Ellesmere Island(Inuktitut:ᐅᒥᖕᒪᒃ ᓄᓇ,romanized:Umingmak Nuna,lit. 'land ofmuskoxen';French:île d'Ellesmere)[2]is Canada's northernmost andthird largest island,and thetenth largestin the world. It comprises an area of 196,236 km2(75,767 sq mi),[3]slightly smaller thanGreat Britain,and the total length of the island is 830 km (520 mi).
Native name: Umingmak Nuna | |
|---|---|
 Tundra inQuttinirpaaq National Park | |
 | |
  Ellesmere Island  Ellesmere Island | |
| Geography | |
| Location | Northern Canada |
| Coordinates | 79°50′N78°00′W/ 79.833°N 78.000°W[1] |
| Archipelago | Queen Elizabeth Islands |
| Area | 196,236 km2(75,767 sq mi) |
| Area rank | 10th |
| Length | 830 km (516 mi) |
| Width | 645 km (400.8 mi) |
| Highest elevation | 2,616 m (8583 ft) |
| Highest point | Barbeau Peak |
| Administration | |
Canada | |
| Territory | Nunavut |
| Largest settlement | Grise Fiord(pop. 144) |
| Demographics | |
| Population | 144 (2021) |
| Pop. density | 0.00073/km2(0.00189/sq mi) |
| Additional information | |
| Area code(s) | 867 |
Lying within theArctic Archipelago,Ellesmere Island is considered part of theQueen Elizabeth Islands.Cape Columbiaat83°06′41″N069°57′13″W/ 83.11139°N 69.95361°W[4]is the most northerly point of land in Canada and one of the most northern points of land on the planet (themost northerly point of landon Earth is the nearbyKaffeklubben Islandof Greenland).
TheArctic Cordilleramountain system covers much of Ellesmere Island, making it the most mountainous in the Arctic Archipelago. More than one-fifth of the island is protected asQuttinirpaaq National Park.
In 2021, the population of Ellesmere Island was recorded at 144.[5]There are three settlements:Alert,Eureka,andGrise Fiord.Ellesmere Island is administered as part of theQikiqtaaluk Regionin theCanadian territoryofNunavut.
Geology
editEllesmere Island has three major geological regions. The Grant Land Highlands is a large belt of fold mountains which dominate the northern face of the island. It is part of the Franklinian mobile belt, a zone of Cretaceous volcanic and intrusive rock. South of this is the Greely-Hazen Plateau, a large tableland composed of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Covering most of the island, the coastal sedimentary plateau is a succession of highly eroded sedimentary peaks which are part of the Franklinian Shield with an extension of theCanadian Shield(Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks) in the island's southeastern corner. In addition, there are syntectonic clastics which comprise theEllesmere Island Volcanicsof theSverdrup Basin Magmatic Province.[2]: 12–14
A period of uplift and faulting prior to the Pleistocene epoch (>2.6Ma) established the overall features of the island. Additional uplift occurred due toisostatic reboundfollowing the last glacial period. Land features were then shaped by erosion from glacial ice, meltwaters, and scouring by sea ice.[2]: 12
History
editIt is believed that each of the pre-contact peoples who migrated through the High Arctic approached Ellesmere Island from the south and west. They were able to travel along Ellesmere's coasts or overland to Nares Strait, and some of them crossed the strait to populate Greenland.[2]: 9–11
The archaeological record of past Arctic cultures is quite complete, as artefacts deteriorate very slowly. Items exposed to the cold, dry winds become naturally freeze-dried while items that become buried are preserved in the permafrost. Artefacts are in a similar condition to when they were left or lost, and settlements abandoned thousands of years ago can be seen much as they were the day their inhabitants left. From these sites and artefacts, archaeologists have been able to construct a history of these cultures.[6]: 8 However, the research is incomplete and only a small proportion of the details of excavations have been published.[7]: 72
Small tool cultures
editTheArctic small tool traditionpeoples (a.k.a.Paleo-Eskimos) in the High Arctic had small populations organized as hunting bands, spread from Axel Heiberg Island to the northern extremity of Greenland,[2]: 49 where theIndependence I culturewas active from 2700 BCE.[2]: 28 On Ellesmere, they chiefly hunted in the Eureka Upland and the Hazen Plateau. Six different small-tool cultures have been identified at theSmith Soundregion: Independence I, Independence I /Saq QAQ,Pre-Dorset,Saq QAQ, early Dorset, and late Dorset.[2]: 49 They chiefly huntedmuskoxen:more than three-quarters of their known archeological sites on Ellesmere are located in the island's interior and their winter dwellings were skin tents, suggesting a need for mobility to follow the herds. There is evidence at Lake Hazen of a trade networkc. 1500–1000 BCE,including soapstone lamps from Greenland and incised lance heads from cultures to the south.[2]: 50
Thule culture
edit
TheThulemoved into the High Arctic at the time of a warming trend, c. 1000 CE.[2]: 28 Their major population centre was the Smith Sound area (on both the Ellesmere and Greenland sides) due to its proximity topolynyasand its position on transportation routes.[2]: 54 From settlements at Smith Sound, the Thule sent summer hunting parties to harvestmarine mammalsin Nansen Strait. Their summer camps are evidenced by tent rings as far north as Archer Fiord, with clusters of stone dwellings around Lady Franklin Bay and at Lake Hazen which suggest semi-permanent occupations.[2]: 28
The Thule genetically and culturally completely replaced theDorset peoplesome time after 1300 CE.[8]The Thule displaced the small-tool cultures, having a number of technological advantages which notably included effective weapons, kayaks and umiaks for hunting marine mammals, andsled dogsfor surface transport and pursuit.[2]: 51 The Thule also had an extensive trade network, evidenced bymeteoritic iron from Greenlandwhich was exported through Ellesmere Island to the rest of the archipelago and to the North American mainland.[2]: 52, 105
More than fiftyNorseartefacts have been found in Thule archeological sites on theBache Peninsula,including pieces of chain mail. It is uncertain if Ellesmere Island was directly visited byNorse Greenlanderswho sailed from the south or if the items were traded through a network of middlemen.[2]: 54 It is also possible the items may have been taken from a shipwreck.[7]: 46 A bronze set of scales discovered in western Ellesmere Island has been interpreted as indicating the presence of a Norse trader in the region.[2]: 62 The Norse artefacts date from c. 1250 to 1400 CE.[9]
Between 1400 and 1600 CE, theLittle Ice Agedeveloped and conditions for hunting became increasingly difficult, forcing the Thule to withdraw from Ellesmere and the other northern islands of the archipelago.[2]: 29 The Thule who remained in northern Greenland became isolated, specialized at hunting a diminishing number of game animals, and lost the ability to make boats. Thus, the waters around Ellesmere were not navigated again until the arrival of large European vessels after 1800.[2]: 21
Early European exploration
editMuch of the initial phase of European exploration of theNorth American Arcticwas centred on a search for theNorthwest Passageand undertaken by Britain.[10]: 334 The 1616 expedition ofWilliam Baffinwere the first Europeans to record sighting the then-unnamed Ellesmere Island (Baffin named Jones and Smith Sounds on the island's south and southeast coasts).[11]However, the onset of the Little Ice Age interrupted the progress of explorations for two centuries.
In 1818, an ice jam inBaffin Baybroke, allowing European vessels access to the High Arctic (whalershad been active inDavis Strait,about 1,000 km [620 mi] southeast of Ellesmere, since 1719).[2]: 29–30 Baffin Bay was then navigable in the summers due to the presence of an ice dam in Smith Sound, which prevented Arcticdrift icefrom flowing south. The other channels of the archipelago remained congested with ice.[2]: 37
That year,John Rossled the first recorded European expedition toCape York,[2]: 65 at which time there were reportedly only 140Inughuit.[2]: 61 (The Inughuit of North Greenland, theKalaallitof West Greenland, andInuitof the archipelago are descendants of the Thule culture, which had diverged during the isolation imposed by the Little Ice Age.) Knowledge of Ellesmere persisted in the oral histories of the Inuit of Baffin Island and the Inughuit of northern Greenland,[2]: 55 who each called itUmingmak Nuna(Inuktitutfor 'land ofmuskoxen').[12]
Euro-American exploration and contact
editThe search forFranklin's lost expedition– also searching for the Northwest Passage and to establish claims to the Far North – involved more than forty expeditions to the High Arctic over two decades, and represented the peak period of Euro-American Arctic exploration.[10]: 334 [7]: 19 Edward Augustus Inglefieldled an 1852 expedition which surveyed the coastlines of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound, being stopped by ice in Nares Strait.[10]: 339 He named Ellesmere Island for the president of theRoyal Geographical Society(1849–1852),Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere.[13]TheSecond Grinnell expedition(1853–1855) made slightly further progress before becoming trapped in the ice. Over two winters the expedition charted both sides ofKane Basinto about 80°N, from whereElisha Kent Kaneclaimed to have sighted the conjecturedOpen Polar Sea.[10]: 339–340
During this period, as the Little Ice Age abated and the hunting of marine mammals became more feasible again, Aboriginal peoples began to return to Ellesmere Island. The most well-known of these migrations in both Inuit and European accounts is the journey of Qitlaq, who led a group of Inuit families from Baffin Island to northwestern Greenland, via Ellesmere Island, in the 1850s.[a]This journey reestablished contact between Inuit who had been separated for two centuries and reintroduced vital technologies to the Inughuit.[2]: 99–101 Other groups followed and by the 1870s Inuit were living on Ellesmere Island and had regular contact with those on the neighbouring islands.[2]: 109
Contact between Inuit and Europeans or Americans was often indirect, as the Inuit happened upon shipwrecks or abandoned base camps which provided wood and metal resources. European goods were also obtained through inter-group trade. Long-term contact began in the 1800s through whaling stations and trading posts, which frequently relocated.[7]: 12 Euro-American expeditions employed Inughuit, Inuit and west Greenlander guides, hunters and labourers, gradually blending their knowledge with European technology to conduct effective exploration.[2]: 30
British and United States Arctic expeditions had been interrupted for some years due to the priorities of theCrimean Warand theAmerican Civil War,respectively.[10]: 340 By about 1860, the focus of Arctic exploration had shifted to theNorth Pole.As earlier attempts at the pole viaSvalbardor eastern Greenland had reached impasses, numerous expeditions came to Ellesmere Island to pursue the route through Nares Straight.[10]: 334
The United States expedition led byAdolphus Greelyin 1881 crossed the island from east to west,[2]: 631 establishingFort Congerin the northern part of the island. The Greely expedition foundfossil forestson Ellesmere Island in the late 1880s. Stenkul Fiord was first explored in 1902 by Per Schei, a member ofOtto Sverdrup's 2nd Norwegian Polar Expedition.
TheEllesmere Ice Shelfwas documented by theBritish Arctic Expeditionof 1875–76, in which LieutenantPelham Aldrich's party went fromCape Sheridan(82°28′N061°30′W/ 82.467°N 61.500°W[14]) west to Cape Alert (82°16′N85°33′W/ 82.267°N 85.550°W), including theWard Hunt Ice Shelf.In 1906Robert Pearyled an expedition in northern Ellesmere Island, from Cape Sheridan along the coast to the western side ofNansen Sound(93°W). During Peary's expedition, theice shelfwas continuous; it has since been estimated to have covered 8,900 km2(3,400 sq mi).[15]The ice shelf broke apart in the 20th century, presumably due toclimate change.
Establishment of Canadian sovereignty
editIn 1880, theBritish Arctic Territorieswere transferred to Canada.[16]Canada did little to solidify its legal possession of the islands until prompted by foreign action in 1902–03: Otto Sverdrup claimedthree islands west of Ellesmerefor Norway, theAlaska boundary disputewas settled against Canada's interests, andRoald Amundsenset out to sail the Northwest Passage.[17]: 101–104 To establish an official government presence in the Far North, theNorth-West Mounted Police(NWMP) were sent on sovereignty patrols. A NWMP detachment sailed to the Arctic whaling stations in 1903, where they forbade whalers from killing muskox or trading skins, in order to prevent overhunting and protect the Inuit's ability to sustain themselves. In 1904 a NWMP detachment sailed to Cape Herschel at the east end of Sverdrup Pass, where they could intercept hunters accessing the interior of Ellesmere.[17]: 101–104
While the fur trade was brought under control, American exploration parties to the Far North had acted with autonomy and intensively hunted terrestrial mammals to sustain their expeditions. Peary's parties had heavily hunted muskoxen on Ellesmere and had nearly brought the extinction of caribou in northern Greenland; theCrocker Land Expedition(1913–1916) also extensively hunted muskoxen. In response to these and other trespasses, the government amended theNorthwest Game Actto prohibit the killing of muskoxen except for Native inhabitants who otherwise faced starvation.[17]: 102
In 1920, the government learned thatInughuitfrom Greenland had been annually visiting Ellesmere Island for polar bear and muskox hunting – in violation of Canadian law – selling the skins atKnud Rasmussen's trading post atQaanaaq,formerly known as Thule. The Danish government stated that North Greenland was a "no man's land" outside their administration and Rasmussen, as thede factosole authority, refused to stop the trade which the Inughuit needed to support themselves. In response,Royal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP) detachments were established on Ellesmere Island atCraig Harbourin 1922 and at Bache Post in 1926, positioned to guard the coastal and overland routes to the hunting grounds on the western side of Ellesmere.[17]: 102–104 [18]: 315–316 In addition to intercepting illegal hunting and fur-trading, the RCMP conducted patrols and encouraged the Inuit to maintain their traditional lifestyle.[7]: 25–26 The posts were closed in the mid-1930s, after the sovereignty issues had been settled.[17]: 105
Geography
edit
Ellesmere Island is the northernmost island of theArctic ArchipelagoinCanada's Far Northand one of theworld's northernmost land masses.It is exceeded in this regard only by neighbouringGreenland,which extends about 60 km (37 mi) closer to the north pole. Ellesmere's northernmost point,Cape Columbia(at83°06′41″N69°57′13″W/ 83.11139°N 69.95361°W[19]), is less than 800 km (500 mi) from the north pole, while its southern coasts at 77°N are well within the Arctic Circle.[2]: 7
Ellesmere has the highest and longest mountain ranges in eastern North America and is the most mountainous island in the Arctic Archipelago. It has over half of the archipelago's ice cover, with ice caps and glaciers across 40% of its surface. Its extensive coastline includes some of the world's longest fiords.[2]: 7–9
To the west, Ellesmere is separated fromAxel Heiberg IslandbyNansenandEureka Sounds,the latter of which narrows to 13 km (8.1 mi).Devon Islandis to the south acrossJones Sound;at the west end of the sound, they are separated byNorth Kent Islandand two channels which narrow to 4 and 10 km (2.5 and 6.2 mi). Greenland is to the east acrossNares Strait;the strait narrows to 46 km (29 mi) at Cape Isabella onSmith Soundand further north narrows to 19 km (12 mi) atRobeson Channel.These channels and straits typically freeze over in winter,[2]: 9–11 though winds and currents leave pockets of open water (temporaryleadsand persistentpolynyas) in Nares Strait.[2]: 20–21 To the north of Ellesmere is theArctic Ocean,withLincoln Seato the northeast.[2]: 7
Protected areas
editMore than one-fifth of the island is protected asQuttinirpaaq National Park(formerly Ellesmere Island National Park Reserve), which includes sevenfjordsand a variety ofglaciers,as well asLake Hazen,North America's largest lake north of theArctic Circle.Barbeau Peak,the highest mountain in Nunavut (2,616 m [8,583 ft]) is located in theBritish Empire Rangeon Ellesmere Island. The most northernmountain rangein the world, theChallenger Mountains,is located in the northeast region of the island. The northern lobe of the island is calledGrant Land.
TheArctic willowis the onlywoodyspecies to grow on Ellesmere Island.[20]
In July 2007, a study noted the disappearance of habitat forwaterfowl,invertebrates,andalgaeon Ellesmere Island. According toJohn SmolofQueen's UniversityinKingston, Ontario,and Marianne S. V. Douglas of theUniversity of AlbertainEdmonton,warming conditions and evaporation have caused low water levels and changes in the chemistry of ponds and wetlands in the area. The researchers noted that "In the 1980s they often needed to wear hip waders to make their way to the ponds...while by 2006 the same areas were dry enough to burn."[21]
Climate
editEllesmere Island has atundra climate(KöppenET) and anice cap climate(KöppenEF) with the temperature being cold year-round.[citation needed]Two semi-permanent air systems dominate the weather: the high-pressure northernpolar vortexand a low-pressure area which forms in different sites between Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea.[2]: 25 Prevailing winds on Ellesmere are northwesterly, cold, and of low humidity due to ice cover over the Arctic Ocean.[2]: 32–33 Seasonal shifts on Ellesmere are sudden and striking: winters are long and harsh, summers short and relatively abundant, with spring and autumn being brief intervals of transition.[2]: 42
Fog regularly occurs near open water in September.[2]: 22 While the major air systems strengthen towards their annual peak in winter, the Arctic and Atlantic air masses collide in autumn to produce severe storms at Ellesmere.[2]: 22, 25 The storm season peaks in October and persists until the sea freezes.[2]: 46 The polar vortex strengthens during the polar night and gives rise to easterly winds which are major hazards for populations, especially given the very low temperatures. January winds have been recorded at 104 km/h (65 mph) with gusts to 130–145 km/h (81–90 mph) at Fort Conger and 65–80 km/h (40–50 mph) at Lake Hazen.[2]: 25 Very cold temperatures continue until April and no month passes without experiencing freezing temperatures.[2]: 33
Snowfall begins in late August and does not melt until the June thaw. The seasonal shift in daylight is also extreme.[2]: 42 The polar night lasts from four-and-a-half months in the north to about three months in the south.[2]: 44
Regional variation
editEllesmere's Arctic marine climate is strongly affected in the north by Arctic Ocean currents and the polar vortex, while the climate of the southeastern coast is influenced by the warm Atlantic water of theWest Greenland Current.[2]: 23 Interior regions shielded by the island's high mountain ranges experience distinctivequasi-continental microclimates.[2]: 9
The highest precipitation is on the northern coast, averaging 80 to 100 mm (3.1 to 3.9 in). On the south side of the Grant Land mountains, only 20 mm (0.79 in) reaches the Hazen Plateau.[2]: 32–33
The average number of snow-free days varies from 45 days on the north coast to 77 days in the Eureka–Tanquary corridor.[2]: 33
Winters are considerably colder in the interior. At Lake Hazen, Peary's expedition recorded daytime temperatures of −53 °C (−64 °F) in February 1900, and a Defence Research Board party recorded temperatures as low as −56.2 °C (−69.2 °F) in the winter of 1957–58.[b]Nonetheless, there are archaeological remains of winter dwellings of both Independence andThule culturesin the interior.[2]: 43–44
| Climate data forGrise Fiord(Grise Fiord Airport) WMO ID:71971; coordinates76°25′22″N82°54′08″W/ 76.42278°N 82.90222°W;elevation: 44.5 m (146 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1984–present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record highhumidex | −1.3 | −5.0 | 2.3 | −2.4 | 8.4 | 14.2 | 15.0 | 14.4 | 6.9 | 5.9 | 2.4 | −1.8 | 15.0 |
| Record high °C (°F) | −0.6 (30.9) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
2.7 (36.9) |
3.0 (37.4) |
12.5 (54.5) |
14.4 (57.9) |
15.6 (60.1) |
14.8 (58.6) |
8.5 (47.3) |
7.5 (45.5) |
3.0 (37.4) |
0.5 (32.9) |
15.6 (60.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −27.1 (−16.8) |
−27.7 (−17.9) |
−25.0 (−13.0) |
−15.8 (3.6) |
−4.0 (24.8) |
4.0 (39.2) |
6.8 (44.2) |
5.6 (42.1) |
0.1 (32.2) |
−7.5 (18.5) |
−15.9 (3.4) |
−21.4 (−6.5) |
−10.7 (12.7) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −30.6 (−23.1) |
−31.8 (−25.2) |
−29.3 (−20.7) |
−21.0 (−5.8) |
−8.4 (16.9) |
1.1 (34.0) |
— | — | −1.9 (28.6) |
−10.0 (14.0) |
−19.3 (−2.7) |
−25.0 (−13.0) |
— |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −31.7 (−25.1) |
−33.7 (−28.7) |
−32.1 (−25.8) |
−24.3 (−11.7) |
−11.1 (12.0) |
−1.5 (29.3) |
1.1 (34.0) |
0.7 (33.3) |
−3.6 (25.5) |
−11.4 (11.5) |
−20.2 (−4.4) |
−27.0 (−16.6) |
−16.3 (2.7) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −45.0 (−49.0) |
−47.0 (−52.6) |
−46.0 (−50.8) |
−40.5 (−40.9) |
−30.5 (−22.9) |
−13.0 (8.6) |
−3.5 (25.7) |
−7.4 (18.7) |
−16.0 (3.2) |
−29.0 (−20.2) |
−41.1 (−42.0) |
−42.0 (−43.6) |
−47.0 (−52.6) |
| Record lowwind chill | −53.3 | −51.8 | −54.5 | −44.9 | −31.3 | −12.3 | −4.9 | −12.6 | −20.0 | −33.2 | −48.0 | −45.6 | −54.5 |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 7.9 (0.31) |
6.0 (0.24) |
13.5 (0.53) |
12.1 (0.48) |
9.4 (0.37) |
13.8 (0.54) |
35.0 (1.38) |
28.0 (1.10) |
15.4 (0.61) |
18.6 (0.73) |
14.8 (0.58) |
8.8 (0.35) |
183.2 (7.21) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.2 (0.01) |
10.2 (0.40) |
31.8 (1.25) |
21.3 (0.84) |
5.1 (0.20) |
0.1 (0.00) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
68.7 (2.70) |
| Average snowfall cm (inches) | 6.8 (2.7) |
5.7 (2.2) |
11.1 (4.4) |
10.4 (4.1) |
9.6 (3.8) |
4.7 (1.9) |
1.6 (0.6) |
11.2 (4.4) |
14.3 (5.6) |
— | 14.8 (5.8) |
— | — |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 7.2 | 6.6 | 9.3 | 9.0 | 7.6 | 6.0 | 8.9 | 8.6 | 7.4 | 9.6 | 8.00 | 8.0 | 96.0 |
| Average rainy days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.12 | 3.7 | 7.2 | 7.2 | 1.4 | 0.13 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 19.8 |
| Average snowy days(≥ 0.2 cm) | 5.5 | 4.7 | 6.1 | 5.2 | 5.6 | 1.6 | 0.47 | 2.2 | 5.1 | — | 6.6 | — | — |
| Source:Environment and Climate Change Canada[23] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Eureka (Eureka Aerodrome) WMO ID:71917; coordinates79°59′N85°56′W/ 79.983°N 85.933°W;elevation: 10.4 m (34 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1947–present | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | −1.1 (30.0) |
−1.1 (30.0) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−2.8 (27.0) |
7.5 (45.5) |
18.5 (65.3) |
20.9 (69.6) |
17.6 (63.7) |
9.3 (48.7) |
5.0 (41.0) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
20.9 (69.6) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −32.3 (−26.1) |
−33.0 (−27.4) |
−32.3 (−26.1) |
−21.9 (−7.4) |
−6.7 (19.9) |
5.8 (42.4) |
10.1 (50.2) |
5.7 (42.3) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−15.9 (3.4) |
−24.3 (−11.7) |
−29.2 (−20.6) |
−14.8 (5.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −35.9 (−32.6) |
−36.8 (−34.2) |
−35.9 (−32.6) |
−25.9 (−14.6) |
−9.9 (14.2) |
3.1 (37.6) |
6.8 (44.2) |
3.4 (38.1) |
−5.8 (21.6) |
−19.5 (−3.1) |
−28.0 (−18.4) |
−32.8 (−27.0) |
−18.1 (−0.6) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −39.5 (−39.1) |
−40.5 (−40.9) |
−39.4 (−38.9) |
−29.8 (−21.6) |
−13.1 (8.4) |
0.5 (32.9) |
3.5 (38.3) |
1.2 (34.2) |
−8.2 (17.2) |
−23.1 (−9.6) |
−31.6 (−24.9) |
−36.3 (−33.3) |
−21.4 (−6.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −53.3 (−63.9) |
−55.3 (−67.5) |
−52.8 (−63.0) |
−48.9 (−56.0) |
−31.1 (−24.0) |
−13.9 (7.0) |
−2.2 (28.0) |
−12.9 (8.8) |
−31.7 (−25.1) |
−41.7 (−43.1) |
−48.2 (−54.8) |
−51.7 (−61.1) |
−55.3 (−67.5) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 2.6 (0.10) |
2.6 (0.10) |
2.6 (0.10) |
3.6 (0.14) |
3.3 (0.13) |
8.6 (0.34) |
14.4 (0.57) |
17.9 (0.70) |
8.2 (0.32) |
6.6 (0.26) |
3.7 (0.15) |
3.5 (0.14) |
77.6 (3.06) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
5.3 (0.21) |
14.5 (0.57) |
11.7 (0.46) |
1.0 (0.04) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
32.5 (1.28) |
| Average snowfall cm (inches) | 3.1 (1.2) |
3.9 (1.5) |
2.8 (1.1) |
4.6 (1.8) |
4.2 (1.7) |
3.0 (1.2) |
0.7 (0.3) |
4.8 (1.9) |
11.3 (4.4) |
10.9 (4.3) |
5.7 (2.2) |
5.4 (2.1) |
60.3 (23.7) |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 4.4 | 4.4 | 5.3 | 4.9 | 3.9 | 5.2 | 7.8 | 7.9 | 6.8 | 8.6 | 5.9 | 5.4 | 70.6 |
| Average rainy days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 3.1 | 7.7 | 5.9 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 17.3 |
| Average snowy days(≥ 0.2 cm) | 4.7 | 4.7 | 4.2 | 5.2 | 4.0 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 2.9 | 7.9 | 9.6 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 57.4 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 63.4 | 66.3 | 65.8 | 67.2 | 75.0 | 71.1 | 69.3 | 76.2 | 82.0 | 74.3 | 65.8 | 64.6 | 70.1 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 0.0 | 0.0 | 120.2 | 353.8 | 486.3 | 386.4 | 360.5 | 238.9 | 98.4 | 12.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2,057 |
| Percentpossible sunshine | 0.0 | 0.0 | 34.9 | 54.5 | 65.4 | 53.7 | 48.5 | 32.2 | 21.4 | 8.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 39.9 |
| Source:Environment and Climate Change Canada[24][25][26][27][28] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data forAlert(Alert Airport) Climate ID: 2400300; coordinates82°31′04″N62°16′50″W/ 82.51778°N 62.28056°W;elevation: 30.5 m (100 ft); 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1950–present[c] | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record highhumidex | 0.0 | 0.0 | −2.4 | −1.1 | 8.1 | 18.6 | 20.2 | 23.8 | 8.4 | 4.6 | −1.1 | 1.4 | 23.8 |
| Record high °C (°F) | 0.0 (32.0) |
1.1 (34.0) |
−2.2 (28.0) |
2.4 (36.3) |
10.0 (50.0) |
18.8 (65.8) |
21.0 (69.8) |
19.5 (67.1) |
11.2 (52.2) |
5.3 (41.5) |
0.6 (33.1) |
3.2 (37.8) |
21.0 (69.8) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −27.0 (−16.6) |
−27.6 (−17.7) |
−27.1 (−16.8) |
−19.4 (−2.9) |
−8.2 (17.2) |
2.4 (36.3) |
6.8 (44.2) |
3.8 (38.8) |
−5.1 (22.8) |
−13.6 (7.5) |
−20.4 (−4.7) |
−24.3 (−11.7) |
−13.3 (8.1) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −30.7 (−23.3) |
−31.4 (−24.5) |
−31.0 (−23.8) |
−23.3 (−9.9) |
−11.1 (12.0) |
0.1 (32.2) |
3.9 (39.0) |
1.2 (34.2) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−17.2 (1.0) |
−24.1 (−11.4) |
−28.1 (−18.6) |
−16.7 (1.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −34.4 (−29.9) |
−35.2 (−31.4) |
−34.9 (−30.8) |
−27.0 (−16.6) |
−14.0 (6.8) |
−2.3 (27.9) |
1.0 (33.8) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
−10.9 (12.4) |
−20.7 (−5.3) |
−27.8 (−18.0) |
−31.9 (−25.4) |
−20.0 (−4.0) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −48.9 (−56.0) |
−50.0 (−58.0) |
−49.4 (−56.9) |
−45.6 (−50.1) |
−29.0 (−20.2) |
−14.3 (6.3) |
−6.3 (20.7) |
−15.0 (5.0) |
−28.2 (−18.8) |
−39.4 (−38.9) |
−43.5 (−46.3) |
−46.1 (−51.0) |
−50.0 (−58.0) |
| Record lowwind chill | −64.7 | −60.5 | −59.5 | −56.8 | −40.8 | −21.1 | −10.3 | −19.2 | −36.9 | −49.4 | −53.7 | −57.3 | −64.7 |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 10.5 (0.41) |
7.3 (0.29) |
10.3 (0.41) |
11.5 (0.45) |
11.6 (0.46) |
11.1 (0.44) |
21.5 (0.85) |
18.4 (0.72) |
17.8 (0.70) |
12.1 (0.48) |
11.5 (0.45) |
8.5 (0.33) |
152.0 (5.98) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
2.3 (0.09) |
10.8 (0.43) |
5.3 (0.21) |
0.2 (0.01) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
18.5 (0.73) |
| Average snowfall cm (inches) | 12.7 (5.0) |
9.6 (3.8) |
12.2 (4.8) |
13.2 (5.2) |
17.1 (6.7) |
11.1 (4.4) |
12.8 (5.0) |
15.9 (6.3) |
30.5 (12.0) |
25.5 (10.0) |
18.3 (7.2) |
13.0 (5.1) |
191.7 (75.5) |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 12.4 | 8.8 | 11.5 | 10.1 | 9.0 | 7.6 | 9.6 | 10.0 | 11.2 | 12.3 | 10.6 | 10.9 | 124.1 |
| Average rainy days(≥ 0.2 mm) | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 5.7 | 3.4 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 11.3 |
| Average snowy days(≥ 0.2 cm) | 11.6 | 9.7 | 10.2 | 8.7 | 9.4 | 5.4 | 4.1 | 6.8 | 11.5 | 13.0 | 10.7 | 11.1 | 112.2 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%)(at 1500 LST) | 70.8 | 70.4 | 70.1 | 72.4 | 81.3 | 84.5 | 81.7 | 84.4 | 85.3 | 79.3 | 73.6 | 71.8 | 77.1 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 0.0 | 0.0 | 110.4 | 323.6 | 428.6 | 333.0 | 321.6 | 269.1 | 111.4 | 3.9 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1,901.6 |
| Percentpossible sunshine | — | — | 33.1 | 46.8 | 57.6 | 46.3 | 43.2 | 36.2 | 21.9 | 4.1 | — | — | 36.1 |
| Source:Environment and Climate Change Canada[29] (sun 1981–2010)[30](maximum from June 2021 based on incomplete data, previous record −0.2 °C [31.6 °F])[31] | |||||||||||||
Climate change
editApaleolimnologicalstudy of algae in the sediments of shallow ponds on Cape Herschel (which faces Smith Sound on Ellesmere's eastern coast[32][33]) found that the ponds had been permanent and relatively stable for several millennia until experiencing ecological changes associated with warming, beginning around 1850 and accelerating in the early 2000s. During the 23-year study period, an ecological threshold was crossed as several of the study ponds had completely desiccated while others had very reduced water levels. In addition, the wetlands surrounding the ponds were severely affected and dried vegetation could be easily burned.[34]
Glaciers, ice caps and ice shelves
edit
Large portions of Ellesmere Island are covered with glaciers and ice, with Manson Icefield (6,200 km2(2,400 sq mi)) and Sydkap (3,700 km2(1,400 sq mi)) in the south;Prince of Wales Icefield(20,700 km2(8,000 sq mi)) andAgassiz Ice Cap(21,500 km2(8,300 sq mi)) along the central-east side of the island, and the Northern Ellesmere icefields (24,400 km2(9,400 sq mi)).[35]
The northwest coast of Ellesmere Island was covered by a massive, 500 km (310 mi) longice shelfuntil the 20th century. The Ellesmere Ice Shelf shrank by 90 per cent in the 20th century due to warming trends in the Arctic,[36][37]: 133 particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, a period when the largestice islands(the 520 km2(200 sq mi) T1 and the 780 km2(300 sq mi) T2 ice islands) were formed leaving the separateAlfred Ernest,Ayles, Milne, Ward Hunt, andMarkhamIce Shelves.[citation needed]TheWard Hunt Ice Shelf,the largest remaining section of thick (>10 m, >30 ft[citation needed])landfastsea ice along the northern coastline of Ellesmere Island, lost almost 600 km2(230 sq mi) of ice in a massive calving in 1961–1962. Five large ice islands which resulted account for 79% of the calved material.[38]It further decreased by 27% in thickness (13 m (43 ft)) between 1967 and 1999.[37]A 1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that 48 km2(19 sq mi) or 3.3 km3(0.79 cu mi) of ice calved from theMilneandAylesice shelves between 1959 and 1974.[15]
The breakup of the Ellesmere Ice Shelves has continued in the 21st century: the Ward Ice Shelf experienced a major breakup during the summer of 2002;[39]the Ayles Ice Shelf calved entirely on 13 August 2005; the largest breakoff of the ice shelf in 25 years, it may pose a threat to the oil industry in theBeaufort Sea.The piece is 66 km2(25 sq mi).[40]In April 2008, it was discovered that the Ward Hunt shelf was fractured, with dozens of deep, multi-faceted cracks[41]and in September 2008 the Markham shelf (50 km2(19 sq mi)) completely broke off to become floatingsea ice.[42]
A 2018 study measured a 5.9% reduction in area amongst 1,773 glaciers in Northern Ellesmere island in the 16-year period 1999–2015 based on satellite data. In the same period, 19 out of 27ice tonguesdisintegrated to their grounding lines and ice shelves suffered a 42% loss in surface area.[43]
Paleontology
edit
Schei and laterAlfred Gabriel Nathorst[44]described thePaleocene-Eocene(ca. 55 Ma)fossilforest in the Stenkul Fiord sediments. The Stenkul Fiord site represents a series ofdeltaic swampandfloodplainforests.[45]The trees stood for at least 400 years. Individual stumps and stems of >1 m (>3 ft) diameter were abundant, and are identified asMetasequoiaand possiblyGlyptostrobus.Well preservedPliocenepeatscontaining abundant vertebrate and plantmacrofossilscharacteristic of aboreal foresthave been reported fromStrathcona Fiord.[46][47]
In 2006,University of ChicagopaleontologistNeil ShubinandAcademy of Natural SciencespaleontologistTed Daeschlerreported the discovery of the fossil of aPaleozoic(ca. 375 Ma) fish, namedTiktaalik roseae,in the formerstream bedsof Ellesmere Island. The fossil exhibits many characteristics of fish, but also indicates atransitionalcreature that may be a predecessor ofamphibians,reptiles,birds, andmammals,including humans.[48]
In 2011, Jason P. Downs and co-authors described thesarcopterygianLaccognathus embryifrom specimens collected from the same locality thatTiktaalikwas found.[49]
Ecology
editThe ecosystems of the High Arctic are considered to be young and underdeveloped, having only emerged since the glacial retreat of 8,000 to 6,000 BCE. There is a lack of species diversity, with a small number of animal species and short food chains.[2]: 30
These species have adapted to take advantage of the productive summer while surviving through winter scarcity. Zooplankton, for example, grow to a larger body size and produce larger eggs in greater numbers than in other regions.[2]: 42–43
Aside from the polar desert conditions of much of the island, there are remarkably productive ecological zones in the arctic oasis of the Lake Hazen area and the polynyas of the island's coastal waters.[2]: 33
Insect ecology
editEllesmere Island is noted as being the northernmost occurrence ofeusocialinsects; specifically, thebumblebeeBombus polaris.There is a second species of bumblebee occurring there,Bombus hyperboreus,which is a parasite in the nests ofB. polaris.[50]
While non-eusocial, the Arctic woolly bear moth (Gynaephora groenlandica) can also be found at Ellesmere Island. While this species generally has a 10-year life cycle, its life is known to extend to up to 14 years at both theAlexandra Fiordlowland and Ellesmere Island.[51][52]
Earth's magnetism
editIn 2015, the Earth'sgeomagnetic north polewas located at approximately80°22′N72°37′W/ 80.37°N 72.62°W,on Ellesmere Island.[53]It is forecast to remain on Ellesmere Island in 2020, shifting to80°39′N72°41′W/ 80.65°N 72.68°W.[54]
Population
edit
All groups occupying the island settled on the coast, particularly those relying on maritime resources, while modern-era government-funded settlements were initially supplied by sea.[2]: 16
In 2021, the population of Ellesmere Island was recorded as 144. There are three settlements on Ellesmere Island:Alert(permanent pop. 0, but home to a small temporary population),Eureka(permanent pop. 0), andGrise Fiord(pop. 144).[5]Politically, it is part of theQikiqtaaluk Region.Part of the year there is alsoParks Canadastaff stationed atCamp HazenandTanquary Fiord Airport.
Alert
editCanadian Forces Station (CFS) Alertis thenorthernmost continuously inhabited settlementin the world.[55]With the end of theCold Warand the advent of new technologies allowing for remote interpretation of data, the overwintering population has been reduced to 62 civilians and military personnel as of 2016.
Eureka
editEureka (the third northernmost settlement in the world) consists of three areas:Eureka Aerodrome,which includes Fort Eureka (the quarters for military personnel maintaining the island's communications equipment); theEnvironment CanadaWeather Station; and the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL), formerly the Arctic Stratospheric Ozone (AStrO) Observatory. Eureka has the lowest average annual temperature and least precipitation of any weather station in Canada.
Grise Fiord
edit
Grise Fiord(Inuktitut:ᐊᐅᔪᐃᑦᑐᖅ,Romanized:Aujuittuq,lit."place that never thaws ") is anInuithamlet that, despite a population of only 144,[5]is the largest community on Ellesmere Island.
Located at the southern tip of Ellesmere Island, Grise Fiord lies 1,160 km (720 mi) north of theArctic Circle.Grise Fiord is thenorthernmost civilian settlementin Canada. It is also one of the coldest inhabited places in the world, with an average yearly temperature of −16.5 °C (2.3 °F).
Grise Fiord is cradled by theArctic Cordilleramountain range.
Transportation
editTransportation along coastal waters has been historically important for hunting and trade, whether on the sea ice or in small boats.[2]: 21 Theice foot,a belt of level and secure ice around the shoreline between the high and low water marks, can be used from mid-September to July.[2]: 17 In contrast, the pack ice does not stabilize and freeze fast until February, and presents a much rougher surface for travel.[2]: 19–20
The navigation season for seagoing vessels is from late July to September, but is often considered treacherous due to currents, persistent shore ice, sea ice, and massive icebergs calved off of the many glaciers. September also marks a change in the weather with regular fog and the beginning of the autumn storm season.[2]: 21–22
In popular culture
editEllesmere Island is the setting of much ofMelanie McGrath'sThe Long Exile: A True Story of Deception and Survival Amongst the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic[56]about theHigh Arctic relocation,and also of her Edie Kiglatuk mystery series.[57]
In the2013Americansuperhero filmMan of Steel,Ellesmere Island is the site of a combined United States-Canadian scientific expedition to recover an ancientKryptonianspaceshipburied in the glacial ice pack.[58]
The island is the location for the 2014BBCprogrammeSnow Wolf Family and Me.[59]
The 2008 documentaryExilebyZacharias Kunukdocuments the experiences of Inuit families who were forcibly relocated to Ellesmere island in the 1950s to settle it for the Canadian government. The families discuss being deceived by the government about the conditions and terms of where they were going and having to endure years of surviving in inhospitable conditions with little food or water.[60]
In 2022, the USNational Museum of Wildlife Artdebuted the travelling exhibitWolves: Photography by Ronan Donovan.The exhibit was developed in collaboration with theNational Geographic Societyand features images and videos of theArctic wolvesliving on Ellesmere Island.[61]
See also
editNotes
edit- ^Qitlaq reportedly met members of Inglefield's 1854 expedition and SirLeopold McClintock's 1857–1859 expedition while onDevon Island[2]: 102
- ^While Dick 2001 gives this temperature as −70 °C (−94 °F),[2]: 43 this is the only temperature the source provides in Celsius on that and the adjacent pages and appears to be a typo. Other sources for this International Geophysical Year observation station give the temperature as −69.2 °F (−56.2 °C), noting that this stands as the coldest temperature reported in the Arctic Archipelago.[22]
- ^Climate data 1991–2020 is a composite recorded at Alert Upper Air, Alert Climate (WMO ID:71082 / 71355; Climate ID: 2400306 / 2400305; coordinates82°30′N62°20′W/ 82.500°N 62.333°W;elevation: 65.4 m (215 ft)), and Alert (Climate ID: 2400300; coordinates82°31′04″N62°16′50″W/ 82.51778°N 62.28056°W;elevation: 30.5 m (100 ft))[29]
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- ^"Snow Wolf Family and Me".BBC Two.Archivedfrom the original on 26 December 2014.Retrieved30 December2014.
- ^"Exile Nutaunikut".Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2009.Retrieved29 November2020.
- ^"Wolves: Photography by Ronan Donovan".National Museum of Wildlife Art.Retrieved18 March2024.
Further reading
edit- Eberle, Jaelyn; McKenna, Malcolm (2002). "Early Eocene Leptictida, Pantolesta, Creodonta, Carnivora, and Mesonychidae (Mammalia) from the Eureka Sound Group, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut".Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences.39(6): 899–910.Bibcode:2002CaJES..39..899E.doi:10.1139/e02-001.
- Kobalenko, Jerry (2002).The Horizontal Everest Extreme Journeys on Ellesmere Island.New York, NY: Soho.ISBN978-1-56947-266-8.OCLC48013772.
- Micheline, Manseau; Dick, Lyle; Lyons, Natasha (2005).People, caribou, and muskoxen on northern Ellesmere Island historical interactions and population ecology, ca. 4300 BP to present.Ottawa: Parks Canada.ISBN978-0-662-68835-8.
- Mech, L. David; Brandenburg, Jim (June 1988). "Life in the High Arctic".National Geographic.173(6): 750–767.
External links
edit- Ellesmere Island in the Atlas of Canada - Toporama; Natural Resources Canada
- Mountains on Ellesmere Island
- Detailed map, northern Ellesmere Island, including named capes, points, bays, and offshore islandsbyGeoffrey Hattersley-Smith
- Norman E. Brice Report on Ellesmere Islandat Dartmouth College Library
