Wikipedia

Esus

Not to be confused withAsus.For other uses, seeEsus (disambiguation).

Esus[a]is aCeltic godknown from iconographic,epigraphic,and literary sources.

Esus as depicted in thePillar of the Boatmen

The Roman poetLucan's epicPharsaliamentions Esus,Taranis,andTeutatesas gods to whom theGaulssacrificed humans. This rare mention of Celtic gods under their native names in a Latin text has been the subject of much comment. Almost as often commented on arethe scholia to Lucan's poem(early medieval, but relying on earlier sources) which tell us the nature of these sacrifices: in particular, that Esus's victims were suspended from a tree and bloodily dismembered. This ritual has been compared with a wide range of sources, includingWelshandGermanic mythology,as well as with the violent end of theLindow Man.

Esus has been connected (through an inscription which identifies him and an allied character,Tarvos Trigaranos,by name) with a pictorial myth on thePillar of the Boatmen,aGallo-Romancolumn fromParis.This myth associates Esus, felling or pruning a tree, with a bull and threecranes.A similar monument to Esus and Tarvos Trigaranos fromTrierconfirms this association. The nature of this myth is little understood; it at least confirms the scholia's association of Esus with trees.

Esus appears very rarely in inscriptions, with only two certain attestations of his name in the epigraphic record. His name appears more commonlyas an element of personal names.A large number of etymologies have been proposed for the name Esus.

Name

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Etymology

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A very large number of etymologies have been proposed for the name "Esus".[3]: 201 The nature of the theonym is not even certain.Wolfgang Meid[de]has suggested it may be a euphemism, cover-name, or epithet of the god.[4]: 34–35 Claude Sterckx[fr]has even questioned whether "Esus" was a name given to only one deity.[2]: 119 

The most widely adopted etymology derives Esus's name from theproto-Indo-Europeanverbal root*h₁eis-( "to be reverent, to worship" ), cognate withItalicaisos( "god" ).[5]: 323 This etymology is supported by the fact that it makes the initial vowel of Esus's namelong,which agrees with both Lucan's poetic use of it and the variant spellings which use "ae" for this vowel.[4]: 35 However,D. Ellis Evanspoints out that the proposed Italic cognate is usually explained by way of anEtruscanroot.[3]: 201 

Joseph Vendryeslinked the name with PIE *esu-( "good" ).Jan de Vriesis sceptical of this, pointing out that this is difficult to reconcile with the fearful god described in Lucan and the scholia.[6]: 98 Meid suggests the name would then be aeuphemism,comparing it with the Irish theonymDagda( "the good god" ).[4]: 35 Henri d'Arbois de Jubainvillelinked it to PIE *is-( "to wish" ).T. F. O’Rahillylinked it to PIE *eis-( "vital force, life" ).[6]: 98 Félix Guirandsuggested the name was cognate with Latinerus( "lord", "master" ),[6]: 98 which Meid notes is a commonepiclesisgiven to deities (Freyr,Ba'al).[4]: 35 The name has also been connected with GermanEhre( "honour" ), Ancient Greekαἰδέομαι(aidéomai,"to be ashamed" ),Old Norseeir( "brass, copper" ), andBretonheuzuz( "terrible" )[3]: 201 [6]: 98 

As an element of proper names

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Avotivebust dedicated by a man with the name "Esumopas Cnusticus"

Esus is an element of a small number of personal names.[4]: 35 In hisDie Komposition in gallischen Personennamen(1957),Karl Horst Schmidt[de]lists Esugenus[b]( "Fathered by Esus" ), Esumagius[c]( "Powerful through Esus" ), Esumopas[d]( "Slave to Esus” ), and Esunertus[e]( "Having the power of Esus" ).[7]: 211 Other personal names connected with Esus include Aesugesli,[f]Esullus,[g]and (on a British coin) Æsus.[5]: 323 [6]: 98 Bernhard Maieris sceptical that all these names aretheophoric.[8]: 92 

Other Celtic names perhaps incorporating Esus include the tribe-nameEsuvii(perhaps "sons of Esus", fromSées);[9]: 172 the river-nameEsino(in Italy);[2]: 120 and the place-namesAesica(inNorthumberland),[1]: 510 Aeso (inHispania Tarraconensis),[2]: 119 andEssé(inBrittany).[10]

Lucan and the scholia

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Lucan

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Lucan'sPharsaliaorDe Bello Civili(On the Civil War) is an epic poem, begun about 61 CE, on the events ofCaesar's civil war(49–48 BCE). The passage relevant to Esus occurs in "Gallic excursus", anepic cataloguedetailing the rejoicing of the various Gaulish peoples after Caesar removed his legions from Gaul (where they were intended to control the natives) to Italy. The passage thus brings out two themes of Lucan's work, the barbarity of the Gauls and the unpatriotism ofCaesar.[5]: 296 

The substance of the last few lines is this: unspecified Gauls,[h]who made human sacrifices to their gods Teutates, Esus, and Taranis, were overjoyed by the exit of Caesar's troops from their territory.[5]: 298–299 The reference to "Diana of the Scythians" refers to the human sacrifices demanded byDiana at her temple in Scythian Taurica,well known in antiquity.[14]: 66–67 That Lucan says little about these gods is not surprising. Lucan's aims were poetic, and not historical or ethnographic. The poet never travelled to Gaul and relied on secondary sources for his knowledge of Gaulish religion. When he neglects to add more, this may well reflect the limits of his knowledge.[15]: 4 [5]: 296 

We have no literary sources prior to Lucan which mention these deities, and the few which mention them after Lucan (see below,LactantiusandPetronius) seem to borrow directly from this passage.[5]: 299 The secondary sources on Celtic religion which Lucan relied on in this passage (perhapsPosidonius) have not come down to us.[5]: 297 This passage is one of the very few in classical literature in which Celtic gods are mentioned under their native names,[i]rather thanidentified with Greek or Roman gods.This departure from classical practice likely had poetic intent: emphasising the barbarity and exoticness the Gauls, whom Caesar had left to their own devices.[5]: 298 

Some scholars, such as de Vries, have argued that the three gods mentioned together here (Esus, Teutates, and Taranis) formed a divine triad in ancient Gaulish religion. However, there is little other evidence associating these gods with each other. Other scholars, such asGraham Webster,emphasise that Lucan may as well have chosen these deity-names for theirscansionand harsh sound.[5]: 299 

Scholia

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Lucan'sPharsaliawas a very popular school text in late antiquity and the medieval period. This created a demand for commentaries andscholiadealing with difficulties in the work, both in grammar and subject matter.[5]: 312 The earliest Lucan scholia that have come down to us are theCommenta Bernensiaand theAdnotationes super Lucanum,both from manuscripts datable to the 10th and 11th centuries.[17]: 453 Also important are comments from a Cologne codex (theGlossen ad Lucan), dating to the 11th and 12th centuries.[5]: 312 In spite of their late date, these scholia are thought to incorporate very ancient material, some of it now lost. TheCommentaandAdnotationesare known to contain material at least as old asServius the Grammarian(4th century CE).[17]: 453–454 Below are excerpts from these scholia relevant to Esus:

Commentary Latin English
Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan,1.445 Hesus Mars sic placatur: homo in arbore suspenditur usque donec per cruorem membra digesserit. HesusMarsis appeased in this way: a man is suspended from a tree until his limbs are divided as a result of the bloodshed (?).[18]
Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan,1.445 item aliter exinde in aliis invenimus. [...] Hesum Mercurium credunt, si quidem a mercatoribus colitur We also find it [depicted] differently by other [authors]. [...] They believe Hesus to beMercury,because he is worshipped by the merchants[18]
Adnotationes super Lucanum,1.445. Esus Mars sic dictus a Gallis, qui hominum cruore placatur. Esus is the name given by the Gauls to Mars, who is appeased with human blood.[19]
Glossen ad Lucan,1.445 Esus id est Mars. Esus, that is Mars.[20]

The first excerpt, about the sacrifice to Esus, comes from a passage in theCommentawhich details the human sacrifices offered each of to the three gods (persons were drowned in barrels for Teutates, persons were burned in a wooden tub for Taranis). This passage, which is not paralleled anywhere else in classical literature, has been much the subject of much commentary. It seems to have been preserved in theCommentaby virtue of its author's preference for factual (over grammatical) explanation.[5]: 318 TheAdnotationes,by comparison, tell us nothing about the sacrifices to Esus, Teutates, and Taranis beyond that they were each bloody.[5]: 332 The nature of the sacrifice to Esus described here is unclear; the Latin text is cramped and ambiguous. Early Celticists relied on drastic emendations to the text, which have not been sustained in later scholarship.[5]: 321 [j]To give a few difficulties:digesserithere could refer to a process of decomposition or a violent severing of the limbs;cruormeans "blood" and "raw meat", but also metaphorically "murder";[5]: 322 andin arbore suspenditur,often read as suggesting that Esus's victims werehanged by the neckfrom a tree, is perhaps nearer in meaning to saying that his victims were "fixed to" or "suspended from a tree".[15]: 9–10 

As a result of this ambiguity, a very large number of interpretations of the sacrificial ritual to Esus have been given.[5]: 322 It has been pointed out that hanging by the neck does not result in loss of blood; and that neither of these lead to a dislocation of the limbs. Suggestions include that the victim was tied to the tree in order to be dismembered; or dismembered by means of tree branches; or injured and then suspended from the tree, by their armpits or limbs.[15]: 10–11 This ritual has been compared with various legendary demises: the human sacrifices toOdin,[21]: 16 [k]the death of the mythological Welsh heroLleu Llaw Gyffes,[24]: 395 and the martyrdom of StMarcel de Chalon[fr].[15]: 12 [l]The violent end of thebog bodyknown as theLindow Man—throat slashed, strangled, bludgeoned, and drowned—has even been connected with this sacrificial ritual.[10][25]

All three commentaries offer theinterpretatio romanaof Esus asMars(Roman god of war). The scholiast of theCommenta,however, notes that other sources give aninterpretatioof Esus asMercury,for which they offer a rationale: Esus, like Mercury, was worshipped by merchants.[5]: 321 It is not possible to demonstrate the authenticity of either of these equations, as we have no source outside these commentaries which pair the name of Esus with that of a Roman god.[15]: 13 The evident confusion in the sources the scholiast had available to him have been taken to count against the evidentiary value of either of theseinterpretatios.[26]: 27 [23]: 56 Max Ihm[de]regards the equation of Esus with Mercury as unlikely, because the Trier monument depicts Esus and Mercury next to each other, as different entities.[27]However, a Mercury statue from Lezoux is sometimes believed to have an dedicatory inscription to Esus on its rear (discussed below), which may count in favour of the existence of such aninterpretatio.[4]: 35 

Iconography

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Further information:Tarvos Trigaranus
Esus and Tarvos on the Pillar of the Boatmen

The Pillar of the Boatmen is a Roman column erected inLutetia(Roman Paris) in the time ofTiberius(i.e., 14-37 CE) by a company of sailors. It contains a number of depictions of Roman and Gaulish gods with legends identifying them. On one block of this pillar is an image identified as Esus (alongside Tarvos Trigaranus, and the Roman godsJupiterandVulcan). The image is of a bearded man in a tunic with abillhookin his left hand; he is aiming at a tree which he grasps with his right hand. The panel carrying the legend "Tarvos Trigaranus" (literally, "Bull with three cranes" ) has foliage which continues over from Esus's panel; it depicts a bull with two birds on its back and one between its horns.[28][15]: 5–6 

The Trier monument: Left, Mercury andRosmerta;Right, Esus chopping a tree, which holds a bull and three birds.

A monument from Trier shows an arrangement very similar to the Paris monument. This monument, dedicated to Mercury by one Indus of theMediomatrici,[m]is a four-sided block with depictions of gods, much like the Paris monument. On one side is a depiction of Mercury andRosmerta.On another side, a beardless man in a tunic attacks a tree; within the tree's foliage, a bull's head and three birds are visible. The similarity of iconography allow the beardless man to be identified with Esus. The monument has been dated to the earlyimperial period.[5]: 322 [24]: 394 

These two monuments seem to reveal a pictorial myth about Esus, involving a tree, a bull, and three cranes. The nature of this myth is unknown,[29]but has given rise to much "imaginative speculation".[10]The activity Esus is engaged in has been described as that of a logger, of a pruner, and of a craftsman.[6]: 98–99 The religious significance which the Gauls attached to bulls is well attested,[30]: 26 andAnne Rosshas argued that there was a cultic significance associated with cranes.[31]de Vries conjectured that the panels represented a sacred enthronement ritual, with the felling of a sacred tree and slaughter of a bull.[32]: 20 Henri d'Arbois de Jubainvilleconnected these scenes with events in the mythology of the Irish warrior heroCú Chulainn,[33]howeverJames MacKillopcautions that this suggestion "now seems ill-founded".[10]

Esus's iconography confirms the importance of trees to his cult, otherwise suggested by the Lucan scholia.[5]: 322 Émile Thévenot[fr]suggested that the tree Esus chops down on these monuments is the sacrificial tree.[15]: 9 Françoise Le Roux[fr]suggested that thedendolatryof Esus's cult may reflect the influence ofGermanic religion(specifically the cult ofOdin).[23]: 54 

Jean-Jacques Hatt[fr]has identified eight other images of Esus.Marcel Le Glay(writing for theLexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae) dismisses these identifications as "uncertain" and "very random".[30]

Other attestations

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Literary sources

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The Roman authorPetroniusnames a minor character "Hesus" in hispicaresqueLatin novelSatyricon(c. 54–68CE). There is nothing in what we know of Petronius that suggests he could have known about Gaulish religion first-hand. If this is a reference to the god Esus, it is probably (as Jean Gricourt suggests) Petronius using Lucan's text to make a clever joke about the nature of this character.[34]

Lactantius's ChristianapologiaThe Divine Institutes(c. 303-311 CE), in discussing human sacrifice among the pagans, very briefly mentions Esus and Teutates as pagan gods to whom the Gauls sacrificed humans. It is almost universally agreed that Lactantius borrows from Lucan here. He is known to have read Lucan's poem, and Lactantius's testimony does not go beyond Lucan's.[1]: 231–232 

The Gaulish medical writerMarcellus of Bordeauxmay offer a textual reference to Esus not dependent on Lucan in hisDe medicamentis,a compendium of pharmacological preparations written in Latin in the early 5th century and the sole source for several Celtic words. The work contains a magico-medical charm, which has been deciphered as aGaulishinvocation of the aid of Esus (spelled Aisus) in curing throat trouble.[35]The text, however, is quite corrupt and the number of possible interpretations of it have led some scholars (such as Alderik H. Blom) to scepticism that the god Esus is referenced here.[1]: 370–372 

Epigraphy

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Statue of Mercury fromLezoux

The epigraphic evidence for Esus is very limited. There are only two only certain attestations of his name in epigraphy (the legend on the Paris monument and the inscription found in 1987) and a handful of conjectured ones.[1]: 322 Philippe Leveauand Bernard Remy have suggested that this paucity of evidence may be explained by a Roman suppression of the cult of Esus, on the basis of its purported sacrificial practices.[36]: 89 

In 1987, ametal detectoristdiscovered an inscribed bronze statuette base[n](the statuette missing) inGurina(part of RomanNoricum,nowAustria), where there was once a Gallo-Roman religious centre. It is avotive offeringto Esus (spelled Aeso,dativeof Aesos) made by an individual with a Celtic name. It dates to the end of the 1st century BCE, which makes it the earliest attestation of the god Esus.[37][1]: 322–323 

A inscription on a fragment of a stele[o]from the necropolis ofCaesarea in Mauretania,a Roman city inAlgeria,appears to record a votive inscription to Esus from one Peregrinus. The intervention of a Gaulish god in Africa is surprising, and the incomplete preservation of the inscription frustrates interpretation.[36]Andreas Hofeneder witholds judgement as to whether it is an attestation of the Gaulish god.[1]: 323 Leveau and Remy dedicate a study to this inscription, where they date it to the first half of the 1st century CE, and consider the possibility that Peregrinus was a Gaulish soldier in North Africa.[36]

TwoGaulish languageinscriptions have been conjectured to mention Esus. The well-known statue of Mercury fromLezouxhas a badly weathered inscription on its rear.[p]The text has received several different readings.Michel Lejeunewill only allowa[...] / ie[...] / eso[...]to be read.[38]John Rhŷsproposed to read GaulishApronios / ieuru sosi / Esu( "Apronios dedicated this object to Esus" ).[6]: 394 This reading has been the subject of repeated doubt and was later abandoned by Rhŷs himself.[24]: 394 [38]Another Gaulish inscription, on aterrinefound near Lezoux,[q]has an unclear initial word whichOswald Szemerényiproposed to readEsus.Pierre-Yves Lambertand Lejeune prefereso( "this" ).[1]: 323 

Notes

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  1. ^In ancient sources, variouslyAesus,Aisus,Haesus,Hesus.[1]: 372 Earlier forms with the stem "-os" are also known.[2]: 121 
  2. ^CILXIII, 4674,also on a coin legend inHolder,Alt-celtischer SprachschatzI,p.1475.
  3. ^CILXIII, 3071.
  4. ^CILXIII, 3199.
  5. ^CILXII, 2623,CILVII, 1334,61,CILXIII, 11644.
  6. ^AE2003, 1218
  7. ^Lochner von Hüttenbach, Fritz (1989).Die römerzeitlichen Personennamen der Steiermark.Graz. p. 75.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. ^Lucan is not clear about which Gauls worshipped these three gods. Celticists have therefore been forced to conjecture about the geographic extent of their worship, with hypotheses ranging from pan-Celtic (Camille Jullian) to "between theSeineand theLoire"(Salomon Reinach).[5]: 299 The epigraphic evidence (discussed below) places Esus in Gaul andNoricum,and perhaps also Roman North Africa.[5]: 322–323 The presence of Esus's worship in Britain may be attested by a small number of proper names incorporating the theonym (such as the place-name Aesica, discussed above).[13]: 133 
  9. ^For the most part, classical sources describe Celtic gods under Greek or Roman names without further comment.Georg Wissowaemphasises that Lucan "stands almost alone" (steht nahezu allein) apart from this tradition.Epona,the Gallo-Roman horse god, is a notable exception; she appears frequently in classical literature, and never under aninterpretatio.Wissowa lists (though not exhaustively) two other Celtic gods, who are mentioned under their own names:Belenus(mentioned briefly byHerodianandTertullian) andGrannus(mentioned byCassius Dio).[16]: 9–11 
  10. ^Victor Tourneur[fr](1902) andAlbert Bayet(1925) proposed to emend the bizarreper cruorem( "as a result of bloodshed" ) topercussor( "murderer" ).Camille Jullianconsidered the same emendation in 1926, and went further to proposed thatdigesserit(meaning discussed below) was a corruption ofdisiecerit( "severed" ).[5]: 321 
  11. ^Germanic mythologyhas it that Odin obtained knowledge of therunesby piercing himself with a javelin and suspending himself from a tree for nine days. This sacrifice was imitated by his devotees: King Wikar is thus sacrificed to Odin inGautreks saga;as are another king's nine sons inYnglinga saga;andAdam of Brementells us that men were hung from trees in the grove of theTemple at Uppsala.Stefan Czarnowskidrew a parallel between these sacrifices and the sacrifice to Odin, suggesting that the "bloodshed" was a result of the injury by javelin.[21]: 16 [22]: 283 Frances Le Roux[fr]notes, as support for a relationship between the two rituals, that ritual hanging is almost unknown among the Celts, but very common within the cult of Odin.[23]: 50, 54 
  12. ^Émile Thévenot[fr]connected the ritual with the unusual torture of St Marcel de Chalon (d. 177/179) in an early medievalhagiography:after refusing to worship before Mars, Mercury, andMinerva,the pagans tied the saint to two branches of a tree, forced together, which sprung back and removed the saints' limbs from his body. Thévenot suggested the hagiographer of St Marcel and scholiast of theCommentadrew from the same source for this pagan ritual.[15]: 12 Waldemar Deonna[fr]andPaul-Marie Duval[fr]are unconvinced by this parallel. Both argue that Thévenot's comparison does violence to the description in theCommenta,and Deonna points out that the elements of this martyrdom are not unknown in other hagiographies.[22]: 284 [15]: 21 
  13. ^CILXIII, 3656:[I]ndus Mediom(atricus) / Mercurio v(otum) [l(ibens)] m(erito) s(olvit).
  14. ^AE1997, 1210:Adginnos / Vercombogi / {A}Eso v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito).For more about this inscription, seePiccottini, Gernot (1996). "Aesus".Carinthia I.186:97–103.=Piccottini, Gernot (2002). "Eine neue Esus-lnschrift aus Kärnten". In Zemmer-Plank, L. (ed.).Kult der Vorzeit in den Alpen.Bolzano. pp.1285–1294.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^AE1985, 934:Peregrinus V[...] / quod Esus fuit iuben[s.
  16. ^CILXIII, 1514=RIGII.1 L-8
  17. ^RIGII.2 L-67:

References

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  1. ^abcdefghHofeneder, Andreas (2011).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 3. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  2. ^abcdde Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia (2010). "Celtic Taboo-Theonyms,Góbanos/Gobánnosin Alesia and the Epigraphical Attestations ofAisos/Esus".In Hily, Gaël; Lajoye, Patrice; Hascoët, Joël; Oudaer, Guillaume; Rose, Christian (eds.).Deuogdonion: Mélanges offerts en l’honneur du professeur Claude Sterckx.Rennes: Tir. pp.105–132.
  3. ^abcEvans, D. Ellis (1967).Gaulish Personal Names: A Study of Some Continental Celtic Formations.Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  4. ^abcdefMeid, Wolfgang (2003). "Keltische Religion im Zeugnis der Sprache".Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie.53(1):20–40.doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.20.
  5. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvHofeneder, Andreas (2008).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  6. ^abcdefgde Vries, Jan (1961).Keltische Religion.Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer.
  7. ^Schmidt, Karl Horst (1957).Die Komposition in gallischen Personennamen.Berlin / New York: De Gruyter.doi:10.1515/9783111673158.
  8. ^Maier, Bernhard (2001).Die Religion der Kelten: Götter – Mythen – Weltbild.München: C. H. Beck.
  9. ^Hofeneder, Andreas (2005).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 1. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  10. ^abcdMacKillop, James (2004)."Esus, Hesus".Dictionary of Celtic Mythology(Online ed.). Oxford University Press.
  11. ^Lucan,De Bello Civilo,1.441-446
  12. ^Translation fromBraund, Susan H. (1992).Lucan: Civil War.Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  13. ^James, Alan G. (2019).The Brittonic Language in the Old North: A Guide to the Place-Name Evidence, Vol. 2: Guide to the Elements(PDF).Scottish Place-Name Society.
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  15. ^abcdefghiDeonna, Waldemar (1958)."Les Victimes d'Esus"(PDF).Ogam.10:3–29.
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  18. ^abTranslation after the German inHofeneder, Andreas (2008).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 317.
  19. ^Translation after the German inHofeneder, Andreas (2008).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 331.
  20. ^Translation after the German inHofeneder, Andreas (2008).Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen.Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 334.
  21. ^abCzarnowski, Stefan (1925)."L'arbre d'Esus, le taureau aux trois grues et le culte des voies fluviales en Gaule,".Revue Celtique.42:1–57.
  22. ^abDuval, Paul-Marie (1989) [1958]."Teutates, Esus, Taranis".Travaux sur la Gaule (1946-1986), vol. II - Religion gauloise et gallo-romaine.Publications de l'École française de Rome. Vol. 116. Rome: École Française de Rome. pp.275–287.
  23. ^abcLe Roux, Françoise (1955)."Des chaudrons celtiques à l'arbre d'Esus: Lucien et les Scholies Bernoises".Ogam.7:33–58.
  24. ^abcSergent, Bernard (1992). "L'arbre au pourri".Etudes Celtiques.29:391–402.doi:10.3406/ecelt.1992.2021.
  25. ^MacKillop, James (2004)."Lindow Man".A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology(Online ed.). Oxford University Press.
  26. ^Duval, Paul-Marie (1976).Les Dieux de la Gaule(2 ed.). Paris: Payot.
  27. ^Ihm, Max (1907)."Esus".Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft.Vol. VI, 1. Stuttgart: Metzler. pp.694–696.
  28. ^RIGII.1L-14viaRecueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises.
  29. ^Euskirchen, Marion (2006). "Esus".Brill's New Pauly Online.Brill.doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e402800.
  30. ^abLe Glay, Marcel (1988)."Esus".Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae.Vol. 4. Zurich / Munich: Artemis. pp.25–26.
  31. ^Ross, Anne (1961). "Esus et les trois" grues "".Etudes Celtiques.9(2):405–438.doi:10.3406/ecelt.1961.1475.
  32. ^de Vries, Jan (1953)."A propos du dieu Esus"(PDF).Ogam.5:16–21.
  33. ^Arbois de Jubainville, Henry d' (1898)."Esus, Tarvos trigaranus: La légende de Cûchulainn en Gaule et en Grande-Bretagne".Revue Celtique.19:245–251.
  34. ^Gricourt, Jean (1958). "L'Esus de Pétrone".Latomus.17(1):102–109.JSTOR41518785.
  35. ^De medicamentis15.106, p. 121 inNiedermann's edition;Gustav Must, “A Gaulish Incantation inMarcellus of Bordeaux,”Language36 (1960) 193–197; Pierre-Yves Lambert, “Les formules de Marcellus de Bordeaux,” inLa langue gauloise(Éditions Errance 2003), p.179, citingLéon Fleuriot,“Sur quelques textes gaulois,”Études celtiques14 (1974) 57–66.
  36. ^abcLeveau, Philippe; Remy, Bernard (2014). "Ésus en Afrique: à propos d'une inscription fragmentaire de Caesarea Mauretaniae commémorant l'exécution d'une injonction d'Ésus".Antiquités africaines.50:85–92.doi:10.3406/antaf.2014.1561.
  37. ^"No. 1210 (Provinces danubiennes)".L’Année Épigraphique.1997:404. 2000.JSTOR25607834.
  38. ^abRIGII.1L-8viaRecueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises.

Further reading

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  • Birkhan, Helmut (1997).Kelten: Versuch einer Gesamtdarstellung ihrer Kultur(2nd ed.). Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 149,643–647.
  • Guyonvarc'h, Christian-J. (1969). "Der Göttername Esus".Die Sprache.15:172–174.
  • Maier, Bernhard (2001).Die Religion der Kelten: Götter – Mythen – Weltbild.München: C. H. Beck. pp.91–92, 118, 188f.
  • Ross, Anne (1984). "Lindow Man and the Celtic Tradition". In Stead, Ian M.; Bourke, James; Brothwell, Don (eds.).Lindow Man: The Body in the Bog.London: British Museum. pp.162–168.
  • Rubekeil, Ludwig (2002).Diachrone Studien zur Kontaktzone zwischen Kelten und Germanen.Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 191.
  • Schwinden, Lothar (2003). "Das Weihedenkmal des Indus für Merkur - ein frühkaiserzeitliches Pfeilermonument aus Trier". In Noelke, Peter (ed.).Romanisation und Resistenz in Plastik, Architektur und Inschriften der Provinzen des Imperium Romanum. Neue Funde und Forschungen.Mainz: von Zabern. pp.81–88.
  • Thévenot, Emile (1957). "La pendaison sanglante des victimes offertes à Esus-Mars".Hommages à Waldemar Deonna.Bruxelles: Latomas. pp.442–449.
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  • Media related toEsusat Wikimedia Commons
  • Esus,including photographs and a capitulation of primary and secondary source material.
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