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Elohim

This article is about the Hebrew word. For other uses, seeElohim (disambiguation).

Elohim(Hebrew:אֱלֹהִים,romanized:ʾĔlōhīm:[(ʔ)eloˈ(h)im]), the plural ofאֱלוֹהַּ(ʾĔlōah), is a Hebrew word meaning "gods" or "godhood". Although the word is grammaticallyplural,in theHebrew Bibleit most often takes singular verbal or pronominalagreementand refers to a single deity, particularly theGod of Israel.In other verses it refers to the singular gods of other nations or todeitiesin the plural.

Elohimin Hebrew script. The letters are, right-to-left:aleph-lamed-he-yud-mem.

Morphologically,the word is the plural form of the wordeloahand related toel.It iscognateto the word'l-h-mwhich is found inUgaritic,where it is used as thepantheonforCanaanite gods,the children ofEl,and conventionally vocalized as "Elohim". Most uses of the termElohimin the later Hebrew text imply a view that is at leastmonolatristat the time of writing, and such usage (in the singular), as a proper title for Deity, is distinct from generic usage aselohim,"gods" (plural, simple noun).

Rabbinic scholarMaimonideswrote thatElohim"Divinity" andelohim"gods" are commonly understood to behomonyms.[1] One modern theory suggests that the notion ofdivinityunderwent radical changes in the early period ofIsraeliteidentity and development ofAncient Hebrew religion.In this view, the ambiguity of the termelohimis the result of such changes, cast in terms of "vertical translatability", i.e. the re-interpretation of the gods of the earliest recalled period as thenational godofmonolatrismas it emerged in the 7th to 6th century BCE in theKingdom of Judahand during theBabylonian captivity,and further in terms ofmonotheismby the emergence ofRabbinical Judaismin the 2nd century CE.[2] Another theory, building on an idea by Gesenius, argues that even before Hebrew became a distinct language, the pluralelohimhad both a plural meaning of "gods" and an abstract meaning of "godhood" or "divinity", much as the plural of "father",avot,can mean either "fathers" or "fatherhood".Elohimthen came to be used so frequently in reference to specific deities, both male and female, domestic and foreign (for instance, the goddess of the Sidonians in 1 Kings 11:33), that it came to be concretized from meaning "divinity" to meaning "deity", though still occasionally used adjectivally as "divine".[3]

Grammar and etymology

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Further information:El (deity),Ilah,andAllah

The wordelohimor'elohiym(ʼĕlôhîym) is agrammatically pluralnounfor "gods"or" deities "or various other words inBiblical Hebrew.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

In Hebrew, the ending-imnormally indicates a masculine plural. However, when referring to the Jewish God,Elohimis usually understood to be grammatically singular (i.e., it governs a singular verb or adjective).[11][12]InModern Hebrew,it is often referred to in the singular despite the-imending that denotes plural masculine nouns in Hebrew.[13][14]

It is generally thought thatElohimis derived fromeloah,[4][5][6][7][8][9]the latter being an expanded form of theNorthwest Semiticnoun 'il.[15][16]The related nounseloah(אלוה) andel(אֵל) are used as proper names or as generics, in which case they are interchangeable withelohim.[16]The term contains an addedhehasthird radicalto thebiconsonantal root.Discussions of theetymologyofelohimessentially concern this expansion. An exact cognate outside of Hebrew is found in Ugariticʾlhm,[15]the family of El, thecreator godand chief deity of theCanaanite pantheon,inBiblical AramaicʼĔlāhāand laterSyriacAlaha( "God" ), and in Arabicʾilāh( "god, deity" ) (orAllahas "The [single] God" ).[15]"El" (the basis for the extended rootʾlh) is usually derived from a root meaning "to be strong" and/or "to be in front".[16]

Canaanite religion

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Further information:Ancient Canaanite religion

The wordel(singular) is a standard term for "god" in Aramaic, paleo-Hebrew, and other related Semitic languages including Ugaritic. The Canaanite pantheon of gods was known as'ilhm,[17]the Ugaritic equivalent toelohim.[18]For instance, the UgariticBaal Cyclementions "seventy sons ofAsherah".Each" son of god "was held to be the originating deity for a particular people (KTU2 1.4.VI.46).[19]

Usage

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Main article:Hebrew grammar
Further information:Names of God in Judaism

Elohimoccurs frequently throughout the Torah. In some cases (e.g.,Exodus 3:4,"Elohimcalled unto him out of the midst of the bush... "), it behaves like a singular noun in Hebrew grammar and is then generally understood to denote the single God of Israel. In other cases,elohimacts as an ordinary plural of the wordeloahand refers to thepolytheisticnotion of multiple gods (for example,Exodus 20:3,"You shall have no other gods before me" ).

The wordElohimoccurs more than two thousand five hundred times in the Hebrew Bible, with meanings ranging from "gods" in a general sense (as inExodus 12:12,where it describes "the gods of Egypt" ), to specific gods (the frequent references toYahwehas the "elohim" of Israel), toseraphim,and other supernatural beings, to thespirits of the deadbrought up at the behest ofKingSaulin1 Samuel 28:13,and even to kings and prophets (e.g.,Exodus 4:16).[16]The phrasebene elohim,translated "sons of the Gods", has an exact parallel inUgariticandPhoeniciantexts, referring to the council of the gods.[16]

Elohim occupy the seventh rank of ten in the medieval rabbinic scholarMaimonides'Jewish angelic hierarchy.Maimonides wrote: "I must premise that every Hebrew [now] knows that the term Elohim is a homonym, and denotes God, angels, judges, and the rulers of countries..."[1]

With plural verb

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In the Hebrew Bible,1 Samuel 28:13,elohimis used with a plural verb. Thewitch of EndortellsSaulthat she sawelohimascending (olimעֹלִים,plural verb) out of the earth when she summoned the spirit of theProphetSamuelat Saul's request.[20]The wordelohim,in this context, can refer to spirits as well as deities.[21]Some traditional Jewish sources say that the spirits of deceased human beings are being referred to[citation needed].TheBabylonian Talmudstates: "olimindicates that there were two of them. One of them was Samuel, but the other, who was he? – Samuel went and broughtMoseswith him. "[22]Rashigives this interpretation in his commentary on the verse.[23]Regarding this,Sfornostates that "every disembodied creature is known as elohim; this includes the soul of human beings known as [the] 'Image of God'."[24]

InGenesis 20:13,Abraham,before the polytheisticPhilistinekingAbimelech,says that "Elohim (translated as 'God') caused (התעו,plural verb) me to wander ".[25][26][27]Whereas the GreekSeptuagint(LXX) has a singular verb form (ἐξήγαγε(ν), aorist II), most English versions usually translate this as "God caused" (which does not distinguish between a singular and plural verb).[28]Regarding this, theJerusalem Talmudstates: "All Names written regarding our father Abraham are holy [i.e., referring to the one God] except one which is profane,it was when the gods made me err from my father's house.But some say this one also is holy, [i.e.,] 'were it not for God, they [humans] already would have made me err'. "[29]The same disagreement appears inTractate Soferim,whereHaninah ben Ahi R. Joshuamaintained that the word is "holy".[30]An alternative view (held byOnkelos,Bahya ben Asher,Jacob ben Asher,Sforno,and RabbiYaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg) is that the word means "gods" and the verse means that Abraham's distaste for theidolatryof his fatherTerahled him to decide to wander far from home.[31]Others, such asChizkuni,interpretelohimas a reference to wicked rulers likeAmraphel(often equated withNimrod).[32]

InGenesis 35:7,Jacob builds an altar atEl-Bethel"because thereelohimrevealed himself [plural verb] to [Jacob] ". The verbniglu( "revealed himself" ) is plural, even though one would expect the singular.[33]This is one of several instances where the Bible uses plural verbs with the nameelohim.[34][35]Some Jewish sources (e.g.,Targum Jonathan,Ibn Ezra,addChizkuni), seeking to explain the plural language of Genesis 35:7, translateelohimhere as "angels",[36]noting that in the story being referenced Jacob experiences a vision ofmalakhei elohim(angels of God) ascending and descending the ladder.[37]Radakagrees that this is a reference to angels but also presents the alternative view that the plural form in the verse is amajestic plural,as seen in other verses such asPsalms 149:2andJob 35:10.[38]Elohimcan be seen used in reference to theangelsin a variety of other cases, such as inPsalms 8:6and82:1–6.[39][40][41]

With singular verb

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Elohim,when meaning the God of Israel, is mostly grammatically singular, and is commonly translated as "God", and capitalised. For example, inGenesis 1:26,it is written: "Then Elohim (translated as God) said (singular verb), 'Let us (plural) make (plural verb) man in our (plural) image, after our (plural) likeness'".In the traditional Jewish understanding of the verse, the plural refers toGodtakingcouncilwith Hisangels(who He had created by this point) before creatingAdam.[42]It should also be noted that in the following verse of Genesis 1:27: "So God created man in his [own] image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them"; the singular verb בָּרָא (bārāʾ), meaning "He created" is used as it is elsewhere in all the acts of creation featured in Genesis. This shows us that the actual creation of man (and everything else) in Genesis was a singular act by God alone.[43][44][45]

Wilhelm Geseniusand other Hebrew grammarians traditionally described this as thepluralis excellentiae(plural of excellence), which is similar to thepluralis majestatis(plural of majesty, or "Royal we" ).[46][a] Gesenius comments that the singular Hebrew termElohimis to be distinguished fromelohimused to refer to plural gods, and remarks that:

The supposition thatאֱלֹהִים(elohim) is to be regarded as merely a remnant of earlier polytheistic views (i.e. as originally only a numerical plural) is at least highly improbable, and, moreover, would not explain the analogous plurals (see below). That the language has entirely rejected the idea of numerical plurality inאֱלֹהִים(whenever it denotesoneGod), is proved especially by its being almost invariably joined with a singular attribute (cf. §132h), e.g.אֱלֹהִים צַדִּיקPsalms 7:10,&c. Henceאֱלֹהִיםmay have been used originally not only as a numerical but also as an abstract plural (corresponding to the Latinnumen,and ourGodhead), and, like other abstracts of the same kind, have been transferred to a concrete single god (even of the heathen).

To the same class (and probably formed on the analogy ofאֱלֹהִים) belong the pluralsקְדשִׁים(kadoshim), meaningthe Most Holy(only of Yahweh,Hosea 12:1,Proverbs 9:10,30:3– cf.אֱלֹהִים קְדשִׁיםelohiym kadoshiminJoshua 24:19and the singular Aramaicעֶלְיוֹנִיןthe Most High,Daniel 7:18,7:22,7:25); and probablyתְּרָפִים(teraphim) (usually taken in the sense ofpenates), the image of a god, used especially for obtaining oracles. Certainly in1 Samuel 19:13,19:16onlyoneimage is intended; in most other places a single imagemaybe intended; inZechariah 10:2alone is it most naturally taken as a numerical plural.

— Gesenius, Wilhelm(1910)."124. The Various Uses of the Plural-form".InKautzsch, Emil(ed.).Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar.Translated byCowley, Arthur Ernest(2nd, revised and enlarged ed.).Oxford University Press.p. 399 – viaWikisource.

There are a number of notable exceptions to the rule thatElohimis treated as singular when referring to the God of Israel, includingGenesis 20:13,Genesis 35:7,2 Samuel 7:23andPsalms 58:11,and notably the epithet of the "Living God" (Deuteronomy 5:26etc.), which is constructed with the plural adjective,Elohim ḥayyim(אלהים חיים) but still takes singular verbs. The treatment ofElohimas both singular and plural is, according to Mark Sameth, consistent with a theory put forth byGuillaume Postel(16th century) andMichelangelo Lanci[it](19th century) that the God of Israel was understood by the ancient priests to be a singular, dual-gendered deity.[48][49][50][51]

In the Septuagint andNew Testamenttranslations,Elohimhas the singularὁ θεόςeven in these cases, and modern translations follow suit in giving "God"in the singular. TheSamaritan Torahhas edited out some of these exceptions.[52]

Angels and judges

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Carved angel's head with Hebrew text "Elohim", fromSt. George's Church, Dublin

In a few cases in the Greek Septuagint (LXX), Hebrewelohimwith a plural verb, or with implied plural context, was rendered eitherangeloi( "angels" ) orto kriterion tou Theou( "the judgement of God" ).[53]These passages then entered first the LatinVulgate,then the EnglishKing James Version(KJV) as "angels" and "judges", respectively. From this came the result thatJames Strong,for example, listed "angels" and "judges" as possible meanings forelohimwith a plural verb in hisStrong's Concordance,[4][5]and the same is true of many other 17th–20th century reference works. Both Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon and theBrown–Driver–BriggsLexicon[5]list both "angels" and "judges" as possible alternative meanings ofelohimwith plural verbs and adjectives.

Gesenius andErnst Wilhelm Hengstenberghave questioned the reliability of theSeptuaginttranslation in this matter. Gesenius lists the meaning without agreeing with it.[54]Hengstenberg stated that the Hebrew Bible text never useselohimto refer to "angels", but that the Septuagint translators refused the references to "gods" in the verses they amended to "angels".[55]

The Greek New Testament (NT) quotesPsalms 8:4–6in Hebrews 2:6b-8a, where the Greek NT hasἀγγέλους(angelous) in vs. 7,[56]quotingPsalms 8:5(8:6 in the LXX), which also hasἀγγέλουςin a version of the Greek Septuagint.[57]In the KJV,elohim(Strong's number H430) is translated as "angels" only in Psalm 8:5.[58]

The KJV translateselohimas "judges" inExodus 21:6;Exodus 22:8;twice inExodus 22:9[59]as "judge" in1 Samuel 2:25,and as "gods" inExodus 22:28,Psalm 82:1,Psalm 82:6,Psalm 95:3,Psalm 96:4,Psalm 97:9,andPsalm 138:1.

Angelscited in theHebrew Bibleand external literature often contain the related nounʾĒl(אֵל) in theirtheophoricnames such asMichaelandGabriel.

Other plural-singulars in biblical Hebrew

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TheHebrew languagehas several nouns with-im(masculine plural) and-oth(feminine plural) endings which nevertheless take singular verbs, adjectives and pronouns. For example,Baalim,[60]Adonim,[61]Behemoth.[62]This form is known as the "honorific plural", in which the pluralization is a sign of power or honor.[63][full citation needed]A very common singular Hebrew word with plural ending is the wordachoth,meaning sister, with the irregular plural form achioth.[64]

Alternatively, there are several other frequently used words in the Hebrew language that contain a masculine plural ending but also maintain this form in singular concept. The major examples are: Sky/Heavens (שמיםshamayim), Face (פניםpanim), Life (חיים-chayyim), Water (מיםmayim). Of these four nouns, three appear in the first sentence of Genesis[65](along withelohim). Three of them also appear in the first sentence of the Eden creation story[66](also along withelohim). Instead of "honorific plural" these other plural nouns terms represent something which is constantly changing. Water, sky, face, life are "things which are never bound to one form".[67]

The Divine Council

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Main article:Divine Council

God standeth in the congregation of the mighty; he judgeth among the gods....

I have said, Ye [are] gods; and all of you [are] children of the most High.

But ye shall die like men, and fall like one of the princes.

— Psalm 82:1, 6–7 (AV)

Marti Steussy, inChalice Introduction to the Old Testament,discusses: "The first verse of Psalm 82: 'Elohim has taken his place in the divine council.' Here elohim has a singular verb and clearly refers to God. But in verse 6 of the Psalm, God says to the other members of the council, 'You [plural] are elohim.' Hereelohimhas to mean gods. "[68]

Mark Smith, referring to this same Psalm, states inGod in Translation:"This psalm presents a scene of the gods meeting together in divine council... Elohim stands in the council of El. Among the elohim he pronounces judgment:..."[69]

InHulsean Lectures for...,H. M. Stephenson discussed Jesus' argument inJohn 10:34-36 9concerningPsalm 82:6-7.(In answer to the charge of blasphemy Jesus replied:) "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods. If he called them gods, unto whom the word of God came, and the scripture cannot be broken; Say ye of him, whom the Father hath sanctified, and sent into the world, Thou blasphemest; because I said, I am the Son of God?" – "Now what is the force of this quotation 'I said ye are gods.' It is from the Asaph Psalm which begins 'Elohim hath taken His place in the mighty assembly. In the midst of the Elohim He is judging.'"[70]

Sons of God

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Main article:Sons of God

The Hebrew word for "son" isben;plural isbānim(with theconstruct stateform being "benei" ). The Hebrew termbenei elohim( "sons of God" or "sons of the gods" ) inGenesis 6:2[71]compares to the use of "sons of gods" (Ugaritic:b'n il) sons ofElinUgaritic mythology.[72]Karel van der Toornstates that gods can be referred to collectively asbene elim,bene elyon,orbene elohim.[16]

Elohist

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Main article:Elohist
Friedman's distribution of materials by source of the first four books of the Hebrew Bible, including aredactor(black), according to thedocumentary hypothesis.[73][74]

The Hebrew Bible uses various names for the God of Israel.[75]: 102 According to thedocumentary hypothesis,these variations are the products of differentsource textsand narratives that constitute thecomposition of the Torah:Elohimis the name of God used in theElohist(E) andPriestly(P) sources, whileYahwehis the name of God used in theJahwist(J) source.[73][74][75][76][77]Form criticismpostulates the differences of names may be the result of geographical origins; the P and E sources coming from the North and J from the South.[75]: 102 [76]There may be a theological point, that God did not reveal his name,Yahweh,before the time ofMoses,thoughHans Heinrich Schmidshowed that the Jahwist was aware of the prophetic books from the 7th and 8th centuries BCE.[78]

The Jahwist source presents Yahwehanthropomorphically:for example, walking through theGarden of Edenlooking for Adam and Eve. The Elohist source often presents Elohim as more distant and frequently involvesangels,as in the Elohist version of the tale ofJacob's Ladder,in which there is a ladder to the clouds, with angels climbing up and down, with Elohim at the top. In the Jahwist version of the tale, Yahweh is simply stationed in the sky, above the clouds without the ladder or angels. Likewise, the Elohist source describesJacob wrestling with an angel.

The classical documentary hypothesis, first developed in the late 19th century amongbiblical scholarsandtextual critics,holds that the Jahwist portions of theTorahwere composed in the 10th-9th century BCE[75]: 102 and the Elohist portions in the 9th-8th century BCE,[75]: 102 [76]i.e. during the early period of theKingdom of Judah.This, however, is not universally accepted aslater literary scholarshipseems to show evidence of a later "Elohist redaction" (post-exilic) during the 5th century BCE which sometimes makes it difficult to determine whether a given passage is "Elohist" in origin, or the result of a later editor.[citation needed]

Latter Day Saint movement

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Main article:God in Mormonism
Further information:Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

In theLatter Day Saint movementandMormonism,Elohimrefers toGod the Father.[79][80]Elohim is the father of Jesus in both the physical and the spiritual realms, whose name before birth is said to beJehovah.[79][80][81]

In the belief system held by the Christian churches that adhere to the Latter Day Saint movement and mostMormon denominations,includingthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints(LDS Church), the termGodrefers to Elohim (the Eternal Father),[79][80]whereasGodheadmeans a council of three distinct gods: Elohim (God the Father),Jehovah(the Son of God, Jesus Christ),[79][80]and theHoly Ghost,in anon-trinitarian conception of the Godhead.[79][80]In Mormonism, the three persons are considered to be physically separate beings, or personages, but united in will and purpose; this conception differs significantly frommainline Christiantrinitarianism.[79][80][82]As such, the termGodheaddiffers from how it is used in mainstream Christianity.[79][80]This description of God represents theorthodoxyof the LDS Church, established early in the 19th century.[79]

TheBook of Abraham,asacred textaccepted by some branches of the Latter Day Saint movement, contains a paraphrase of the first chapter of Genesis which explicitly translatesElohimas "the Gods" multiple times; this is suggested by MormonapostleJames E. Talmageto indicate a "plurality of excellence or intensity, rather than distinctively of number,"[83]in contrast to his contemporary apostleOrson F. Whitney's explanation that, while to "the modern Jew [Elohim] means the plural of majesty, not of number...to the Latter-day Saint it signifies both."[84]

Raëlism

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Main article:Raëlian beliefs and practices

Thenew religious movementandUFO religionInternational Raëlian Movement,founded by the French journalistClaude Vorilhon(who later became known as "Raël" ) in 1974,[85]claims that the Hebrew wordElohimfrom the Book of Genesis actually means “those who came from the sky” and refers to a species ofextraterrestrial aliens.[86]

Gnosticism

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In theGnostictext known as theSecret Book of John,Elohim is another name forAbel,whose parents areEveandYaldabaoth.He rules over the elements of water and earth, alongsideCain,who is seen asYahwehruling over the elements of fire and wind.[87]However, the 2nd century Gnostic teacherJustinproposed a cosmological model with three original divinities. The first is a transcendental being called the Good, the second is Elohim, appearing here as an intermediate male figure, and the third is anEarth-mothercalledEden.The world along with the first humans are created from the love between Elohim and Eden, but when Elohim learns about the existence of the Good above him and ascends trying to reach it, he causes evil to enter the universe.[88]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^According to RabbiJoseph Hertz,the word's use inGenesis 1:1"indicates that God comprehends and unifies all the forces of eternity and infinity".[47]

References

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  1. ^abMoses Maimonides.Guide for the Perplexed(1904 translation by Friedländer). Starting from the beginning of chapter 2.
  2. ^Smith 2010,p. 19.
  3. ^Burnett 2001.
  4. ^abcStrong, James(1890)."H430 - 'elohiym".Strong's Concordance.Blue Letter Bible.Retrieved1 August2020.אֱלֹהִיםʼĕlôhîym,el-o-heem; plural of H433 (אֱלוֹהַּĕlôah); gods in the ordinary sense; but specifically used (in the plural thus, especially with the article) of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative:—angels, X exceeding, God (gods) (-dess, -ly), X (very) great, judges, X mighty.
  5. ^abcd"Strong's Hebrew: 430.אֱלֹהִים(elohim) -- God (Strong's Concordance; Englishman's Concordance; NAS Exhaustive Concordance; Brown-Driver-Briggs definition; Strong's Exhaustive Concordance definition; Forms and Transliterations) ".Biblehub.2020.Retrieved1 August2020.
  6. ^ab"Elohim - Hebrew god".Encyclopædia Britannica.Edinburgh:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.20 July 1998.Retrieved1 August2020.Elohim,singularEloah,(Hebrew: God), the God of Israel in the Old Testament. The term Elohim—though sometimes used for other deities, such as theMoabitegodChemosh,theSidoniangoddessAstarte,and also for other majestic beings such as angels, kings, judges (the Old Testamentshofeṭim), and theMessiah—is usually employed in the Old Testament for the one and only God of Israel, whose personal name was revealed toMosesasYHWH,orYahweh(q.v.). When referring to Yahweh,elohimvery often is accompanied by the articleha-,to mean, in combination, "the God," and sometimes with a further identificationElohim ḥayyim,meaning "the living God."
    Though Elohim is plural in form, it is understood in the singular sense. Thus, inGenesisthe words, "In the beginning God (Elohim) created the heavens and the earth," Elohim is monotheistic in connotation, though its grammatical structure seems polytheistic. The Israelites probably borrowed the Canaanite plural noun Elohim and made it singular in meaning in their cultic practices and theological reflections.
  7. ^ab"'elohiym Meaning in Bible - Old Testament Hebrew Lexicon - New American Standard ".Bible Study Tools.Retrieved10 August2020.
  8. ^abE. K. (1902)."DIVINE NAMES - 114." Elōhīm "".InBlack, John S.;Cheyne, Thomas K.(eds.).Encyclopaedia Biblica.Vol. 3.Toronto:Macmillan Company.pp. 343–344.Retrieved10 August2020– viaInternet Archive.
  9. ^abGilman, D. C.;Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905)."Elohim".New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
  10. ^"Outline of Biblical Usage".Retrieved8 August2019.
  11. ^McLaughlin 2000,pp. 401–402.
  12. ^Van der Toorn 1999,p. 353.
  13. ^Glinert,Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar,Routledge, p. 14, section 13 "(b)Agreement".
  14. ^Gesenius,A Grammar of the Hebrew Language.
  15. ^abcPardee 1999,pp. 285–288.
  16. ^abcdefHerrmann, W. (1999). Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter W. (eds.).El(2nd ed.).Leiden:Brill Publishers.pp. 274–280, 352–353.doi:10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_El.ISBN90-04-11119-0.
  17. ^Pardee 1999,p. 285 "The term expressing the simple notion of 'gods' in these texts isilm... ".
  18. ^Van der Toorn 1999,pp. 352–353, 360–364.
  19. ^Day 2003,p. 23.
  20. ^Brian B. Schmidt, "Israel's beneficent dead: ancestor cult and necromancy in ancient Israelite Religion and Tradition",Forschungen zum Alten Testament,N. 11 (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr Siebeck, 1994), p. 217: "In spite of the fact that the MT plural noun 'elohim of v.13 is followed by a plural participle 'olim, a search for the antecedent to the singular pronominal suffix on mah-to'ro in v.14 what does he/it look like? has led interpreters to view the 'elohim... 'olim as a designation for the dead Samuel, 'a god ascending'. The same term 'elohim... He, therefore, urgently requests verification of Samuel's identity, mah-to'" ro, 'what does he/it look like?' The... 32:1, 'elohim occurs with a plural finite verb and denotes multiple gods in this instance: 'elohim ' "seryel'ku I fydnenu, 'the gods who will go before us'. Thus, the two occurrences of 'elohim in 1 Sam 28:13,15 – the first complemented by a plural... 28:13 manifests a complex textual history, then the 'elohim of v. 13 might represent not the deified dead, but those gods known to be summoned – some from thenetherworld– to assist in the retrieval of the ghost.373... "
  21. ^Bill T. Arnold,Necromancy and Cleromancy in 1 and 2 Samuel,CBQ, 66:2, p.202
  22. ^"Chagigah 4b:9".Sefaria.
  23. ^"Rashi on I Samuel 28:13:1".Sefaria.
  24. ^"Sforno on Deuteronomy 21:23:1".Sefaria.
  25. ^Benamozegh, Elia; Maxwell Luria (1995).Israel and Humanity.Paulist Press International. p. 104.ISBN978-0809135417.
  26. ^Hamilton, Victor P. (2012).Exodus: An Exegetical Commentary.Baker Academic.ISBN978-0801031830.
  27. ^e.g.Genesis 20:13:Hebrew:התעו אתי אלהים מבית אבי,whereהתעוis fromHebrew:תעה"to err, wander, go astray, stagger", thecausativeplural "they caused to wander".
  28. ^LXX:ἐξήγαγέν με ὁ θεὸς ἐκ τοῦ οἴκου τοῦ πατρός;KJV:"when God caused me to wander from my father's house".
  29. ^"Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 1:9:17".Sefaria.
  30. ^"Tractate Soferim 4:6".Sefaria.
  31. ^
  32. ^"Chizkuni, Genesis 20:13:1".Sefaria.
  33. ^NET Bible with Companion CD-ROM,W. Hall Harris, 3rd ed., 2003. "35:14 So Jacob set up a sacred stone pillar in the place where God spoke with him.30 He poured out a 20tn Heb 'revealed themselves'. The verb iVl] (niglu), translated 'revealed himself', is plural, even though one expects the singular."
  34. ^Haggai and Malachi p36 Herbert Wolf, 1976. "If both the noun and the verb are plural, the construction can refer to a person, just as the statement 'God revealed Himself' in Genesis 35:7 has a plural noun and verb. But since the word God, 'Elohim', is plural in form,8 the verb..."
  35. ^J. Harold Ellens, Wayne G. Rollins,Psychology and the Bible: From Genesis to apocalyptic vision,2004, p. 243: "Often the plural form Elohim, when used in reference to the biblical deity, takes a plural verb or adjective (Gen. 20:13, 35:7; Exod. 32:4, 8; 2 Sam. 7:23; Ps. 58:12)."
  36. ^
  37. ^"Genesis 28:12 Hebrew Text: Westminster Leningrad Codex, Interlinear Bible".BibleHub.
  38. ^"Radak on Genesis 35:7:3".Sefaria.
  39. ^"Psalms 8:6".Sefaria.
  40. ^"Psalms 8:5 Hebrew Text: Westminster Leningrad Codex, Interlinear Bible".Bible Hub.
  41. ^"Psalms 82".Sefaria.
  42. ^"Rashi on Genesis 1:26:1".Sefaria.
  43. ^"Genesis 1:27 Hebrew Text: Westminster Leningrad Codex, Interlinear Bible".Bible Hub.
  44. ^"Conjugation of לִבְרוֹא".Pealim.
  45. ^"Rashi on Genesis 1:26:2".Sefaria.
  46. ^Gesenius,Hebrew Grammar:124g, without article 125f, with article 126e, with the singular 145h, with plural 132h, 145i
  47. ^Hertz, J. H., ed. (1960) [1937].The Pentateuch and Haftorahs: Hebrew Text, English Translation and Commentary(2nd ed.). London: Soncino Press. p. 2.ISBN0-900689-21-8.OCLC16730346.
  48. ^Sameth, Mark (2020).The Name: A History of the Dual-Gendered Hebrew Name for God.Wipf and Stock. p. 108.ISBN978-1-5326-9384-7.
  49. ^Wilkinson, Robert (2015).Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God.Boston: Brill. p. 337.ISBN9789024702039.
  50. ^Postel, Guillaume (1969).Le thrésor des prophéties de l'univers(in French). Springer. p. 211.ISBN9789024702039.
  51. ^Lanci, Michelangelo (1845).Paralipomeni alla illustrazione della sagra Scrittura(in Italian). Dondey-Dupre. pp. 100–113.ISBN978-1274016911.
  52. ^Richard N. Soulen, R. Kendall Soulen,Handbook of biblical criticism,Westminster John Knox Press, 2001,ISBN978-0-664-22314-4,p. 166.
  53. ^BrentonSeptuagintExodus 21:6:προσάξει αὐτὸν ὁ κύριος αὐτοῦ πρὸς τὸ κριτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ
  54. ^The Biblical Repositorp. 360, ed. Edward Robinson, 1838. "Gesenius denies that elohim ever means angels; and he refers in this denial particularly to Ps. 8: 5, and Ps. 97: 7; but he observes, that the term is so translated in the ancient versions."
  55. ^Samuel Davidsohn,An Introduction to the New Testament,Vol. III, 1848, p. 282: "Hengstenberg, for example, affirms, that the usus loquendi is decisive against the direct reference to angels, because Elohim never signifies angels. He thinks that the Septuagint translator could not understand the representation..."
  56. ^"Hebrews 2:7 with Greek".Retrieved18 March2013.
  57. ^"Psalm 8:5 with Greek (8:6 in the LXX)".Retrieved18 March2013.
  58. ^"Elohim as angels in the KJV only in Psalm 8:5 (8:6 in LXX)".Retrieved18 March2013.
  59. ^"Elohim as 'judges' in the KJV".Retrieved18 March2013.
  60. ^Exodus 21:34, 22:11, Ecclesiastes 5:10, 7:12, Job 31:39
  61. ^Genesis 39:20, 42:30, 42:33, I Kings 16:24
  62. ^Job 40:15
  63. ^Mark Futato (2010)."Ask a Scholar: What Does YHWH Elohim Mean?".
  64. ^ach and achotat balashon
  65. ^Genesis 1:1–2
  66. ^Genesis 2:4–7
  67. ^Zagoria-Moffet, Adam (2015-05-13)."'But Not in Number': One and Many in Hebrew Grammar ".Retrieved2019-12-24.
  68. ^Steussy, Marti (2013).Chalice Introduction to the Old Testament.Chalice Press.ISBN9780827205666.
  69. ^Smith 2010,p. 134.
  70. ^Stephenson, H. M. (1890)Hulsean Lectures for...lecture 1, page 14
  71. ^(e.g.Genesis 6:2,"... the sons ofthe Elohim(e-aleim) saw the daughters of men (e-adam,"the adam" ) that they were fair; and they took them for wives... ",
  72. ^Marvin H. Pope,El in the Ugaritic texts,"Supplements to Vetus Testamentum", Vol. II, Leiden, Brill, 1955. Pp. x—l–116, p. 49.
  73. ^abFriedman, Richard Elliott(2019) [1987].Who Wrote the Bible?.New York:Simon & Schuster.pp. 10–18.ISBN978-1-5011-9240-1.
  74. ^abBrettler, Marc Zvi(2004)."Torah: Introduction".InBerlin, Adele;Brettler, Marc Zvi(eds.).The Jewish Study Bible: Featuring The Jewish Publication Society TANAKH Translation.New York:Oxford University Press.pp. 1–7.ISBN9780195297515.
  75. ^abcdeDever, William G.(2001)."Getting at the" History behind the History "".What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel.Grand Rapids, MichiganandCambridge, U.K.:Wm. B. Eerdmans.pp. 97–102.ISBN978-0-8028-2126-3.OCLC46394298.
  76. ^abcGilman, D. C.;Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905)."Elohist and Yahwist".New International Encyclopedia(1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
  77. ^Jacobs, Joseph;Hirsch, Emil G.(1906)."ELOHIST".Jewish Encyclopedia.Kopelman Foundation.Retrieved10 August2020.
  78. ^H. H. Schmid,Der Sogenannte Jahwist (Zurich: TVZ, 1976)
  79. ^abcdefghDavies, Douglas J.(2003)."Divine–human transformations: God".An Introduction to Mormonism.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp. 67–77.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511610028.004.ISBN9780511610028.OCLC438764483.S2CID146238056.
  80. ^abcdefgRobinson, Stephen E.; Burgon, Glade L.; Turner, Rodney; Largey, Dennis L. (1992),"God the Father",inLudlow, Daniel H.(ed.),Encyclopedia of Mormonism,New York:Macmillan Publishing,pp. 548–552,ISBN0-02-879602-0,OCLC24502140,retrieved7 May2021– viaHarold B. Lee Library
  81. ^First PresidencyandQuorum of the Twelve Apostles,"The Father and the Son",Improvement Era,August 1916, pp. 934–42; reprinted as"The Father and the Son",Ensign,April 2002.
  82. ^The term with its distinctive Mormon usage first appeared inLectures on Faith(published 1834), Lecture 5 ( "We shall in this lecture speak of the Godhead; we mean the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit." ). The termGodheadalso appears several times in Lecture 2 in its sense as used in theAuthorized King James Version,meaningdivinity.
  83. ^Talmage, James E. (September 1915).Jesus the Christ, (1956 ed.).p. 38.
  84. ^Elias: An Epic of the Agesby Orson F. Whitney. 1914. p 118.
  85. ^Dericquebourg, Régis(2021)."Rael and the Raelians".In Zeller, Ben (ed.).Handbook of UFO Religions.Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Vol. 20.LeidenandBoston:Brill Publishers.pp. 472–490.doi:10.1163/9789004435537_024.ISBN978-90-04-43437-0.ISSN1874-6691.S2CID239738621.
  86. ^Palmer, Susan J.;Sentes, Bryan (2012)."The International Raëlian Movement".InHammer, Olav;Rothstein, Mikael(eds.).The Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp. 167–172.doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521196505.012.ISBN978-0-521-19650-5.LCCN2012015440.S2CID151563721.
  87. ^Marvin Meyer;Willis Barnstone(June 30, 2009). "The Secret Book of John".The Gnostic Bible.Shambhala.Retrieved2022-01-28.
  88. ^"Gnosticism - Apocryphon of John".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved2022-01-28.

General bibliography

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