Etosha National Parkis a national park in northwesternNamibiaand one of the largest national parks in Africa.[1]It was proclaimed a game reserve in March 1907 in Ordinance 88 by the Governor ofGerman South West Africa,Friedrich von Lindequist.It was designated asWildschutzgebietin 1958, and was awarded the status of national park in 1967, by an act of parliament of the Republic ofSouth Africa.[2]It spans an area of 22,270 km2(8,600 sq mi) and was named after the largeEtosha panwhich is almost entirely within the park. With an area of 4,760 km2(1,840 sq mi), the Etosha pan covers 23% of the total area of the national park.[3]The area is home to hundreds of species of mammals, birds and reptiles, including severalthreatenedandendangeredspecies such as theblack rhinoceros.Sixty-one black rhinoceros were killed duringpoachingin Namibia during 2022, 46 of which were killed in Etosha.[4]
| Etosha National Park | |
|---|---|
 Animals at the Nebrownii waterhole | |
  Map of show location in Namibia | |
| Location | Namibia |
| Coordinates | 18°56′43″S15°53′52″E/ 18.94528°S 15.89778°E |
| Area | 22,270 km2(8,600 sq mi) |
| Established | March 22, 1907 |
| Visitors | 200000 (in 2010) |
| Governing body | Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia |
The park is located in theKunene region[citation needed]and shares boundaries with the regions ofOshana,OshikotoandOtjozondjupa.
History
edit
Areas north of the Etosha pan were inhabited byOvambo people,while variousOtjiherero-speakinggroups lived immediately outside the current park boundaries. The areas inside the park close to the Etosha pan were inhabited byKhoisan-speakingHai//ompeople.
ExplorersCharles John AnderssonandFrancis Galtonare the first Europeans to record the existence of theEtosha panon 29 May 1851, although it was already widely known by locals.[2]These European explorers were traveling withOvambocopper ore traders when they arrived at Omutjamatunda (now known as Namutoni). They passed through, and discovered the Etosha pan when they traveled north upon leavingNamutoni.The name Etosha (spelled Etotha in early literature) comes from theOshindongaword meaning "Great White Place" referring to the Etosha pan. TheHai//omcalled the panKhubuswhich means "totally bare, white place with lots of dust".[citation needed]The pan is also known asChums,which refers to the noise made by a person's feet when walking on the clay of the pan.
At this time the Hai//om people recognized the authority of the Ovambo chief atOndongabut theHererosdid not.[5]The Hai||om were forcibly removed from the park in 1954, ending their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to become landless farm laborers.[6]The Hai||om have had a recognizedTraditional Authoritysince 2004 which helps facilitate communications between the community and the government. The government of Namibia acknowledges the park to be the home of Hai||om people and started to carry out plans to resettle displaced families on farms adjacent to the national park. Since 2007 the Government has acquired six farms directly south of the Gobaub depression in Etosha National Park. A number of families have settled on these farms under the leadership of Chief David Khamuxab, Paramount Chief of the Hai||om.
European settlers
editIn 1885, entrepreneurWilliam Worthington Jordanbought a huge tract of land from Ovambo chief Kambonde. The land spanned nearly 170 kilometres (110 mi) fromOkaukuejoin the west toFischer's Panin the east. The price for the land was £300 sterling, paid for by 25 firearms, one salted horse and a cask of brandy.[5]Dorstland Trekkersfirst travelled through the park between 1876 and 1879 on their way to Angola. The trekkers returned in 1885 and settled on 2,500-hectare (6,200-acre) farms given to them at no charge by Jordan. The trekkers named the areaUpingtoniaafterthe Prime Ministerof theCape Colony.The settlement had to be abandoned in 1886 after clashes with the Hai||om[5]and defeat byChief Nehale Mpingana.[7]
German South-West Africa
editTheGerman Reichordered troops to occupyOkaukuejo,Namutoniand Sesfontein in 1886 in order to kill migrating wildlife to stop the spread ofrinderpestto cattle. A fort was built by the German cavalry in 1889 at the site of the Namutoni spring. On 28 January 1904, 500 men underNehale MpinganaattackedImperial Germany'sSchutztruppeat Fort Namutoni and completely destroyed it, driving out the colonial forces and taking over their horses and cattle.[7]The fort was rebuilt and troops were stationed once again when the area was declared a game reserve in 1907; Lieutenant Adolf Fischer of Fort Namutoni then became its first "game warden".
Boundary
edit
The present-day Etosha National Park has had many major and minor boundary changes since its inception in 1907. The major boundary changes since 1907 were because of Ordinance 18 of 1958 and Ordinance 21 of 1970.[2]
When the Etosha area was proclaimed as "Game Reserve 2" by Ordinance 88 of 1907, the park stretched from the mouths of theKunene RiverandHoarusib Riveron theSkeleton CoasttoNamutoniin the east. The original area was estimated to be 99,526 square kilometres (38,427 sq mi), an estimate that has been corrected to about 80,000 square kilometres (31,000 sq mi).[2]Ordinance 18 of 1958 changed the western park boundaries to exclude the area between theKunene riverand the Hoarusib river and instead include the area betweenHoanibriver andUgabriver, thus reducing the park's area to 55,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi). TheOdendaal Commission's (1963) decision resulted in the demarcation of the present-day park boundary in 1970.
Etosha Ecological Institute
editThe Etosha Ecological Institute was formally opened on 1 April 1974 byAdolf Brinkmannof theSouth-West AfricanAdministration.[2]The institute is responsible for all management-related research in the park. Classification of vegetation, population and ecological studies on wildebeest, elephants and lions, and studies onanthraxwere among the first major topics to be investigated.[2]The EEI has collaborations with researchers from universities in Namibia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, South Africa, Australia, Norway and Israel.
Geography
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(February 2019) |
Etosha Pan
edit
Thesalt pansare the most noticeable geological features in the national park. The maindepressioncovers an area of about 5,000 square kilometres (1,900 sq mi), and is roughly 130 km (81 mi) long and as wide as 50 km (31 mi) in some places. The hypersaline conditions of the pan limit the species that can permanently inhabit the pan itself; occurrences of extremophile micro-organisms are present, which can tolerate the hypersaline conditions.[8]The salt pan is usually dry, but fills with water briefly in summer, when it attractspelicansandflamingosin particular. In thedry season,winds blowing across the salt pan pick up saline dust and carry it across the country and out over the southernAtlantic.This salt enrichment provides minerals to the soil downwind of the pan on which some wildlife depends, though the salinity also creates challenges to farming activities. The Etosha Pan was one of several sites throughoutsouthern Africain the Southern African Regional Science Initiative (SAFARI 2000). Using satellites, aircraft, and ground-based data from sites such as Etosha, partners in this program collected a wide variety of data onaerosols,land cover, and other characteristics of the land andatmosphereto study and understand the interactions between people and thenatural environment.
Dolomite Hills
editThe dolomite hills on the southern border of the park near the Andersson entrance gate are calledOndundozonananandana,meaning the place where young boy herding cattle went to never return, probably implying a high density of predators like leopards in the hills, giving the mountains its English name of Leopard Hills.[2]The Halali area is also home to dolomite hills within the park, with one hill inside the camp and the nearbyTwee Koppies outside.Western Etosha is also dominated by dolomite hills and is the only place in the park that hasmountain zebra.
Climate
editThe Etosha National Park has a savanna desert climate. The annual mean average temperature is 24 °C (75 °F). In winter, the mean nighttime lows are around 10 °C (50 °F), while in summer temperatures often hover around 40 °C (104 °F). As it is a desert, there is a large variation between day and night. Rain almost never falls in the winter.
| Climate data for Etosha Safari Lodge, Namibia (2010–2017 averages) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 41.2 (106.2) |
40.2 (104.4) |
38.3 (100.9) |
36.9 (98.4) |
34.1 (93.4) |
31.9 (89.4) |
32.3 (90.1) |
36.3 (97.3) |
39.2 (102.6) |
40.9 (105.6) |
40.1 (104.2) |
41.2 (106.2) |
41.2 (106.2) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 34.3 (93.7) |
33.5 (92.3) |
31.7 (89.1) |
31.0 (87.8) |
29.5 (85.1) |
27.4 (81.3) |
27.2 (81.0) |
30.9 (87.6) |
35.0 (95.0) |
37.2 (99.0) |
35.5 (95.9) |
34.4 (93.9) |
32.3 (90.1) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 25.5 (77.9) |
25.7 (78.3) |
24.0 (75.2) |
23.2 (73.8) |
21.4 (70.5) |
18.6 (65.5) |
18.0 (64.4) |
21.3 (70.3) |
25.3 (77.5) |
27.5 (81.5) |
26.6 (79.9) |
26.0 (78.8) |
23.6 (74.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 18.4 (65.1) |
19.5 (67.1) |
18.0 (64.4) |
16.5 (61.7) |
13.9 (57.0) |
10.3 (50.5) |
9.6 (49.3) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
18.0 (64.4) |
18.3 (64.9) |
18.8 (65.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 10.2 (50.4) |
14.3 (57.7) |
10.2 (50.4) |
9.8 (49.6) |
8.3 (46.9) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
2.6 (36.7) |
1.6 (34.9) |
2.8 (37.0) |
11.2 (52.2) |
10.9 (51.6) |
11.6 (52.9) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 129.5 (5.10) |
74.9 (2.95) |
78.2 (3.08) |
28.8 (1.13) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0 (0) |
0.2 (0.01) |
2.1 (0.08) |
25.2 (0.99) |
79 (3.1) |
418 (16.5) |
| Source:[9] | |||||||||||||
Vegetation types
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(February 2019) |
In most places in the park, the pans are devoid of vegetation with the exception ofhalophyticSporobolus salsus,a protein-rich grass that is eaten by grazers likeblue wildebeestandspringbok.The areas around theEtosha panalso have other halophytic vegetation including grasses likeSporobolus spicatusandOdyssea paucinervis,as well as shrubs likeSuaeda articulata.Most of the park is savanna woodlands except for areas close to the pan.Mopaneis the most common tree, estimated to make up around 80% of all trees in the park.[10]Thesandveldin the north-eastern corner of Etosha is dominated byacaciaandTerminaliatrees.Tambotitrees characterize the woodlands south of the sandveld.Dwarf shrubsavanna occurs in areas close to the pan and is home to several small shrubs including a halophytic succulentSalsola etoshensis.Thorn bush savanna occurs close to the pan on limestone and alkaline soils and is dominated byacaciaspecies such asAcacia nebrownii,Acacia luederitzii,Acacia melliferra,Acacia hebecladaandAcacia tortilis.Grasslands in the park are mainly around the Etosha pan where the soil is sandy. Depending on the soil and the effects of the pan, grasslands could be dominated by one of theEragrostis,Sporobolus,Monelytrum,OdysseaorEnneapogonspecies.
Fauna
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(February 2019) |
The park has about 114 mammal species, 340 bird species, 110reptilespecies, 16amphibianspecies and 1 species of fish (up to 49 species of fish during floods).[11]Etosha National Park is also the single-most important custodian of the black rhino in the world. In 2022, 46 white and black rhinos were poached.[12]
History
editBy 1881, large game mammals likeelephants,rhinocerosesandlionshad been nearly exterminated in the region.[2]The proclamation of the game reserve helped some of the animals recover, but some species likebuffaloandwild dogshave been extinct since the middle of the 20th century. A writer fromOtjiwarongowas appointed game warden in 1951, and he considered the grasslands to be severely overgrazed. A bone meal plant was constructed near Rietfontein, and culling ofzebrasandwildebeestsbegan in 1952. Official records indicate 293 zebras and 122 wildebeest were processed at the plant, but conservationists claimed thousands had been culled and successfully forced the plant's closure during the same year. The drought that began in the year 1980 resulted in the largest capture and culling operation in the history of the park.[2]2235mountain zebrasand 450plains zebraswere captured, culled or sold. 525elephantswere culled and processed at a temporary abattoir near Olifantsrus.
Since 2005, the protected area is considered part of aLionConservation Unit.[13]
Mammals
editCommonly seen mammals in the park, past and present, are listed in the table below:
| Mammal | Status | Additional Information |
|---|---|---|
| African bush elephant | common | Etosha's elephants belong to the group of elephants in northwesternNamibiaand southernAngola.They are the tallest elephants inAfrica,but mineral deficiencies mean that they have very short tusks.[14] |
| Southern white rhinoceros | very rare | Reintroduced recently after a long absence[15] |
| South-western black rhinoceros | rare | Odendaal Commission's plan in 1963 severely reduced the habitat of the rhinoceros as most of their preferred habitat fell outside the park.[16]Relocation programs have existed since then to increase the population of rhinos within the protected boundaries of the park. |
| Cape buffalo | extinct | The last known record of buffalo in the park is from an observation of a young bull killed by lions on the Andoni plains in the 1950s. |
| Angolan giraffe | common | A 2009 genetic study on this subspecies suggests that the northernNamib Desertand Etosha National Park populations form a separate subspecies.[17] |
| Lion | common | |
| Leopard | common | |
| Cheetah | uncommon | |
| Serval | rare | |
| Caracal | common | |
| Southern African wildcat | common | |
| Black-footed cat | very rare | |
| Black-backed jackal | very common | |
| Bat-eared fox | common | |
| Cape fox | common | |
| Cape wild dog | extinct | |
| Brown hyena | common | |
| Spotted hyena | common | |
| Aardwolf | common | |
| Meerkat | common | |
| Banded mongoose | common | |
| Yellow mongoose | common | |
| Slender mongoose | common | |
| Dwarf mongoose | uncommon | |
| Common genet | common | |
| Common warthog | common | |
| Scrub hare | common | |
| Springhare | common | |
| African ground squirrel | very common | |
| Honey badger | common | |
| Aardvark | common | |
| Cape porcupine | common | |
| Ground pangolin(Manis temminckii) | uncommon | |
| Plains zebra | very common | |
| Mountain zebra | locally common | Seen only in western Etosha |
| Springbok | very common | |
| Black-faced impala | common | |
| Gemsbok | common | |
| Common duiker | uncommon | |
| Damara dik-dik | common | |
| Steenbok | common | |
| Red hartebeest | common | |
| Blue wildebeest | common | |
| Common eland | uncommon | |
| Greater kudu | common |
Birds
editThis overview is only an indication of the diversity of birds in the park and is not a complete list.
|
See also
editReferences
edit- ^Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism."Etosha National Park".Retrieved23 September2021.
- ^abcdefghiBerry, H. H. (1997). "Historical review of the Etosha Region and its subsequent administration as a National Park".Madoqua.20(1): 3–12.S2CID131055181.
- ^Lindeque, M.; Archibald, T. J. (1991). "Seasonal wetlands in Owambo and the Etosha National Park".Madoqua.17(2): 129–133.S2CID130968297.
- ^"Rhino poaching surges 93 percent in Namibia".Al Jazeera.31 January 2023.
- ^abcTrümpelmann, G.P.J. 1948.Die Boer in Suid-wes Afrika.
- ^Born in Etosha. Ute Dieckmann (2009)
- ^ab"Namibia Heroes and Heroines".Namibia 1-on-1.Retrieved28 January2012.
- ^C. Michael Hogan. 2010
- ^"Monthly reports / Etosha Safari (Reference period 2010−2018)".Etosha: Namibia Weather Network. 20 February 2018.Retrieved20 February2018.
- ^Trees and shrubs of the Etosha National Park and in northern and central Namibia; Cornelia Berry and Blythe Loutit
- ^Cunningham, P. L.; Jankowitz, W. "A Review of Fauna and Flora Associated with Coastal and Inland Saline Flats from Namibia with Special Reference to the Etosha Pan".
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^"Poaching in Namibia almost doubles in 2022".Save The Rhino.2023-02-01.Retrieved2023-04-27.
- ^IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006).Conservation Strategy for the LionPanthera leoin Eastern and Southern Africa.Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
- ^Etosha Ecological Institute, Okaukuejo.
- ^Etosha Park ProfileArchivedJanuary 23, 2014, at theWayback Machine
- ^On the clover trail. Eugène Joubert. 1996
- ^Brenneman, R. A.; Louis, E. E. Jr; Fennessy, J. (2009). "Genetic structure of two populations of the Namibian giraffe,Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis".African Journal of Ecology.47(4): 720–28.Bibcode:2009AfJEc..47..720B.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01078.x.
- ^abcd"The photographs of Etosha National Park, October 2017".Independent Travellers.independent-travellers.RetrievedFebruary 22,2018.
Further reading
edit- Chadwick, Douglas H. (March 1983). "Etosha: Namibia's Kingdom of Animals".National Geographic.Vol. 163, no. 3. pp. 344–385.ISSN0027-9358.OCLC643483454.
External links
edit
