Wikipedia

European robin

(Redirected fromEuropean robins)

TheEuropean robin(Erithacus rubecula), known simply as therobinorrobin redbreastin the British Isles, is a smallinsectivorouspasserinebirdthat belongs to thechatsubfamily of theOld World flycatcherfamily.[3]It is found across Europe, east to WesternSiberiaand south to North Africa; it issedentaryin most of its range except the far north.

European robin
Call recorded inGran Canaria
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Muscicapidae
Genus: Erithacus
Species:
E. rubecula
Binomial name
Erithacus rubecula
Subspecies

7–10, see text.

Range ofE rubecula
Breeding
Resident
Non-breeding
Possible extinct & Introduced
Synonyms[2]
  • Erithacus dandalussubsp.sardusKleinschmidt, 1906
  • Erithacus rubeculasubsp.armoricanusLebeurier & Rapine, 1936
  • Erithacus rubeculasubsp.sardusKleinschmidt, 1906
  • Motacilla rubeculaLinnaeus, 1758
Juvenile,Sussex

It is about 12.5–14.0 cm (4.9–5.5 in) in length; the male and female are similar in colouration, with an orange breast and face lined with grey, brown upper-parts and a whitish belly.

Etymology

edit

The distinctive orange breast of both sexes contributed to the European robin's original name of "redbreast",orangeas a colour name being unknown in English until the 16th century, by which time the fruit of the same name had been introduced. The Dutchroodborstje,Frenchrouge-gorge,Swedishrödhake,GermanRotkehlchen,Italianpettirosso,Spanishpetirrojoand Portuguesepisco-de-peito-ruivoall refer to the distinctively coloured front.[4]

In the 15th century, when it became popular to give human names to familiar species, the bird came to be known asrobin redbreast,which was eventually shortened torobin.[5]As agiven name,Robin is originally asmaller formof the nameRobert.The termrobinis also applied to some birds in other families with red or orange breasts. These include theAmerican robin(Turdus migratorius,athrush) and theAustralasianrobins of the familyPetroicidae,the relationships of which are unclear.

Other older English names for the bird includeruddockandrobinet.In American literature of the late 19th century, this robin was frequently called theEnglish robin.[6]

Taxonomy and systematics

edit

The European robin was described byCarl Linnaeusin 1758 in the10th editionof hisSystema Naturaeunder thebinomial nameMotacilla rubecula.[7]Itsspecific epithetrubeculais a diminutive derived from theLatinruber,meaning 'red'.[8][9]The genusErithacuswas introduced by French naturalistGeorges Cuvierin 1800, giving the bird its current binomial nameE. rubecula.[10][11]ThegenusnameErithacusis fromAncient Greek[12]and refers to an unknown bird, now usually identified as robin.[13]

The genusErithacuspreviously included theJapanese robinand theRyukyu robin.These east Asian species were shown inmolecular phylogeneticstudies to be more similar to a group of other Asian species than to the European robin.[14][15]In a reorganisation of the genera, the Japanese and the Ryukyu robins were moved to the resurrected genusLarvivoraleaving the European robin as the sole member ofErithacus.[3]The phylogenetic analysis placedErithacusin the subfamily Erithacinae, which otherwise contained only African species, but its exact position with respect to the other genera was not resolved.[15]

The genusErithacuswas formerly classified as a member of thethrushfamily (Turdidae) but is now considered to belong to theOld World flycatcherfamily (Muscicapidae), specifically to thechats(subfamily Saxicolinae) which also include thecommon nightingale.[16]

Subspecies

edit

In their large continental Eurasian range, robins vary somewhat, but do not form discrete populations that might be consideredsubspecies.[17][18]Robin subspecies are mainly distinguished by forming resident populations on islands and in mountainous areas. The robin found in the British Isles and much of western Europe,Erithacus rubecula melophilus,occurs as a vagrant in adjacent regions.E. r. witherbyifrom northwest Africa, Corsica, and Sardinia closely resemblesmelophilusbut has shorter wings.[19]The northeasternmost birds, large and fairly washed-out in colour, areE. r. tataricus.In the southeast of its range,E. r. valensof theCrimean Peninsula,E. r. caucasicusof the Caucasus and northernTranscaucasia,andE. r. hyrcanussoutheastwards into Iran are generally accepted as significantly distinct.[19]

OnMadeiraand theAzores,the local population has been described asE. r. microrhynchos,and although not distinct inmorphology,its isolation seems to suggest the subspecies is valid (but see below).[20]

Canary Islands robin

edit
Adult and juvenile Gran Canaria robins

The most distinct birds are those ofGran Canaria(E. r. marionae) andTenerife(E. r. superbus), which may be considered two distinct species or at least two different subspecies. They are readily distinguished by a white eye-ring, an intensely coloured breast, a grey line that separates the orange-red from the brown colouration, and the belly is entirely white.[21][22]

Cytochromebsequence data and vocalisations[23]indicate that the Gran Canaria/Tenerife robins are indeed very distinct and probably derived from colonisation by mainland birds some 2 million years ago.[a]

Christian Dietzen, Hans-Hinrich Witt and Michael Wink published in 2003 inAvian Sciencea study called "The phylogeographic differentiation of the European robinErithacus rubeculaon the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria? ".[17]In it they concluded that Gran Canaria's robin diverged genetically from their European relatives as far back as 2.3 million years, while the Tenerife ones took another half a million years to make this leap, 1.8 million years ago. The most likely reason would be a different colonisation of the Canaries by this bird, which arrived at the oldest island first (Gran Canaria) and subsequently passed to the neighbouring island (Tenerife).[24]

A thorough comparison betweenmarionaeandsuperbusis pending to confirm that the first one is effectively a different subspecies. Initial results suggest that birds from Gran Canaria have wings about 10% shorter than those on Tenerife.[17]The west Canary Islands' populations are younger (Middle Pleistocene) and only beginning to diverge genetically. Robins from the westernCanary Islands:El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera (E. r. microrhynchus) are similar to the European type subspecies (E. r. rubecula).[19]

Finally, the robins which can be found inFuerteventuraare the European ones, which is not surprising as the species does not breed either in this island or in the nearbyLanzarote;they are wintering birds or just passing through during their long migration between Africa and Europe.[24]

Other robins

edit

The largerAmerican robin(Turdus migratorius) is a much larger bird named for its similar coloration to the European robin, but the two birds are not closely related, with the American robin instead belonging to thesame genusas thecommon blackbird(T. merula), a species which occupies much of the same range as the European robin. The similarity between the European and American robins lies largely in the orange chest patch found in both species. This American species was incorrectly shown "feathering its nest" in London in the filmMary Poppins,[25]but it only occurs in the UK as a very rare vagrant.[26]

Some South and Central AmericanTurdusthrushes are also called robins, such as therufous-collared thrush.The Australian "robin redbreast", more correctly thescarlet robin(Petroica multicolor), is more closely related to crows and jays than it is to the European robin. It belongs to the familyPetroicidae,whose members are commonly called "Australasian robins". Thered-billed leiothrix(Leiothrix lutea) is sometimes named the "Pekin robin" byaviculturalists.Another group of Old World flycatchers, this time from Africa and Asia, is the genusCopsychus;its members are known asmagpie-robins,one of which, theOriental magpie robin(C. saularis), is the national bird of Bangladesh.[27]

Description

edit

The adult European robin is 12.5–14.0 cm (4.9–5.5 in) long and weighs 16–22 g (0.56–0.78 oz), with a wingspan of 20–22 cm (8–8.5 in). The male and female bear similar plumage: an orange breast and face (more strongly coloured in the otherwise similar British subspeciesE. r. melophilus), lined by a bluish grey on the sides of the neck and chest. The upperparts are brownish, or olive-tinged in British birds, and the belly whitish, while the legs and feet are brown. The bill and eyes are black. Juveniles are a spotted brown and white in colouration, with patches of orange gradually appearing.[28]

Distribution and habitat

edit

The robin occurs in Eurasia east to Western Siberia, south to Algeria and on the Atlantic islands as far west as theCentral Groupof the Azores and Madeira. It is a vagrant in Iceland. In the southeast, it reaches Iran theCaucasusrange.[1]Irish and British robins are largely resident but a small minority, usually female, migrate to southern Europe during winter, a few as far as Spain. Scandinavian and Russian robins migrate to Britain and western Europe to escape the harsher winters. These migrants can be recognised by the greyer tone of the upper parts of their bodies and duller orange breast. The continental European robins that migrate during winter prefer spruce woods in northern Europe, contrasting with its preference for parks and gardens in Great Britain.[29]

In southern Iberia, habitat segregation of resident and migrant robins occurs, with resident robins remaining in the same woodlands where they bred.[30]

Attempts to introduce the European robin into Australia and New Zealand in the latter part of the 19th century were unsuccessful. Birds were released around Melbourne, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington andDunedinby various localacclimatisation societies,with none becoming established. There was a similar outcome in North America, as birds failed to become established after being released inLong Island,New York in 1852, Oregon in 1889–1892, and theSaanich Peninsulain British Columbia in 1908–1910.[31]

Behaviour and ecology

edit
Robin with prey
European robin feeding on snowy ground
European robin feeding.

The robin isdiurnal,although it has been reported to be active hunting insects on moonlit nights or near artificial light at night.[18]Well known to British and Irish gardeners, it is relatively unafraid of people and drawn to human activities involving the digging of soil, in order to look out forearthwormsand other food freshly turned up. The robin is considered to be a gardener's friend, and from the traditional association of the red breast with the blood of Christ,[32]the robin would never be harmed. In continental Europe, on the other hand, robins were hunted and killed as were most other small birds, and are therefore more wary.[28]Robins also approach large wild animals, such as wild boar, which disturb the ground, to look for any food that might be brought to the surface.

In autumn and winter, robins will supplement their usual diet of terrestrial invertebrates, such as spiders, worms and insects, with berries and fruit.[29]They will also eat seed mixtures and suet placed on bird-tables.[28][33]

Male robins are noted for their highly aggressive territorial behaviour. They will fiercely attack other males and competitors that stray into their territories and have been observed attacking other small birds without apparent provocation. There are instances of robins attacking their own reflection.[34]Territorial disputes sometimes lead to fatalities, accounting for up to 10% of adult robin deaths in some areas.[35]

Because of high mortality in the first year of life, a robin has an average life expectancy of 1.1 years; however, once past its first year, life expectancy increases. One robin has been recorded as reaching 19 years of age.[36]A spell of very low temperatures in winter can, however, result in higher mortality rates.[37]The species is parasitised by themoorhen flea(Dasypsyllus gallinulae)[38]and theacanthocephalanApororhynchus silesiacus.[39]

Breeding

edit

Robins may choose a wide variety of sites for building a nest. In fact, anything which can offer some shelter, like a depression or hole, may be considered. As well as the usual crevices, or sheltered banks, other objects include pieces of machinery, barbecues, bicycle handlebars, bristles on upturned brooms, discarded kettles, watering cans, flower pots and hats. Robins will also nest in manmadenest boxes,favouring a design with an open front placed in a sheltered position up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) from the ground.[40]Nests are generally composed of moss, leaves and grass, with fine grass, hair and feathers for lining.[22]

Two or three clutches of five or six eggs are laid throughout the breeding season, which commences in March in Britain and Ireland. The eggs are a cream, buff or white speckled or blotched with reddish-brown colour, often more heavily so at the larger end.[41]When juvenile birds fly from the nests, their colouration is entirely mottled brown. After two to three months out of the nest, the juvenile bird grows some orange feathers under its chin, and over a similar period this patch gradually extends to complete the adult appearance of an entirely red-orange breast.[22]

Nest with five eggs
A single egg
Bird nestof a ground-breeding robin

Vocalisation

edit
European robin
European robin song
Problems playing this file? Seemedia help.

The robin produces a fluting, warblingsongⓘduring the breeding season. Both the male and female sing throughout the year, including during the winter, when they hold separate territories. During the winter, the robin's song is more plaintive than the summer version.[28]The female robin moves a short distance from the summer nesting territory to a nearby area that is more suitable for winter feeding. The male robin keeps the same territory throughout the year. During the breeding season, male robins usually initiate their morning song an hour before civil sunrise, and usually terminate their daily singing around thirty minutes after sunset.[42]Nocturnal singing can also occur, especially in urban areas that are artificially lit during the night.[42]Some urban robins opt to sing at night to avoid daytime anthropogenic noise.[43]

Magnetoreception

edit
Very weakradio-frequency interferenceprevents migratory robins from orienting correctly to theEarth's magnetic field.Since this would not interfere with an iron compass, the experiments imply that the birds use a radical-pair mechanism.[44]

The avian magnetic compass of the robin has been extensively researched and uses vision-basedmagnetoreception,in which the robin's ability to sense the magnetic field of the Earth for navigation is affected by the light entering the bird's eye. The physical mechanism of the robin's magnetic sense involvesquantum entanglementof electron spins incryptochromein the bird's eyes.[45][44]

Conservation status

edit

The European robin has an extensive range and a population numbering in the hundreds of millions. The species does not approach thevulnerablethresholds under the population trend criterion (>30 per cent decline over ten years or three generations); the population appears to be increasing. TheInternational Union for Conservation of Natureevaluates it asleast concern.[1]

Cultural depictions

edit

The robin features prominently in British folklore and that of northwestern France, but much less so in other parts of Europe,[46] though in the nineteenth centuryJacob Grimmreported a tradition from German-speaking Europe that if someone disturbed a robin's nest their house would be struck by lightning.[47]: 682–83 Robins feature in the traditional children's taleBabes in the Wood;the birds cover the dead bodies of the children.[48]

The robin has become strongly associated with Christmas, taking a starring role on manyChristmas cardssince the mid-19th century.[48] The robin has appeared on manyChristmas postage stamps.An old Britishfolk taleseeks to explain the robin's distinctive breast. Legend has it that when Jesus was dying on the cross, the robin, then simply brown in colour, flew to his side and sang into his ear in order to comfort him in his pain. The blood from his wounds stained the robin's breast, and thereafter all robins carry the mark of Christ's blood upon them.[49][b]

An alternative legend has it that its breast was scorched fetching water for souls in Purgatory.[48]The association with Christmas more probably arises from the fact that postmen inVictorianBritain wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.[51]

In the 1960s, in a vote publicised byThe Times,the robin was adopted as the unofficial national bird of the United Kingdom.[52] In 2015, the robin was again voted Britain's national bird in a poll organised by birdwatcher David Lindo, taking 34% of the final vote.[53]

Several English and Welsh sports organisations are nicknamed "the Robins". The nickname is typically used for teams whose home colours predominantly use red. These include the professional football clubsBristol City,[54]Crewe Alexandra,Swindon Town,Cheltenham Townand, traditionally,Wrexham A.F.C.,as well as the English rugby league team theHull Kingston Rovers(whose home colours are white with a red band).[55]As of 2019, Bristol City, Swindon Town and Cheltenham Town also incorporate a robin image in their current badge designs.[citation needed]A small bird is an unusual choice, although it is thought to symbolise agility in darting around the field.[56]

Footnotes

edit
  1. ^ Although Dietzenet al.(2003)[17]conclude that both the Tenerife and Gran Canaria populations are independently derived from mainland populations and should constitute two species or both be placed inE. rubeculaas subspecies, their data does not allow for a definite conclusion. The alternative explanation – that Tenerife was colonised by already-distinct Gran Canaria robins – has not been explored and the proposed model relies only on probabilistic inference. Likewise, the seemingly exact molecular dating is doubtful as it assumes amolecular clockthat may or may not be correct, and of course the assumption that the ancestor of all robins was similar in colouration tosuperbusand not the continental birds is, being inferred from their model of colonisation, entirely conjectural.[citation needed]
  2. ^ In Christian folklore the robin got its red breast because it plucked a thorn from Jesus' crown-of-thorns during His crucifixion. A drop of Jesus' blood fell on to the bird and thereafter they had a red breast – for Christians the robin has long been associated with charity and piety.[50]

Citations

edit
  1. ^abcBirdLife International (2018)."Erithacus rubecula".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2018:e.T22709675A131953953.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22709675A131953953.en.Retrieved19 November2021.
  2. ^"Erithacus rubecula".Global Biodiversity Information Facility.Retrieved21 January2022.
  3. ^abGill, Frank;Donsker, David;Rasmussen, Pamela,eds. (2016)."Chats, Old World flycatchers".World Bird List Version 6.2.International Ornithologists' Union.Retrieved20 May2016.
  4. ^Holland, J. (1965).Bird Spotting.London, UK: Blandford. p. 225.
  5. ^Lack, D. (1950).Robin Redbreast.Oxford: Oxford, Clarendon Press. p. 44.
  6. ^Sylvester, Charles H. (2006).Journeys Through Bookland.BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 155.ISBN978-1-4264-2117-4.
  7. ^Linnaeus, Carolus(1758).Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata(in Latin). Vol. 1. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 188.M. grisea, gula pectoreque fulvis.
  8. ^Simpson, D.P. (1979).Cassell's Latin Dictionary(5th ed.). London, UK: Cassell Ltd. p. 883.ISBN978-0-304-52257-6.
  9. ^ruber.Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short.A Latin DictionaryonPerseus Project.
  10. ^Mayr, Ernst; Paynter, Raymond A. Jr. (1964).Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 10.Vol. 10. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 32.
  11. ^Cuvier, George(1800).Leçons d'anatomie comparée. Volume 1(in French). L'Institute National des Sciences et des Arts. Table 2.(The year is given on the title page as "VIII" in theFrench Republican Calendar)
  12. ^ἐρίθακος.Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert;A Greek–English Lexiconat thePerseus Project.
  13. ^Jobling, James A. (2010).The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names.London, United Kingdom: Christopher Helm. p. 149.ISBN978-1-4081-2501-4.
  14. ^Seki, Shin-Ichi (2006). "The origin of the East AsianErithacusrobin,Erithacus komadori,inferred from cytochromebsequence data ".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.39(3): 899–905.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.01.028.PMID16529957.
  15. ^abSangster, G.; Alström, P.; Forsmark, E.; Olsson, U. (2010). "Multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of Old World chats and flycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly at family, subfamily and genus level (Aves: Muscicapidae)".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.57(1): 380–392.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.07.008.PMID20656044.
  16. ^Monroe Jr. BL; Sibley CG (1993).A World Checklist of Birds.New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 228.ISBN978-0-300-05549-8.
  17. ^abcdDietzen, Christian; Witt, Hans-Hinrich; Wink, Michael (2003)."The phylogeographic differentiation of the robinErithacus rubeculaon the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria? "(PDF).Avian Science.3(2–3): 115–131.
  18. ^abPätzold, R. (1995).Das RotkehlchenErithacus rubecula.Neue Brehm-Bücherei(in German). Magdeburg/Heidelberg: Westarp Wissenschaften/Spektrum.ISBN978-3-89432-423-0.
  19. ^abcLack, D. (1946). "The Taxonomy of the Robin,Erithacus rubecula(Linnaeus) ".Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club.66:55–64.
  20. ^Naish, Darren."How Robins Became the Birds of Christmas".Scientific American Blog Network.
  21. ^Cramp, S., ed. (1988).Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic.Vol. V. Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-857508-5.
  22. ^abc"Robin (Erithacus rubecula)".Nhm.ac.uk.
  23. ^Bergmann, H.H.; Schottler, B. (2001). "Tenerife robinErithacus (rubecula) superbus– a species of its own? ".Dutch Birding.23:140–146.
  24. ^abPalacios, César-Javier (2006)."Hallazgo en Gran Canaria de una especie de petirrojo única en el mundo"[Discovery in Gran Canaria of a species of robin unique in the world].Newspaper Canarias 7(in Spanish). Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2016.Retrieved24 February2015.
  25. ^"Mary Poppins(1964) - Goofs ".IMDb.Retrieved21 January2008.
  26. ^Roberts, John."Village braced for invasion of twitchers as rare visitor flies in".Yorkshire Post.Archived fromthe originalon 8 May 2006.Retrieved24 February2015.[dead link‍]
  27. ^"National icons of Bangladesh".Bangla 2000.Retrieved5 August2010.
  28. ^abcdHume, R. (2002).RSPB Birds of Britain and Europe.London: Dorling Kindersley. pp.263.ISBN978-0-7513-1234-8.
  29. ^abJonsson, Lars (1976).Birds of Wood, Park and Garden.Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 90.ISBN978-0-14-063002-2.
  30. ^De La Hera, I.; Fandos, G.; Fernández‐López, J.; Onrubia, A.; Pérez‐Rodríguez, A.; Pérez‐Tris, J.; Tellería, J. L. (2018). "Habitat segregation by breeding origin in the declining populations of European Robins wintering in southern Iberia".Ibis.160(2): 355–364.doi:10.1111/ibi.12549.hdl:10468/7018.
  31. ^Long, John L. (1981).Introduced Birds of the World: The worldwide history, distribution and influence of birds introduced to new environments.Terrey Hills, Sydney: Reed. p. 309.ISBN978-0-589-50260-7.
  32. ^"Robin-Fact and Folklore".Birmingham and Black Country Wildlife Trust.Retrieved15 September2022.
  33. ^Trust, Woodland."What do Robins Eat? And What to Feed them".Woodland Trust.Retrieved18 August2021.
  34. ^RHS (December 2018). "December wildlife: Robins have a new family".The Garden RHS.143(12): 29.
  35. ^"The RSPB-Robin:Territory".RSPB website.Archived fromthe originalon 11 December 2008.Retrieved1 July2019.
  36. ^"Euring: European Longevity Records".euring.org.Retrieved1 June2015.
  37. ^"The RSPB-Robin:Threats".RSPB website.Retrieved17 May2008.
  38. ^Rothschild, Miriam;Clay, Theresa (1957).Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites.New York: Macmillan. p. 113.
  39. ^Dimitrova, Z. M.; Murai, Éva; Georgiev, Boyko B. (1995). "The first record in Hungary ofApororhynchus silesiacusOkulewicz and Maruszewski, 1980 (Acanthocephala), with new data on its morphology ".Parasitologia Hungarica.28:83–88.S2CID82191853.
  40. ^"NEST BOXES: YOUR ESSENTIAL GUIDE"(PDF).Bto.org.pp. 12–13.Retrieved19 March2022.
  41. ^Evans, G. (1972).The Observer's Book of Birds' Eggs.London, UK: Warne. p. 85.ISBN978-0-7232-0060-4.
  42. ^abDa Silva; Samplonius; Schlicht, Valcu; Gaston (2014)."Artificial night lighting rather than traffic noise affects the daily timing of dawn and dusk singing in common European songbirds".Behavioral Ecology.25(5): 1037–1047.doi:10.1093/beheco/aru103.
  43. ^Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007)."Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins".Biology Letters.3(4): 368–70.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134.PMC2390663.PMID17456449.
  44. ^ab Hore, Peter J;Mouritsen, Henrik (April 2022)."The quantum nature of bird migration".Scientific American.326(4): 26–31.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0422-26.ISSN0036-8733.Retrieved29 January2023.Web version published under title "How migrating birds use quantum effects to navigate".
  45. ^Hore, Peter J.;Mouritsen, Henrik (5 July 2016)."The Radical-Pair Mechanism of Magnetoreception".Annual Review of Biophysics.45(1): 299–344.doi:10.1146/annurev-biophys-032116-094545.PMID27216936.S2CID7099782.
  46. ^ Ingersoll, Ernest (1923)."Fire-birds: The robin and the wren".Birds in Legend, Fable and Folklore.New York, NY: Longmans, Green, & Co. p. 167.Retrieved8 August2009.
  47. ^Grimm (1883).Teutonic mythology.Vol. 2. Stallybrass (tr.). George Bell & Sons.
  48. ^abc de Vries, Ad (1976).Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery.Amsterdam, NL: North-Holland Publishing Company. pp.388–389.ISBN978-0-7204-8021-4.
  49. ^ Cooper, J.C. (1992).Symbolic and Mythological Animals.London, UK: Aquarian Press. p. 194.ISBN978-1-85538-118-6.
  50. ^Goodall, Simon."European robin (Erithacus rubecula) ".Greater Manchester Wildlife (gmwildlife.org.uk).Greater Manchester Local Record Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2016.Retrieved24 February2015.
  51. ^ "Robin".BBC Nature (bbc.co.uk/nature).BBC.Archived fromthe originalon 29 December 2002.Retrieved3 January2008.
  52. ^ "European robin".bbc.co.uk/nature.BBC News.Retrieved24 September2010.
  53. ^ "Robin wins vote for UK's national bird".The Guardian.London, UK. 10 June 2015.Retrieved13 June2016.
  54. ^"Robin sees City soar into new era".Bristol City (bcfc.co.uk).Retrieved27 June2019.
  55. ^ "History".Hull Kingston Rovers(official website).Hull Kingston Rovers RLFC.Archived fromthe originalon 27 January 2012.Retrieved22 February2012.
  56. ^ Morris, Desmond(1981).The Soccer Tribe.London, UK: Jonathan Cape. p.210.ISBN978-0-224-01935-4.

Further reading

edit
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toErithacus rubecula.
Wikispecieshas information related toErithacus rubecula.
Wikiquote has quotations related toRobins.
Look uprobinin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_robin&oldid=1248497848"