune being made six months away from London, they easily mistrust their employees.[20]

He was then replaced by Gov.Streynsham Master,the son-in-law of Richard Legh ofLyme Hall.[21]In April 1678, Yale was promoted to the rank ofFactor,doubling his salary.[21]In June arrived the Welsh chaplainJohn Evans,futureBishop of Meath,who would become a lifelong friend.[21]In 1679, Yale's duties now involved receiving and invoicing textiles worth about 100,000pagodas,consisting of neckcloths, chintz, andlongclothof various grades.[22]With the death of Joseph Hynmers, second-in-command, Yale was made Assistant to the Warehouse Keeper, and started courting his widow.[22]They married atSt. Mary's Church,the oldestAnglican Churchin India, on November 4, 1680, withSir Henry Oxenden,Governor ofBombay,as brideman.[22]With his wife's capital, Yale learned the trade and became a specialist indiamondsand precious stones.[22]

Madras Council

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The Government House atFort St. George,seat of theMadras Presidency,where Yale would spend 29 years of his career

In January 1681, he was promoted to the office of Provisional Customer.[23]In the same year, Gov.Streynsham Masterwas replaced byWilliam Gyfford,and Yale was sent as a diplomat to meet theVOCGovernor ofPulicat.[23]Despite Master's loyalty, the directors once again believed the charges of bad management, fueled by enemies, who brought complaints after complaints to theboard in London.[23]According to Madras historian Arthur Pringle, the official records are full of invented circumstantial charges of injustice and fraud.[23]Yale was then promoted to the office ofMintmaster,and was given a seat on the council, occupying the fifth position on a board of six, as the directors were "pleased with Elihu's behavior and ability".[24]In 1682, he was sent toPorto Novoon theCoromandel Coastto find investment opportunities for the sale oflongcloth.[25]During his mission, a great storm struck the coast, and 14,000 persons died.[25]He made assessments ofharborfacilities and fortifications, and was welcomed withcoconutsas gifts of diplomacy.[26]

Yale then negotiated withSikandar Shah,theSultan of Bijapur,and obtained permission for thegold tradein his territory.[27]In 1683, as a member of Gov.Gyfford's council, he became a cofounder of theMadras Bank,the oldest in India.[28]On February 12, the second-in-command was dismissed for his "language that was too independent and not sufficiently subservient in his letters".[29]The Councilmen rose in rank, with Yale becoming Warehouse Keeper.[29]When Gov.Gyffordwas sent to inspect factories in theBay of Bengal,Yale became acting governor for a few months, and procured threeelephantsfrom KingNarai of Siam,to be sent to theSultan of Gingeeaswar elephants.[30]In peace time, they were used with aHowdahas status symbols, while at war, they were the prototypes of the moderntank.[31][32]Yale then obtained a house and garden atSt. Thomas Mountfor the sickly and their convalesce.[33]Thereafter, he received 3 princes fromSumatra, Indonesia,bringing a letter from SultanahInayat Syah,Queen ofAcheen,resulting in a trade agreement.[34]About this time, KingCharles II of Englanddied, withJames IIascending to the throne.[34]The change was well welcomed by the company, as the chairman,Sir Josiah Child,had spent a fortune on James's ascension.[34]Yale then organized the official ceremony atFort St. George,with Gov.Gyffordresuming his office, and received the ambassadors of Persia and Siam.[34]

Presidency of Madras

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See also:Madras Presidency
Map of theMughal Empirein 1700, covering most of India, withMadrasbeing surrounded at the bottom right in pink

In July 1687, Yale was appointedPresident of Madrasand Governor ofFort St. George,replacingWilliam Gyfford.[35][36]A difficulty of the office was to deal with the native rulers throughfirmans,as Madras was surrounded by theMughal Empire,with rulers always asking for bribes.[37]When their demands were refused, they would seized the food supplies, half starving the company's servants with ablockade.[37]In terms of size,Madrasconsisted of about 300,000 people, or around 6% ofEngland's population at the time.[38]Yale had previously been popular with both the Europeans and native Indians,[39]and reverted to the former practice of living and dining in the Fort House with merchants,writersand factors.[39]

With Yale's nomination,Sir Josiah Childhoped that Madras would be less critical ofLondon.[33]As theEast India Company's headquarterswere thousands of miles away, the board implemented policies that were not well adapted to the conditions in Madras.[40]Letters took 6 months to be received, sometimes over a year, making communications difficult.[33]One of these policies was the creation of a new tax upon Madras inhabitants that Yale had now to carry out, which caused a localrebellion.[33]During this time, they accused him of not cutting expenses down, such as keeping aBengal tigerat the fort, among other things.[41]Those who were taxed the most were the owners of the 128 houses within the fort, which half belonged to thePortuguesemerchants.[42]The company's chairman sent a letter to Yale, writing that "your elaborate arguments to persuade us not to impose a moderate duty upon the Portuguese and other inhabitants of our city of Madras, whom we do protect and exceedingly encourage in their several vocations, have no weight at all with us".[42]

Yale had received similar letters during the Great Famine under Gov.Gyfford,where they had refused to collect taxes, with the directors replying that "you are still fencing against our creating revenue at the Fort, with slight, insignificant arguments, wherein the worst is that you should have so mean an opinion of us, as to think such sophistical reasons will make any impressions on our judgment".[42]The directors also gave the order to close the Garden House, which was used for those who were resting outside the city, having a place to eat.[41]Yale didn't follow this order and kept Gov.Gyffordthere as his health was fragile.[41]During August 1687, Yale is then recorded corresponding with the Ambassador of ShahSuleiman of Persia,regarding his arrival with aKoranto try to convert the Siamese king toMohammedanism,which the latter refused.[43][44]Being bankrupt after his failed mission, Yale loaned him money, which was never repaid.[45][43][46]

Anglo-Siamese War

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See also:Anglo-Siamese War
WarshipsattackingFort St. George, Madras,along theCoromandel Coast.c. 1731 by Beorbe Lambert andSamuel Scott

For many years, merchants of Madras andSiamwere trading partners in theAndaman Sea,trading inrhinoceros horns,elephant tusks,copperand other commodities.[47]Yale's brother, Thomas Yale, became ambassador to KingNarai of Siam,and during this time, Elihu would entertain at his house the French ambassador andmusketeer,CountClaude de Forbin,drinking to the health of the royal families of England and France.[48][9][49]But around August 1687, disputes regarding Siam's strategic importance emerged amongEuropean powers,and Gov. Yale was charged by KingNarai's agents regarding the sale of jewels, which they estimated having overpaid by 25%.[50]The man behind the charges was a Greek namedConstantine Phaulkon,who wanted to lower English's influence over King Narai, and get him closer toLouis XIVof France throughChevalier de Chaumont.[47][50]

This trading dispute started theAnglo-Siamese War,with Yale acting on behalf of KingJames II of England,which resulted in number of casualties for the company, as cities were now being robbed by Siameses.[50]Some English merchants at Siam sided with the enemy, and became involved in acts ofpiracy,which had Yale sendwarshipsin retaliation against Englishmen who changed sides.[47]No peace treaty was ever signed, but the war against theCompanywill eventually stop around 1688.[51]In London, the directors investigated the accusations of the Siameses on Yale and cleared his name, declaring that "you can not be ignorant that Phaulkon himself in the King of Siam's name, began the war... upon a pretense that Mr. Yale injured the King of Siam in a bargain".[50]Phaulkon's alliance with France would later cost him his life, being assassinated by the Siameses nobles during theSiamese revolution of 1688.[50]On August 11, 1687, Yale approved the recall of several Englishmen to Madras detained by PrussianWolf Henrik von Kalnein,governor ofTranquebarunder theDanish East India Co..[52]

Siege of Golconda

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See also:Siege of Golconda
Mughal EmperorAurangzebon hiswar elephantduring theSiege of Golconda.Unknown artist, 1750–1790

About a month later, on September 22, 1687, Mughal EmperorAurangzebconquered the nearbyKingdom of Golconda,defeating SultanAbul Shahat theSiege of Golconda,ending theQutb Shahi dynasty.[53][54]Aurangzeb was a member ofTamerlane's dynasty,and hisparents,founders of theTaj Mahal,weredirect descendantsofGenghis Khan.[55][56]As Yale expected the Mughal's revenge for theAnglo-Mughal Warstarted by the directors inBengal,he prepared for war and raised a Portuguese militia, but as theMughalhad thousands ofwar elephants,he and the council had no choice but to pay him 50,000pagodasto keep theCompany's activities in Madras.[54]Gov. Yale was now under the overlordship of the IslamicMughal Empire.[57][58]He sent diplomats to pay EmperorAurangzeb,one of which was his friend Daniel Chardin, diamond merchant and brother ofSir Jean Chardin,Yale's partner in England.[54]He also sent letters to Mughal generalMahabat Khan,and complied with the ceremonies of princeMuhammad Bakhsand prime ministerAsad Khan.[59]The situation was delicate as the Dutch andLouis XIVatVersailleswere also trying to get the Mughal in their favor, and the directors would hold Yale responsible if anything went wrong, including failing to keep theGolconda diamondstrade from theKollur Mines.[60]

At the time, India was the world producer of diamonds, withGolcondaproducing 60% of its total output.[61]Most of Yale's private fortune will be obtained from this trade with theMoghul,who received royalties, while Yale used his expertise and capital to hold on these stones until they werefacetedand polished inAmsterdam,on their way to London.[62]The process took on average 3 years before getting a return on investment, and Yale had 50 trained men to protect the goods fromrobbersduring transportation.[62]By 1688,Sir Josiah Child,theCompany's largest shareholder, retired with a fortune of about £200,000 (equivalent to £45.4 million in 2023),[2]and married his daughter to the son of the1st Duke of BeaufortatBadminton House.[63][64][65]During the same year, Yale welcomed theArmenianmerchants to establish themselves atFort St. Georgefollowing their persecution in Europe.[66]In July, he sent diplomats for the arrival of Dutch Gov.Johannes Camphuys,and on September 29, 1688, he inaugurated theMadras Corporation,whereNathaniel Higginsonwas elected its first mayor, with Amsterdam merchantJacques de Paivaand others, elected on its board.[67][68][69]Initially founded to restrain Yale's powers as governor, it became the oldest corporation in India, and the second oldest municipal body in the world after theCity of London.[70][71][72]Paiva's widow, Hieronima, would become Yale's mistress and bear him a son named Charles.[73]

Anglo-Dutch relations

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A fleet arriving atFort St. Davidon the left, inCuddalore.c. 1763 byFrancis Swaine

Following theEnglish Revolution of 1688,William of Orange,a Dutch, ascended to the throne of England, replacingJames II,which was a fatal blow forSir Josiah Childwho had bet on the wrong side.[74]The past wars between the Dutch and Englishmerchantsin Madras were now settled, and both started to form alliances through marriage.[75][74]From then on, the directors' letters to Yale changed in tone.[74]Sir Langhornestarted complimenting him on his private trade in diamonds, as they now saw it as a way to expand the company to new markets without having to bear the risks themselves.[74]Yale tried to build routes atMindanao,the second largest island of thePhilippines,getting from themCloveandIronwood.[74]He was then put on a secret committee withSir John Child,governor ofBombay,andNathaniel Higginson,mayor of Madras, to plan the establishment of a new fort near theSouth Seas,to engage in trade withChina.[74]On March 17, 1689, Yale received the arrival of CommanderJob Charnock,with his staff and four companies of soldiers.[76]He arrived from a failed mission that consisted ofblockingand seizing the ships of MughalAurangzeb,who had attacked the company's ships in theBay of Bengal,and taken control ofChittagongduring theAnglo-Mughal War.[76]

Charnockstayed in Madras for a few months under Gov. Yale's protection, which caused dissensions in the council for fear of the Mughal's revenge.[77][76]The Council eventually outvoted Yale, and Charnock was forced to leave, where he would found the city ofCalcutta.[77][76]In July, 1690, news of the war betweenWilliam of OrangeandLouis XIVof France arrived inMadras,and Yale preparedFort St. Georgeonce more for war.[78]On August 15, the French sent sevenwarshipsto attack theMadrasroads, along with onefireship.[75]The fort was protected by agarrisonof 700 soldiers under Gov. Yale, with the help of a Dutch fleet.[79]Combat lasted a few hours, and the French were repulsed by the fort's guns, after which they didn't return.[75]Yale then negotiated the release of Englishmen, dealing with Moghul generalShaista Khan,along with Daniel Chardin, who was sent to theKing of Kandy.[80]In 1690, Yale's brother negotiated withRama Raja,theChhatrapatiof theMarathas,for the acquisition of a fort at Devanampatnam on behalf of the company, which was sold for 40,000pagodas.[81]They renamed the placeFort St. Davidin honor of aWelsh saint.[82][81]On December 28, they supplied ammunition to generalZulfiqar Khan,son ofGrand VizierAsad Khan,from which they obtained thefirmanfor the territories ofVizagapatam,Gingeeand Golconda.[83]During this year, Yale was also instrumental to the development of theGovernment General Hospitalfor Madras soldiers.[84]

Slavery

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Elihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child,unknown artist, c. 1708

Records of the period indicate a flourishingslave tradein Madras.[85]After English merchants began to kidnap young children and deport them to distant parts of the world, the administration of Fort St George stepped in and introduced laws to curb the practice. On 2 February 1688, Elihu Yale decreed that slaves should be examined by the judges of thechoultrybefore being transported. Transportation of young children, in particular, was made unlawful.[86][page needed]During his tenure asPresident of Madras,Yale ordered a minimum of 10 slaves sent on every ship going to Europe, and on a month in 1687, Fort St George exported at least 665 slaves.[85]In his judicial capacity he also on several occasions sentenced so-called "black criminals" towhippingand enslavement.[85][6]Evidence as to whether Yale personally owned slaves, or participated directly in their sale is inconclusive; the historianSteven Pincussuggests that he did not,[87]while, in a 2016 article in theJournal of Global History,Elizabeth Kuebler-Wolf stated that he enslaved one or two people as household servants, citing explorerHiram Bingham's 1939 bookElihu Yale.[88]Historian Joseph Yannielli writes that although Yale "probably did not own any of these people – the majority were held as the property of theEast India Company– he certainly profited both directly and indirectly from their sale ",[89]while theSterling ProfessorDavid W. Blightsuggests that Yale's personal ownership is "not a key question [...] some portion of [his] considerable fortune derived from his myriad entanglements with the purchase and sale of human beings" through his "key leadership role in the business ofhuman trafficking".[7]

The Groom

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Gov. Yale's story of having hanged his groom for taking his favorite horse on a day is a false story that was propagated by privateerAlexander Hamilton.[90]The events were as follow: In August 1689, two soldiers ofFort St. Georgestoleguns,horses, and other items, and left Madras as fugitives with a group of fiveconfederatesto join the enemy's army during war time.[90]One was named George Isaac, and the other was named Charles Cross, the latter being not only a soldier but also one of thegroomsof the fort's stables.[90]They were captured by thePolligarson their way to theMughaland surrendered to Madras on condition of showing them mercy, which was initially agreed, but once arrived, Gov. Yale and the Council decided to have them sentenced fortreasonanddesertion.[90]One was executed before thestables,the other was shot in front of the fort's gate.[90]Thirty-eight years later, Capt.Hamiltonwrote about the event in his memoirs, from a "weal and treacherous memory".[90]As a past employee who became aPrivateer,he never forgave the taxes theCompanyforced upon him during his private travels, and his depiction of the time, always critical of his past employer, are not considered faithful about the period.[91][90]

Elihu Yale v. East India Co.

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Kensington Palace,1700s, where Elihu Yale's case was heard by the King of England,William of Orange,and hisPrivy Council

The later years of Yale's governance was marked by serious conflicts between hisPresidencyand the council, coming from Thomas Gray,Sir Josiah Child's servant, and lawyerWilliam Fraser,a man known for his violent temper.[92][93]They accused Yale of trying to get military power into his own hands.[93]In 1691, Yale then received several Indian merchants and citizens who came to complain about Fraser's behaviour as newMayor of Madras.[94]Fraser had imprisoned four of their friends for refusing to sign anarbitration proceeding,and were stuck without food adapted to their religion.[94]Yale ordered themarshalto temporarily release them to their private homes, and reversed other sentences made by the Mayor's Court.[95][94]Yale wrote in his letter that "he would have been unfaithful to his trust had he permitted an innocent man to starve to death in prison".[94]On October 1, 1692, letters arrived from London with accusations against Yale, makingNathaniel Higginsonthe newPresident of Madras.[96]According to Madras historian Fanny Penny, the accusations were the same as with past governors, being the "old story of private trade, jealousy on the part of his fellow-merchants, and suspicion and distrust at home as his wealth accumulated".[97]

By then, Yale's fortune was at £205,000 (equivalent to £40.5 million in 2023),[2]which was the same as theCompany's former chairman and largest shareholder,Sir Josiah Child.[98][63][99]On November 23,Sir John Goldsboroughand judgeJohn Dolbenarrived in Madras for Yale's investigation.[100]TheCouncillorstook the law into their own hands, and had the Yale brothers imprisoned, and fearing of being poisoned, Yale wrote a letter to be delivered to the King of England by his brother, who will leave Madras on February 20, 1694.[101]The investigators then inspected the fortifications around Black Town, theIndiannatives's neighborhood.[100]Yale had built the walls with the company's fund to protect the town against invasions of theMughal Emperor,but having not followed the directors's order to tax the natives for it, he was fined 3484pagodaswith interest by theCompany.[100]Goldsborough then sent a group ofmusketeerstoMrs. Nicks's house, Yale's friend, to investigate fraud charges regardingcloths,where she would be fined for her husband's mistakes.[100]Not having enough money to pay the taxes to bring her children home to England, she would be forced to sail without them.[102]For Yale's trial,William Fraserwas first put on the court, but Yale had him temporarily displaced after Fraser had imprisoned aPortuguesemerchant for four years upon suspicion alone.[100]By July,Sir John Goldsboroughconcluded his investigation, and left the countercharges to Fraser, not finding any evidence that Yale had defrauded theEast India Company.[102]His fines were based for the most part on technicalities, where he had not followed orders or made errors of judgment.[102]

The case reach London

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AnEast Indiamanship sailing offMadras,such as used by Yale for his return to England in 1699

Ten months later, while still in prison, Yale's brother arrived in London in 1695, and reached directly to the King'sPrivy Councilon February 14 atKensington Palace,contesting the accusations.[103]The Privy Council ordered a reply from theEast India Companybut were not impressed by their statements against Yale's activities, therefore they ordered, on behalf of the king, to stop all the company's ships that were ready to sail forFort St. Georgein India.[103]Yale's case was given toSir Thomas Rawlinson,and was attended by the King of England,William of Orange,PrinceGeorge of Denmark,ArchbishopThomas Tenisonand the principal ministers.[103]They ordered that theAttorney Generalexamine the charter granted to the wholeCompany,and to examine their powers in matters ofjudicature.[103]Their investigation was brought toParliament,where they discoveredbriberiesmade bySir Josiah ChildandSir Thomas CooktoTorymembers.[103]Thereafter, the King of England,William of Orange,ordered on March 15, 1695, the liberation of Elihu Yale, so that he could come back to England whenever he chose, with the additional order of giving him theGreat Cabinin the Companyshipof his choosing when he would be ready to sail home.[104][103]When the letter reachedMadrasten months later on January 8, 1696, Yale was immediately offered a ship for Britain, but having already served the company for over 20 years, he decided to stay asFraserwas still on his case.[103]

Fraser then suggested toSir Josiah Childthat Yale had poisoned four members of the Council over the years.[105]Fraser's case relied on statements made by two Indian natives that were not sworn, where they said that they had heard someone, who is now dead, say that somebody else, who has now left Madras, that two of Yale's enemies were still alive, and that they would be dead soon.[105]Based on nativegossips,the directors dismissed the case.[105]Thereafter, presidentHigginsonwas told by his servant of seven years thatFraserhad threatened him twice, to which he replied that he had beaten him because he didn't like hisSalams.[105]Fraser was then charged and banned from the council.[105]With Fraser removed, Yale stayed atFort St. Georgefor some years, and over time, cleared his name of all scandal[97]and developed his diamond business.[98][99]Gov.Thomas Pitt,who would find thePitt Diamond,became Yale's partner, as theCompanyhad now removed all restrictions on private trade.[106]In 1699, after a 30 years career in India, Yale decided to sail home, and was granted the usual privilege of past governors to bring back five tons of goods, which he filled withdiamonds,rubies,sapphires,Chinawares,Persian carpets,nutmegs,and other items.[107]He decided to haveGov Pitt's ship as his vessel, and brought back with him the children ofMrs. Nicks.[107]Over time, the old accusations against the company's officers enriching themselves at their expense appeared less frequently, as the directors learned that their employees could grow wealthy while advancing their commercial interests.[97]

Return to Britain

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Elihu Yale and his London home, possibly byMichael Dahl,gifted byJoseph Verner Reed Jr.and Sr.

Yale arrived in Britain in 1699 with a fortune that amounted to £200,000 (equivalent to £35.3 million in 2023),[2]mostly made from hisdiamondbusiness in theGolconda minesandKollur minesin Southern India.[108][3][109]In relation toGDP,his fortune amounted to 1/4 % of UK's GDP at the time, which translates to nearly 6 billion British pounds in 2021 money.[110][111][112]Famous diamonds extracted from these mines over time have included theOrlov Diamond,belonging toCatherine the Great,theHope Diamond,belonging toLouis XIV,theWittelsbach-Graff Diamond,belonging to theHabsburgs,among others.[113][114]Yale acquired rough stones from theMughal EmperorsofGolcondain exchange for a royalty, and were sent toFort St. George, India,under the protection of 50 trained men.[62]Thereafter, Yale would send the diamonds toAmsterdamto befacetedand polished, until ready to be shipped to London.[62]The process took on average 3 years and needed large amounts of capital to endure setbacks, such as wars and political instability.[115]

During theWar of the Spanish Succession,shipments would get stolen bypirateson their way to Europe, and once there, theEuropeans princesand nobility would lack the funds to acquire them, forcing some merchants into bankruptcy.[115]Demand followed theCoronations of monarchs,royal courtevents, war victories and other ceremonies.[116]It became the most important branch of private trade ofEast Indiaemployees betweenMadrasand London.[117]Along withSir Jean ChardinandJean-Baptiste Tavernier,Yale became one of the largest European diamond traders in the world, as nearly all diamonds came from India during that period.[118][61]Chardin, the past jewel merchant of theShah of Persia,was also one his partners.[119][117]He kept doing business with his friends Gov.Thomas Pitt,grandfather of prime ministerWilliam Pitt,andSir Charles Cotterell,during the era where London became the international trading centre of diamonds, dislodging Portugal and the Netherlands.[120][121][122]This new class ofmerchantswho made their fortune in theEast Indieswould become known as theNabobsin Britain.[123][124]

London life

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Painting ofQueen Square,Yale's London house location, from theYale Center for British Art[125]

During theGeorgian eraunder KingGeorge I,Yale and other merchants would meet atLondon coffee housesas centres of social life.[126]He kept his title of governor, and after the failures of his bankers, he opened a bank account in the newly createdBank of England,with deposits atC. Hoare & CoofSir Richard Hoare,now the oldest bank in Britain.[127][122]He lived most of his remaining years at the Plas Grono estate in Wales, next toErddig Hall,inherited from the line of his great-grandfather, ChancellorDavid Yale,and at his London house inQueen Square.[122]His neighbors included the Duke of Powis atPowis House,Lord ChancellorBathurst,Queen Anneand her sonPrince William,and artistsCharles BurneyandJonathan Richardson.[128][129]In London society, Yale was associated withSir Charles Cotterell,Master of the Ceremonies.[130]He was then elected in December 1717 a Fellow of theRoyal SocietyunderSir Isaac Newton.[131]His candidature was introduced bySir Hans Sloan,founder of theBritish Museumand compeer ofVoltaireandBenjamin Franklin.[132][49]In the same year, Yale was asked by Newton to deal with the donations of Dr. Thomas Paget, and later received a new map of the Netherlands dedicated to him byJohn Senex,royal geographer ofQueen Anne.[49][133][130]

Thereafter, his American godson David Yale enteredPembroke Collegeat theUniversity of Cambridge.[131]Yale leasedLatimer Housefrom his son-in-law, LordJames Cavendish,son of the1st Duke of Devonshire,to accommodate his daughter Ursula.[134]He was electedHigh Sheriff of Denbighshirein Wales, gave money toWrexham Church,and built a family gallery.[135][122]He then became a member of theSociety for the Propagation of the Gospel,and met there the Bishop of London,John Robinson,and the Lt. Gov. of New England,Francis Nicholson.[136]From Nicholson's influence, and withJeremiah Dummeras intermediary, Yale would answer a donation request for Connecticut College through Harvard graduateCotton Mather.[137]While his initial plan was to bestow a charity atOxford,he sent them books, along withSir Isaac Newton.[138]He also sent a newly painted portrait of KingGeorge Iby artistSir Godfrey Kneller,principal painter of the king at the time, and the institution changed its name toYale College.[139]The total sum gifted was about the same asJohn Harvard's toHarvard College.[139]The painting is now atYale University Gallery,while about 214 of the books are atYale Library.[140]Yale's will included donations to the poor ofWrexhamin Wales, toChrist's Hospitalin London,St Bartholomew's Hospital,St Thomas' Hospital,variousworkhouseandpoorhouses,and to Connecticut College, later known asYale.[141]

Marriage and children

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Katherine Yale with her husbandDudley North,at their family seat,Glemham Hall,by artistPeter Vanderbankc. 1715[142]

In 1680 Yale married Catherine Elford, widow of Joseph Hynmers,second-in-commandofFort St George, IndiaasDeputy Governorfor theEast India Company.[143][144]Her father was wealthyLevantmerchant Walter Elford, son of Turkey merchant Walter Sr., the step-nephew of AdmiralSir Francis DrakeofBuckland Abbey,the explorer, and the half-brother ofSir Francis Drake,the MP.[145][146][147]

Walter Elford Sr. was among the pioneers of theEnglish Coffee HousesonExchange Alley,next to theRoyal Exchange,owning the Great Coffee House (Turk's Head) until theGreat Fire of London,and was featured inSamuel Pepys's diaries.[148][149][150][151]Catherine Elford's maternal grandfather was merchant Richard Chambers,AldermanandSheriff of the City of London,family ofSir Amyas BampfyldeofPoltimore HouseandBarrington Court.[152][153][154]

Their wedding took place atSt Mary's Church,at Fort St George, where Yale was avestrymanandtreasurer.The marriage was the first registered at the church.[155]They had 4 children together.[156]David Yale died young in 1687.[157]Katherine Yale (died 1715), married toDudley NorthofGlenham Hall,a cousin ofLord North,the prime minister who later lost theAmerican War of Independence.[158]Their daughter would marryNicholas Herbert,son ofThomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke,and lived atWilton HouseandHighclere Castle.[159]

Anne Yale (died 1734) married toLord James CavendishofChatsworth House,son of the1st Duke of DevonshireofHardwick Hall,and Lady Mary Butler, theDuke of Ormond'sdaughter atKilkenny Castle.[158]Lord Cavendish was also a nephew of EarlJohn CecilofBurghley House,and a grandson of CountessElizabeth CecilofHatfield House.[160]

Ursula Yale, who never married, died in 1721 atLatimer House;a house rented by Yale from his son-in-law, and who is buried in the church on the estate.[157]In 1687, after the death ofJacques de Paiva,[161]a Portuguese Jewish diamond merchant and mines owner, Yale formed a relationship with his widow Hieronima de Paiva and brought her to live with him, causing a scandal within Madras's colonial society. They had a son who died, along with his mother, inSouth Africa.[161]

Death

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Yale's grave in the grounds ofSt Giles' Church

Yale died on 8 July 1721 inLondon.No descendants of his have survived past his grandchildren.[5]His body was buried in the churchyard of the parish church ofSt Giles' Church, Wrexham,Wales.[162]His tomb bears an inscription:

Born in America, in Europe bred
In Africa travell'd and in Asia wed
Where long he liv'd and thriv'd; In London dead
Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all's even
And that his soul thro' mercy's gone to Heaven
You that survive and read this tale, take care
For this most certain exit to prepare
Where blest in peace, the actions of the just
Smell sweet and blossom in the silent dust.

InBoston, Massachusetts,a tablet to Yale was erected in 1927 atScollay Square,near the site of Yale's birth. Yale presidentArthur Twining Hadleypenned the inscription, which reads: "On Pemberton Hill, 255 Feet North of This Spot, Was Born on April Fifth 1649 Elihu Yale, Governor of Madras, Whose Permanent Memorial in His Native Land is the College That Bears His Name."[163]

At his death, with no proper will, his heirs-at-law inherited the Plas Grono estate and sold it toSir George Wynne.[164]

Yale University

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The portrait of KingGeorge I of Britaingifted by Elihu Yale toYale Collegeas its initial endowment

In 1718,Cotton Mathercontacted Yale and asked for his help. Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded in 1701 in Old Saybrook, Connecticut, as the Collegiate School of Connecticut, which needed money for a new building. In 1717,Isaac Newtongave the college a copy of his bookPrincipia,onNewton's laws of motionandNewton's law of universal gravitation,and in 1718, Yale sent Mather 417 books, a portrait of KingGeorge I of Britain,and nine bales of goods.[165][166]These last were sold by the school for £800.[167]In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution becameYale College.[168]

Yale was also avestrymanand treasurer of St Mary's Church atFort St George.On 6 October 1968, the 250th anniversary of the naming of Yale College for Yale, the classmates ofChester Bowles,then the American ambassador to India and a graduate of Yale (1924), donated money for lasting improvements to the church and erected a plaque to commemorate the occasion. In 1970, a portrait of him, later renamedElihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child,was donated to theYale Center for British ArtfromChatsworth House.[citation needed]A portrait, painted during the 18th century, was also given to Yale University by U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower.[169]

On 5 April 1999,Yale Universityrecognised the 350th anniversary of Yale's birthday.[168]An article that year inAmerican Heritagemagazine byJohn Steele Gordondescribed Yale as the "most overratedphilanthropist"in American history, arguing that the college that became Yale University was successful largely because of the generosity of a man namedJeremiah Dummer,but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name "Dummer College".[170]Of Yale's donation to the college, totalling just under £1,162,[171]Gordon suggested that "never has so much immortality been purchased for so paltry a [...] sum."[172]

In her article forThe AtlanticaboutSkull and Bones,a secret society at Yale University,Alexandra Robbinsalleges that Yale'sheadstonewas stolen years ago from its proper setting inWrexham.She further alleges that the tombstone is now displayed in a glass case in a room with purple walls.[173]

21st century re-appraisal

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In the 21st century Yale University's historic associations with the slave trade have been re-evaluated. In 2017, the university determined to rename Calhoun College, which honoured thewhite supremacistand pro-slavery leaderJohn C. Calhoun.[174]In respect of Elihu Yale, the process was assisted by the availability online of the relevantEast India Companyrecords.[175]In 2020 Yale's president,Peter Salovey,launched theYale and Slavery Research Projectto explore the university's links with slavery and colonialism, including Elihu Yale's central role.[7]The project was led byDavid W. Blight,director of theGilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition,and published its findings in 2024. Blight identified "Yale's key leadership role in the business ofhuman trafficking"and confirmed that part of Yale's fortune unquestionably derived from" the purchase and sale of human beings [...] much of his growing wealth derived from the lucrative trade in cloth, silks, precious jewels, and other commodities, yet this commerce was inseparable from the slave trade ".[176]In his foreword to the report, Salovey wrote of the importance of the study as providing a "deeper, more honest understanding of who we are" and of helping in "coming to terms with injustices of the past and in confronting current wrongs".[7]

A linked re-evaluation considered the artworks donated by, and related to, Elihu Yale, in particular, the paintingElihu Yale with Members of his Family and an Enslaved Child.The picture, which shows Yale and his relations being served by a collared African child, was donated to theYale Center for British Artin 1970 and regularly displayed at the university. In 2020 the artistTitus Kapharproduced a version of the painting, entitled"Enough About You",in which the main sitters are distorted beyond recognition and the image of the uncollared boy is set within a gold frame.[177][a][b]

The Yale collection

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The Christ and the Samaritan Woman, a key item of Yale's collection, painted byMedicibaroque painterAdriaen van der Werff[180]
Coat of armsof Elihu, acquired byYale CollegepresidentEzra Stilesin 1788, from theYale family

Yale arrived in England with Indian artworks, and used his new wealth to build a large Europeanart collectionof 10,000 items, including 7,000 paintings, which would become, after his death, the firstart auctionin Britain.[181][182][183]During this era, the Englishcountry housesstarted to include goods from India and China, brought over the continent by theEast India Company.[184]As about 75% of all Indian exports were long-lasting and colorful textiles, it gave rise to the1700–1750 Western fashion period,which included the use oftapestries.[184]A new desire for collecting emerged among the English aristocracy under theDuke of MarlboroughatBlenheim Palace,and theDuke of DevonshireatChatsworth House.[185]Yale followed their lead and became a famous collector in London, with artists visiting him at hisQueen Squarehome to securepatronage,one of which would beVanderbank,who worked atKensington PalaceandCastle Howard.[186][187]

Many of Yale's paintings came fromDutch Golden Age's artists, the most famous beingRembrandt,Bruegel,Van Dyck,Rubens,Dürer,Van de Velde,Teniers,Lely,KnellerandRosa.[188][189]Yale's collection was stored in four London houses, in addition to several coach houses and stables.[190][108]Through the influence of theRoyal SocietyunderIsaac Newton,he collected instruments built on new science from dealers likeGeorge Willdey.[191]He obtained theLeibniz–Clarke correspondenceand acquired books fromBernard de Montfaucon,one of the modern founders of archaeology at the time.[192]With a rising middle class in search of status symbols, he acquired watches and clocks fromThomas Tompion,father of English clockmaking, along with works of engineerHenry Winstanley.[193]WhenQueen AnnecommissionedNicolas Dorignyto produce large prints atHampton Court,Yale and the Duke of Devonshire acquired several of them.[194]He acquired one of theJewels of Mary, Queen of Scots,along with works ofMedicipainterAdriaen van der Werff.[195]

Other paintings included those of philosopherThomas Hobbes,astronomerPierre Gassendi,Sir John Wynn,andJacques Courtois,previously patroned byMattias de' Medici.[196][197]At Yale's death, his collection launched theauctionconcept in Britain, spacing the sales at a few months' intervals to not overload theart market.[189][181][182][183]His European paintings were the largest group ever sold in England.[198]Catalogues were available at various coffee houses such asGarraways.[198]Van der Werff's painting was acquired by theEarl of Derby,while a bidding war ensued for Queen Mary's ring between theEarl of Oxfordand theEarl of Pembroke.[159]Yale's granddaughter married the latter's son,Nicholas Herbert,who lived atWilton HouseandHighclere Castle.[189]Inigo Jones's designs were acquired by the 2nd Duke of Devonshire, and are still atChatsworth House.[199]It is thought that some of Yale's missing paintings are now at theHermitage Museumin Russia, dating back fromCatherine the Great's acquisition of theWalpole collectionatHoughton Hall.[200][201]Numerous works would later be acquired byYale University,while others went toMadryn Castle,seat of DeputyWilliam Corbet Yaleof the Yales of Plas yn Yale.[202]

Ancestry and coats of arms

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Elihu Yale's arms, inherited from theFitzgeralds,became the inspiraton forYale College's arms[203]
See also:House of Gwynedd § Family tree of the House of Gwynedd

Elihu's ancestry, as a member of theYale family,originated from theLordship of Yalein North Wales.[204][205][206]The Yale name was adopted from the maternal line, while the coat of arms, later adopted byYale College,[203]came from the paternal line.[205][207][208][209]The Yales derived from the 6th century prince of Powys,Brochwel Ysgithrog,[209]and from the 4th century kingCunedda.[207][208]Following the division of theKingdom of Powysduring the 12th century, a new principality will emerge named Northern Powys, which will be kept by Elihu's ancestors, the princes ofPowys Fadog,Lords of Yale,with their seat atCastle Dinas Branas members of theHouse of Mathrafal.[205][208][210]They will submit toEdward Longshanksduring the 13th century, with princeGruffudd Fychanlosing the lordship of Yale to theEarl of Surrey,William Wallace's rival atSterling Bridge.[211][212][213]

About a century later, his descendantOwain Glyndwr,a cousin of theTudors,[214]would lose theWar of IndependenceagainstHenry V,becoming the last WelshPrince of Walesin 1415.[215][216][217]Known byShakespeareasOwen Glendower,he became the granduncle of baronElissau ap Gruffudd,founder of theHouse of Yalein 1480, which Elihu belonged to.[204][218][219][209]Elissau's mother,Lowry ap Tudor,was Glyndwr's niece, while his father, Griffith ap Einion, was a member of theHouse of Fitzgerald.[204][207]Elissau would become co-heir of Glyndwr's claims through his mother,[204][220]including those ofMathrafal(Powys Fadog), which featured theLordship of Bromfield and Yale.[204][221][218][210]From his marriage to an heiress within the lordship,[208]he received the estate of Allt Llwyn Dragon, which he renamed Plas yn Yale (Yale Manor).[222][209][223][224]The name would then be adopted by his grandson, ChancellorThomas Yale(b. 1525), and by Elihu's great-grandfather, ChancellorDavid Yale,Thomas's nephew.[204][208][222]

While the Yale name was adopted from baronElissau's maternal line, the Yale arms would be inherited from his father, a member of theFitzgeraldsof Corsygedol, from the line ofOsborne Fitzgerald,initially aDesmond.[205][224][225][220][209]This line was founded by the marriage of a Welsh princess namedNesta,daughter ofRhys ap Tudor,with Norman lordGerald de Windsor,son of the first governor ofWindsor CastleforWilliam the Conqueror.[207][226][210]Two branches will form over time, the Yales of Plas yn Yale, who stayed in Britain, and the Yales of Plas Grono, who went to America in 1637.[222][207][224][223]As Elihu was heir of the Plas Gronos in 1689, his arms would be those later used forYale College,as well as for the Yale schools ofPublic Health,EnvironmentandMedicine.[227][203]

Cultural references

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Notes

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  1. ^Of the seven paintings depicting Yale owned by the university, three show him with enslaved attendants.[178]
  2. ^The historianJonathan Hollowayconsiders the painting and its context in a discussion for theYale Center for British Art.[179]

References

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Preceded by President of Madras
8 August 1684 – 26 January 1685 		Succeeded by
Preceded by President of Madras
25 July 1687 – 3 October 1692 		Succeeded by
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