Textile

For other uses, seeTextile (disambiguation).

Textileis anumbrella termthat includes variousfiber-basedmaterials,including fibers,yarns,filaments,threads,differentfabrictypes, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred towoven fabrics.However,weavingis not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use.Knittingandnon-wovenare other popular types of fabric manufacturing.In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy thematerialneeds for versatile applications, from simple dailyclothingtobulletproof jackets,spacesuits,anddoctor's gowns.

Jamdaniweaving of Bangladesh

Handmadefloral patterns on textiles, The production of textiles which were initially artisanal work, has grown into a vast field today that includes the production of fibers, yarns, fabrics, and various fibrous products for different domestic and industrial usages.

In textile production, longitudinal yarns are referred to as warp and are interlaced with weft or filing yarns to create a woven fabric.

Weaving

Weaving demonstration on an 1830 handloom in theweaving museuminLeiden

Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic purposes andtechnical textiles.In consumer textiles,aestheticsandcomfortare the most important factors, while in technical textiles,functional propertiesare the priority.Durability of textiles is an important property, with common cotton or blend garments (such as t-shirts) able to last twenty years or more with regular use and care.

Geotextiles,industrial textiles,medical textiles,and many other areas are examples of technical textiles, whereasclothingand furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of a textile product, including fiber, yarn, fabric, processing, andfinishing,affects the final product. Components may vary among various textile products as they are selected based on theirfitness for purpose.

Fiber is the smallest component of a fabric; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to manufacture fabrics.Fiber has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The sources of fibers may benatural,synthetic,or both. The techniques offeltingandbondingdirectly transform fibers into fabric. In other cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various fabric constructions. The fibers are twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting,crocheting,knotting,tatting,orbraiding.After manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as aesthetics, physical characteristics, and increased usefulness.The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest industrialart.Dyeing,printing,andembroideryare all different decorative arts applied to textile materials.

Etymology

Textile

The word 'textile' comes from theLatinadjectivetextilis,meaning 'woven', which itself stems fromtextus,the past participle of the verbtexere,'to weave'.Originally applied towoven fabrics,the term "textiles" is now used to encompass a diverse range of materials, including fibers,yarns,andfabrics,as well as other related items.

Fabric

"Fabric" redirects here. For other uses, seeFabric (disambiguation).

A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibers, polymeric film, foam, or any combination of these techniques. Fabric has a broader application than cloth.Fabric is synonymous with cloth, material, goods, orpiece goods.The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with roots in theProto-Indo-European language.Stemming most recently from theMiddle Frenchfabrique,or "building," and earlier from the Latinfabrica('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric'), the nounfabricastems from the Latinfaber"artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is derived from the Proto-Indo-Europeandhabh-,meaning 'to fit together'.

Cloth

Cloth merchant's shop

A replicadraper's shopat theMuseum of Lincolnshire Life,Lincoln, England

Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural or synthetic materials.The word 'cloth' derives from theOld Englishclað,meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted material to wrap around one's body', from theProto-Germanicklaithaz,similar to theOld Frisianklath,theMiddle Dutchcleet,theMiddle High Germankleitand theGermankleid,all meaning 'garment'.

Although cloth is a type of fabric, not all fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses. Materials that are woven, knitted, tufted, or knotted from yarns are referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products, carpets, and nonwoven materials are examples of fabrics.

History

Main article:History of clothing and textiles

Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia; the tools used forspinningandweavingmake up most of the prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was thespindle,to which awhorlwas eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of the spun thread. Later, thespinning wheelwas invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China, others India.

The precursors of today's textiles include leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths.

The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example ofwarpikatin SoutheastAsia,is displayed at theNational Museum of the Philippines.The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian people of northwestRomblon. The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles. The discovery ofdyed flax fibersin a cave in theRepublic of Georgiadated to 34,000BCEsuggests that textile-like materials were made as early as the Paleolithic era.

The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modernmanufacturingtechniques.

Textile industry

Main article:textile industry

The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going byguilds.In the 18th and 19th centuries, during theindustrial revolution,it became increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning wool or cotton called thespinning jennywas invented in the United Kingdom, textile production became the first economic activity to be industrialised. In the 20th century,scienceandtechnologywere driving forces. The textile industry exhibits inherent dynamism, influenced by a multitude of transformative changes and innovations within the domain. Textile operations can experience ramifications arising from shifts in international trade policies, evolving fashion trends, evolving customer preferences, variations in production costs and methodologies, adherence to safety and environmental regulations, as well as advancements in research and development.

The textile and garment industries exert a significant impact on the economic systems of numerous countries engaged in textile production.

Naming

Sample of calico printed with a six-colour machine by Walter Crum & Co., fromFrederick Crace Calvert,Dyeing and Calico Printing(1878)

Most textiles were called by their base fibre generic names, their place of origin, or were put into groups based loosely on manufacturing techniques, characteristics, and designs.Nylon,olefin,andacrylicare generic names for some of the more commonly used synthetic fibres.

Name	Product	Textiles named by		Description
Cashmere	Wool fiber obtained fromcashmere goats	Origin	Kashmir	Cashmere is synonymous with theKashmir shawl,with the term "cashmere" derived from an anglicisation of Kashmir.
Calico	Plain weavetextile material	Origin	Calicut	The fabric originated in the southwestern Indian city of Calicut.
Jaconet	Lightweight cotton fabric in plain weave	Origin	Jagannath Puri	Jaconet isanglicisationof Jagannath where it was originally produced.
Jersey	A type ofKnitted fabric	Origin	Jersey,Channel Islands	Jersey fabric was produced first at Jersey, Channel Islands.
Kersey	A coarsewoolencloth	Origin	Kersey, Suffolk	The fabric is named after the town in the east ofEngland.
Paisley (design)	A type ofmotif	Design	Paisley, Renfrewshire	A town situated in the westcentral LowlandsofScotland.
Dosuti	A handspun cotton cloth	Characteristics	A coarse and thick cotton cloth	In and around the 19th centuryPunjabandGujaratwere famous for production of various handspun cloths. Dosuti was distinguished by the number of yarns (Do+Suti translates to 'two yarns') used to produce it. Eksuti was another variety using a single thread.
Mulmultypes such as āb-i-ravānrunning water,Baft Hawawoven air	Fine muslin fabric variations fromDaccainBengal	Characteristics	Delicate muslin types	Dacca, in the eastern Indian subcontinent, produced a wide range of handwoven and spun muslins. Baft Hawa, which means "woven air", Shabnam, which means "evening dew", and ab-i-ravan, which means "flowing water" are some poetic names for soft muslins.
Nainsook	A plain weave fabric with soft hand	Characteristics	Pleasing to the eyes	Nain + Sook translates to "eye-pleasing".
Swanskin	A wovenflannelcloth	Characteristics	Appears and feels likeswanskin	A18th century fabric developed atShaftesbury.
Tansukh	Another type of Muslin with soft and delicate texture	Characteristics	Pleasing to the body	Tan + Sukh translates to "body pleasing". Tansukh was a fine, soft, and delicate textured cloth. The cloth type is mentioned in the 16th century Mughal time records,Ain-i-Akbari.

Related terms

The related words "fabric"and "cloth"and "material"are often used in textile assembly trades (such astailoringanddressmaking) as synonyms fortextile.However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage.Materialis an extremely broad term basically meaning consisting ofmatter,and requires context to be useful. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibers, includingcarpetingandgeotextiles,which may not necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such asclothingandupholstery.Afabricis a material made throughweaving,knitting,spreading, felting, stitching, crocheting or bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus requiring a further step of the production.Clothmay also be used synonymously withfabric,but often specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut.

• Greige goods: Textiles that are raw and unfinished are referred to asgreige goods.After manufacturing, the materials are processed and finished.
• Piece goods:Piece goodswere textile materials sold in cut pieces as specified by the buyer. Piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or made to a specific length, also known as yard goods.

Types

Ababywearing many items of softwinterclothing:headband,cap,fur-linedcoat,scarfandsweater

Textiles are various materials made from fibers and yarns. The term "textile" was originally only used to refer to woven fabrics, but today it covers a broad range of subjects.Textiles are classified at various levels, such as according to fiber origin (natural or synthetic), structure (woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc.However, there are primarily two types of textiles:

Consumer textiles

Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are forclothingand forcontainerssuch as bags andbaskets.In the household, textiles are used incarpeting,upholsteredfurnishings,window shades,towels,coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and inart.Textiles are used in many traditional handcraftssuch assewing,quilting,andembroidery.

Technical textiles

Technical textile is a branch of textile that focuses on the protection, safety and other functional performance attributes of textiles, unlike domestic textiles, where the primary focus is aesthetics and comfort., an EOD technician wearing a bomb suitExplosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) suit.

Nonwovengeotextilebags are much more robust than woven bags of the same thickness.

Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen for technical characteristics beyond their appearance, are commonly referred to astechnical textiles.Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (such as implants),geotextile(reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles forcrop protection), protective clothing (such as clothing resistant to heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, andbulletproof vests).

In the workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses includeflags,backpacks,tents,nets,cleaningrags,transportationdevices such asballoons,kites,sails,andparachutes;textiles are also used to provide strengthening incomposite materialssuch asfibreglassand industrialgeotextiles.

Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these products, these textiles are typically tested in order to ensure they meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical textiles may be produced to experiment with their scientific qualities and to explore the possible benefits they may have in the future. Threads coated withzinc oxidenanowires,when woven into fabric, have been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements to generate energy.

Significance

Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs like food and shelter. Textiles are everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help humans by comforting, protecting, and extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us warm in the winter and cool in the summer. There are several applications for textiles, such as medical textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All of them contribute to the well-being of humans.

Serviceability in textiles

The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis is on knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability. Serviceability or performance in textiles is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability, comfort and safety, appearance retention, care, environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the material.

Components

Fibers, yarns, fabric construction, finishes and design are components of a textile product. The selection of specific components varies with the intended use, therefore the fibers, yarns, and fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance.

Use and applications

Commercial textiles/ Domestic textiles	End uses	Technical textiles/ Industrial purpose textiles	End uses
Clothing	Clothing items for men, women and children.nightwear,sportswear,lingerie,undergarments,swimsuit.Accessories such ascaps,umbrella,socks,gloves,andhandbags.	Agro-textiles	Agro-textiles are used inagriculture,horticulture,aquaculture,landscapegardeningandforestry.Mainly forcrop protection,in crop development for instance shade nets,thermal insulationand sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird nets, covering livestock protection, suppressing weed and insect control, etc.
Furnishing	Upholstery,curtains,draperies,carpets,towels.	Geotextile	Technical textiles which are used incivil engineering,roads,airfields,railroads,embankments,retaining structures,reservoirs,canals,dams,bankprotection,coastal engineeringandconstructionsitesilt fences,and protection of melting glaciers.
Bedding	Bed sheets,khes,blankets,pillows.	Automotive textile	Airbags,seat belts,headliners,upholstery,car carpets, anddoor card.
Others	Shower curtains.	Medical textile	implants,sutures,dressings,bandages,medical gowns,face masks.
		Indutech	This particular sector includesconveyor belts,drive belts,ropesand cordages,filtrationproducts, glass battery separators, decatising and bolting cloth, AGM (absorption glass mat)plasma screens,coated abrasives,composite materials,printed circuit boards,printerribbon, seals, gaskets,papermaking fabrics.

Other uses

Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social, economic, and religious systems. Other than clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe are used to examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities.

Source of knowledge

Artifactsunearthed in variousarchaeological excavationsinforms us about the remains of past human life and their activities.Dyed flax fibers discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like materials were developed during thePaleolithic period.Radiocarbon datesthe microscopic fibers to 36,000 years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa.

Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics and social ideals, serve as a means for disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs, and cultures.

There aretextile museumsthat display history related to many aspects of textiles. A textile museum raises public awareness and appreciation of the artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles on a local, national, and international scale. TheGeorge Washington University Museum and Textile MuseuminWashington, D.C.,was established in 1925.

Narrative art

TheBayeux Tapestryis a rare example of secularRomanesque art.The art work depicts theNorman Conquestof England in 1066.

Decorative art

Main article:Textile arts

Textiles are also used fordecorative art.Appliqué work of pipiliis decorative art ofOdisha,a state ineastern India,used forumbrellas,wall hangings, lamp shades, and bags. To make a range of decorative products, colored cloth in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, are sewn onto a base cloth.

Architextiles

Architextiles,a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings are a basic type of architectural textile.Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent,which was a movable palace, is an example of the architextiles of theMughal period.

Currency

Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents, sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc.Along the east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the savannah, was used as a form of currency.

Votive offering

Textiles were among theobjects offeredto the gods [votive offering] in ancient Greece forreligiouspurposes.

Fiber

Main article:Fiber

The smallest component of a fabric is fiber; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make fabrics. Fibers are very thin and hair-like structures. The sources of fibers may benatural,synthetic,or both.

Global consumption

Global fiber production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021.After a modest drop due toCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, global fiber output rebounded to 113 million tons in 2021. Global fiber output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000 to 113 million tons in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030.

The demand for synthetic fibers is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton, and its [Synthetic fibers'] versatility in design and application. Synthetic fibers accounts for 70% of global fiber use, mainly polyester.By 2030, the synthetic fiber market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to increase by 5.1% per year.

Fiber sources

• Natural fibers are obtained from plants, animals and minerals.Since prehistoric times, textiles have been made from natural fibers. Natural fibers are further categorized as cellulosic, protein, and mineral.
• Synthetic or manmade fibers are manufactured withchemical synthesis.
• Semi-synthetic: A subset of synthetic or manmade fibers is semi-synthetic fiber. Rayon is a classified as a semi-synthetic fiber, made with natural polymers.

Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibers are of two types: additive or condensation. Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, have a condensation polymer type, whereas synthetic fibers can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example,acrylic fiberandolefin fibershave additive polymers, andnylonandpolyesterare condensation polymers.

Types

Types of fibers

Natural			Synthetic	Semi-synthetic
Cellulosic fibers (Vegetable or plant fibers)	Protein fibers (Animal fibers)	Mineral fibers	Petroleumbased	Cellulosebased
Cotton	Wool	Asbestos	Nylon	Rayon
Linen	Silk	Glass fiber	Polyester	Acetate
Jute			Acrylic fiber	Triacetate
Hemp			Olefin fiber
			Spandex
			Aramid

Fiber properties

Fiber properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost. Fineness is one of the important characteristics of the fibers. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100 times the diameter]. Fibers need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibers are characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio, and spinnability. Natural fibers are relatively short [staple] in length. Synthetic fibers are produced in longer lengths called filaments. Silk is the only natural fiber that is a filament. The classification of fibers is based on their origin, derivation, and generic types.

Certain properties of synthetic fibers, such as their diameter,cross section,and color, can be altered during production.

Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favorable properties. This fiber is soft, moisture-absorbent, breathable, and is renowned for its long durability.

Blends (blended textiles)

Fabric oryarnproduced with acombinationof two or more types of differentfibers,or yarns to obtain desired traits. Blending is possible at various stages oftextile manufacturing.Final composition is liable for the properties of the resultant product.Naturalandsynthetic fibersare blended to overcome disadvantage of single fiber properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such asdevoré,heather effect, cross dyeing and stripes patternetc.Clothingwoven from a blend ofcottonandpolyestercan be more durable and easier to maintain than material woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing functional properties, blending makes the products more economical.

Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use.Mixtureormixed clothis another term used for blended cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides.

Blended textiles are not new.

• Mashruwas a 16th-century fabric, is one of the earliest forms of "mixed cloth", a material composed of silk and cotton.
• Siamoisewas a 17th-century cotton and linen material.

Composition

Fiber compositionthe fiber blend composition of mixtures of the fibers,is an important criterion to analyze the behavior, properties such as functional aspects, and commercial classification of the merchandise.

The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It is called areverse blendif the ratio of cotton predominates—the percentage of the fibers changes with the price and required properties.

Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibers are less expensive than natural fibers) and adding advantage in properties of the final product.For instance, a small amount of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics.Wool can add warmth.

Uses of different fibers

Natural fibers

Plant

Bridal gown made from nettle fibers, probably worn by Eleonora Sophie Rantzau (1779-) at her wedding toPreben Bille-Brahe,Hvedholm Castle.National Museum of Denmark.

• Grass,rush,hemp,andsisalare all used in makingrope.In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibers from the plant are used.Coir(coconutfiber) is used in makingtwine,and also in floormats,doormats,brushes,mattresses,floor tiles, andsacking.
• Strawandbambooare both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as iskapok.
• Fibers frompulpwoodtrees, cotton,rice,hemp, andnettleare used in makingpaper.
• Cotton,flax,jute,hemp,modal,banana,bamboo,lotus,eucalyptus,mulberry,andsugarcaneare all used in clothing.Piña(pineapplefiber) andramieare also fibers used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fibers such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fiber and fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fiber has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibers like hemp or flax.
• The inner bark of thelacebark treeis a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
• Acetateis used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such assilks,velvets,andtaffetas.
• Seaweedis used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fiber known asalginateis produced and is used as a holding fiber; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
• Rayonis a manufactured fiber derived from plant pulp.Different types of rayon can imitatefeeland texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.

Fibers from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibers. Hemp fiber is yellowish-brown fiber made from the hemp plant. The fiber characteristics are coarser, harsher,strong and lightweight. Hemp fiber is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage.

Animal

Animal textiles are commonly made fromhair,fur,skinorsilk(in the case of silkworms).

• Wool refers to the hair of the domesticsheeporgoat,which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with awaxmixture known aslanolin(sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof.The lanolin and other contaminants are removed from the raw wool before further processing.Woolenrefers to a yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, whileworstedrefers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibers which have been combed to be parallel.
  • Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur arealpaca wool,vicuña wool,llama wool,andcamel hair,generally used in the production ofcoats,jackets,ponchos,blankets,and other warm coverings.
  • Cashmere,the hair of the Indiancashmere goat,andmohair,the hair of the North Africanangora goat,are types of wool known for their softness. Used in the production of sweaters and scarfs.
  • Angorarefers to the long, thick, soft hair of theangora rabbit.Qiviutis the fine inner wool of themuskox.
• Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of thecocoonof the Chinesesilkwormwhich is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by theBombyx mori,and 'wild silk' such asTussah silk(wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.Silk products include pillow covers, dresses, tops, skirts, bed sheets, curtains.

Microbes

Bacterial cellulosecan be made from industrial organic and agricultural waste, and used as material for textiles and clothing.

Mineral

• Asbestos andbasalt fibreare used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
• Glass fibreis used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated withTeflonto producebeta cloth,a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United Statesspace suitssince 1968.
• Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production ofcloth-of-goldandjewellery.Hardware cloth(US term only) is a coarse wovenmeshof steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standardwindow screening,but heavier and with a more open weave.

Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as inemery cloth,a layer ofemeryabrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarsesandpaper.

Synthetic

In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibers made frompetroleum.Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finestmicrofibremade of strands thinner than onedenierto the sturdiestcanvas.

Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture ofgeotextiles.Synthetic fibers are those that are constructed by humans through chemical synthesis.

• Polyesterfibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
• Aramidfibre (e.g.Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
• Acrylicis a fibre used to imitate wools,including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
• Nylonis a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production ofpantyhose.Thicker nylon fibres are used inropeand outdoor clothing.
• Spandex(trade nameLycra) is apolyurethaneproduct that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to makeactivewear,bras,andswimsuits.
• Olefin fibreis a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade nameTyvek.
• Ingeois apolylactidefibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.
• Lurexis a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
• Milkproteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk orcaseinfibre cloth was developed duringWorld War Iin Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as abiodegradable,renewablesynthetic fibre.
• Carbon fibreis mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such ascarbon fibre reinforced plastic.The fibres are made from polymer fibres throughcarbonization.

Production methods

Main articles:Textile manufacturingandTextile industry

Textile manufacturing has progressed from prehistoric crafts to a fully automated industry.Over the years, there have been continuous improvements in fabric structure and design.

Production methods

Production method	Description	Inventors, inventions and milestones in progression
Barkcloth	Barkcloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.	Bark is an older known fabric; ancient people around the world wore bark cloth daily until woven fabrics replaced it. InIndonesia,the bark cloth is associated with theTorajan people,who made it from the fermentation of inner bark of certain local trees, mulberry and pandanus. The Torajans used stones and wooden beaters to produce bark cloth.	Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada people in Lore Valley, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This collection of Central Sulawesi Museum was exhibited in Textile Museum Jakarta in November 2016.
Feltand othernonwovenfabrics	Felting is a method of manufacturing fabric directly from fibers by entangling, interlocking the fibers by mechanical action (like rubbing and pressing) and often aided by heat and moisture.	Felting is another old method of fabric manufacturing. While civilizations in thewestern Mediterraneanimproved their weaving skills,nomadsinCentral Asialearned how to make felt, a non-woven material, from wool.Felting involves applying pressure and friction to a mat of fibers, working and rubbing them together until the fibers become interlocked and tangled, forming a nonwoven textile. A liquid, such as soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibers, and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of wool.More recently, additional methods have been developed to bond fibers into nonwoven fabrics, including needle punching, adhesives, and chemical binding.	Kazakhfeltyurt Spunbond nonwoven fabric
Weaving	Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longerthreads(called thewarp) with a set of crossing threads (called theweft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.	Handlooms: EarlyLoomsdate to 5000 BC. From antiquity until the mediaeval times, the loom improved in both Asia and Europe, despite the fact that the loom's fundamental operation remained unchanged.In 200 BC, the Chinese invented vertical looms and pedal looms, transforming the craft into an industry. By decreasing the worker's workload, innovative solutions improved productivity. There were harnesses andheddlesto govern the movement of the warp yarn, a shuttle to transport the weft yarns, a reed to compact the cloth, and a take up roller to roll down the cloth. By the 1st century AD, all necessary components for a loom were assembled. Power looms:John Kayinvented theflying shuttlein 1734 in Bury, Lancashire. It was one of the first innovations in the cotton woven fabric industry.Samuel Cromptoninvented aspinning machinein 1779 that produced yarn faster than ever before. ThenEdmund Cartwrightinvented the firstpower loomin 1785. Jacquard loom: TheJacquard machinewas a modified version of programmable loom developed in 1804. It was developed byJoseph Marie Jacquardbased on earlier inventions byBasile Bouchon(1725), Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728), andJacques Vaucanson(1740). The industrial revolution in the 18th century led to mass production of yarn and cloth, which led to the growth of the woven fabric part of the textile industry.	Warp and weft
Knitting	Knitting involves interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on aknitting needle,needle, or on acrochet hook,together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to interlock with another loop.	Hand knitting: Though knitting was developed byDanesaround 900 BC it did not reach to other civilizations until 900 AD.Europe learned to knit by hand around 1400. Three to fourstockingscould be knit in a week by 1450.William Leeinvented astocking framein 1589 that could knit one stocking per day. Acceptance of Lee's invention and subsequent modifications resulted in a wide range of fabrics in Europe.The machine knitting is separated into two main groups of production processes: warp knitting and weft knitting.	Loop formation. Structure of stockinette stitch in a weft knitted fabric.
Nålebinding	Nålebinding involves the use of a needle to form loops of yarn, by passing the full length of yarn through each loop (unlike knitting and crocheting).	Nålebinding is a precursor of crocheting and knitting.	Mittens produced by nålebinding
Crocheting	Crocheting never involves more than one active stitch on the needle. Knitting can be performed by machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.	Crocheting was originally practised byScottishpeasants with a small, hooked needle known as a shepherd's hook.	Most crochet uses one hook and works upon one stitch at a time. Crochet may be worked in circular rounds without any specialized tools, as shown here.
Spread tow	Spread tow is a production method where the tow fibers are spread into thin tapes, and then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made incarbon,aramidand other fibers.
Braidingor plaiting	Braiding or plaiting involves intertwining threads together into cloth.		Braiding
Knotting	Knottinginvolves tying threads together and is used in makingtattingandmacrame.
Lace	Lace is made by interlocking threads together to create a fine fabric with open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand (e.g.needle laceorbobbin lace) or machine.		Bobbin lace in progress
3D Textiles	Complex interlacement of yarns where the final product has not plain form as flat fabrics, but 3D form.	All technologies - weft knitting, warp knitting, weaving and braiding allow production of complex products with 3D form if suitable machine configuration and pattern are used. This technologies are used for woven heart valves, composite profiles and other.
Additive manufactured textile like structures	Fabric manufacturing by3D printeremploys additive manufacturing, also known as additive layer manufacturing (ALM), aCAD-aidedmanufacturing technique that builds the object layer by layer. The method is used in manufacturing ofAuxetictextiles and in composite materials.		3D-printed outfit

Important parameters in fabric selection:

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not be suitable for all applications.

Fabric weightis an important criteria while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300 GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM. Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct weights.

Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products

GSM (grams per square meter) range	Categorization	Termed as	Suitable for the textile products
0-50	Sheer fabric		Sheer curtains,Lingerieitems,Wedding dresses,
50-150	Light weight	Top weight	Blouse,Lining,Shirt,T-shirt,Dress
150-300	Medium weight	Bottom weight	Skirt,Trousers,Kind ofdenims,andSuits
300-600	Medium to heavy weight	Bull denim	Drapery,Overcoat,Towel,Slipcover,Workwear
More than 600	Heavy		Carpet,Mat,Upholstery,Type of Winter coats

Stretchable fabrics have greater movability and are thus more comfortable than fabrics with no stretch or less stretch.

Textile exports

See also:List of countries by textile exports

Top five exporters of textiles—2013 ($ billion)
China	274
India	40
Italy	36
Germany	35
Bangladesh	28
Source:

According to the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, the global textiles and apparel export market reached $772 billion in 2013.

Changing dynamics of the market

China is the largest exporter of textile goods. The majority of China's exports consist of apparel, apparel accessories, textile yarns, and textile products. The competitive advantages of the China are low prices and abundant labor, lowered commercial obstacles, and a ready supply of raw materials. China, along with the United States and India, is a major producer of cotton.

China's apparel market share has declined in recent years due to various reasons and a shift toward high-end, sophisticated products. Additionally, the investors from China made stakes in Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Last year, its market share was 36.7%, or $161 billion, a decline of 8% year-over-year. In other words, China lost $14 billion in garment work orders to other countries in a single year. In 2016, Bangladesh's apparel market share was valued at $28 billion, increasing 7.69 percent from the previous year.

In 2016 the leading exporters of apparel were; China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16 billion), Turkey ($15 billion), and Indonesia ($7 billion).

Garment Exports in Bangladesh Reached Record High in 2021-2022 Fiscal Year; China ($220.302 billion), Bangladesh ($38.70 billion), India ($8.127 billion), Pakistan ($19.33 billion).

Finishing

Early method of bleaching cotton and linen goods on lawns

The fabric, when it leaves a loom or knitting machine, is not readily usable. It may be rough, uneven, or have flaws like skewing. Hence, it is necessary to finish the fabric. Finishing techniques enhance the value of the treated fabrics.After manufacturing, textiles undergo a range of finishing procedures, including bleaching, dyeing, printing, as well as mechanical and chemical finishing.

Coloration

Textiles are oftendyed,with fabrics available in almost everycolour.The dyeing process often requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartanor Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns byresist dyeingmethods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric.Woodblock printing,still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE inChina.Textiles are also sometimesbleached,making the textile pale or white.

Color matching

In textiles, color matching extends beyond selecting the appropriate dyestuffs or pigments and combining them in precise proportions to achieve the desired end product color.Meeting criteria for fastness, cost, and quality is also essential. This process plays a critical role in materializing a designer's concept into an actual product.

Finishes

Textile finishing is the process of converting the loomstate or raw goods into a useful product, which can be done mechanically or chemically. Finishing is a broad term that refers to a variety of physical and chemical techniques and treatments that finish one stage of textile production while also preparing for the next. Textile finishing can include aspects like improving surface feel, aesthetical enhancement, and adding advanced chemical finishes.A finish is any process that transformsunfinished productsinto finished products.This includes mechanical finishing and chemical applications which alter the composition of treated textiles (fiber, yarn or fabric.)

Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such aspermanent pressprocess,finishingagents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.More recently,nanomaterialsresearch has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons developing permanent treatments based on metallicnanoparticlesfor making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.

Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. Fromformaldehydefinishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes, for example, have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.

Eisengarn,meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented inGermanyin the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The result of the process is a lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.

Finishing techniques

Finishing	Fabrics
Brushing	Carpets,rugs, velvet,velour,andvelveteen,referred to as pile fabrics, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as anaporpile.
Shearing	"Shearing machine" is amachineequipped with shearing cylinder, ledger blade, fluff exhaust, and joint seam sensors. The machine operates similarly to a lawn mower.Moleskinandvelvetare sheared materials in which pile is cut to a certain level.

Environmental and health impacts

After the oil industry, the fashion industry is the second biggest polluter of agricultural land, which has several harmful impacts on the environment. As the industry grows, the effect on the environment is worsening.Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest and most technologically complicated industries. This industry's fundamental strength stems from its solid manufacturing base of a diverse range of fibers/yarns ranging from natural fibers such as jute, silk, wool, and cotton, to synthetic or manufactured fibers that include polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.

Textile mills and their wastewater have grown in proportion to the increase in demand for textile products, generating a severe pollution concern around the world. Numerous textile industry chemicals pose environmental and health risks. Among the compounds in textile effluent, dyes are considered significant contaminants. Water pollution generated by the discharge of untreated wastewater and the use of toxic chemicals, particularly during processing, account for the majority of the global environmental concerns linked with the textile industry.

Environmental impacts

Clothing is necessary to meet the fundamental needs of humans. Increased population and living standards have increased the need for clothing, enhancing the demand for textile manufacturing; wet processing needs more water consumption.Conventional machinery and treatment procedures use enormous quantities of water, especially for natural fibers, which require up to 150 kg of water per kg of material. The textile sector is accountable for a substantial number of environmental impacts. However, the discharge of untreated effluents into water bodies is responsible for the majority of environmental harm produced by the textile sector.

The textile sector is believed to utilise 79 trillion litres of water per year and to discharge around 20% of all industrial effluent into the environment.Reportedly,aromaticandheterocyclic compoundswith color-display and polar groups make up most of the dyes used in textile coloration processes. The structure is more complex and stable, making it more difficult to degrade printing and dyeing wastewater.

In addition, textiles constitute a significant percentage of landfill waste. In 2023,North Carolina State Universityresearchers usedenzymesto separate cotton from polyester in an early step towards reducing textile waste, allowing each material to be recycled.

Health impacts

Many kinds of respiratory diseases, skin problems, and allergies may be caused by dyes and pigments discharged into the water.

Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.

Chemicals use, advantage and health impacts

Certain chemical finishes contain potential hazards to health and the environment.Perfluorinated acidsare considered to be hazardous to human health by theUS Environmental Protection Agency.

Name of the substance	Advantage in textile products	Associated health risks and environmental impacts	References
Perfluorooctanoic acid( PFOA),Polytetrafluoroethylene(Teflon)	Hydrophobic effect	Endocrine disruptor
Fluorocarbon(PFC)	Hydrophobic effect	May cause respiratory illness
Bromine	Brominated flame retardant	Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substancesmay causeneurobehavioral disordersandendocrine disruption
Silver,silver nanoparticle	Antimicrobial resistance	Environmental impact of silver nanoparticlesand toxic effects on human health

Testing

Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories. It is also possible to have textiles tested according to theOeko-texcertification standard, which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.

Laws and regulations

Different countries have certain laws and regulations to protect consumers' interests. TheTextile Fiber Products Identification Actis a law that protects consumers in the United States. The act protects producer and consumer interests by implementing labelling (required content disclosure) and advertising requirements on textile products. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act applies to all textile fiber products besides wool, which is governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prohibits misinformation about the fiber content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice, as well as requires businesses to operate in a particular manner.

Testing of textiles

Testing occurs at various stages of the textile manufacturing process, from raw material to finished product. The purpose of testing is to evaluate and analyze the regulatory compliance, the product's quality and performance, as well as to measure its specifications. Textile testing encompasses a wide range of methodologies, procedures, equipment, and sophisticatedlaboratories.Local governments and authorized organization's such asASTM International,International Organization for Standardization,andAmerican Association of Textile Chemists and Coloristsestablish standards for testing of textiles.

Some examples of tests at different stages:

For fiber: Fiber identification is a necessary test for determining fiber content and classifying products. The labelling of items with their fiber content percentage is a regulatory requirement. Usingmicroscopy,solubility, and burn tests, fibers are distinguished from one another.More fiber relating tests include fiber length, diameter,Micronaire.

For yarn:Yarn count,Denier,Strength, evenness.

For fabric:Dimensional stability,color fastness,thread count,G.S.M,pilling,flammability.

Picture gallery

• 
  Textile market on the sidewalks ofKarachi,Pakistan
• 
  Magnified view of a plain or tabby weave textile
• 
  Fabric shop in canal townMukalla,Yemen
• 
  Late antique textile,Egyptian,now in theDumbarton Oakscollection
• 
  Mrs.Condé Nastwearing asilkFortuny tea gown
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  Traditionaltablecloth,Maramureș,Romania
• 
  Textiles made fromAlpacawool at theOtavaloArtisan Market in the Andes Mountains, Ecuador
• 
  The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of warpikatinSoutheast Asia,displayed at theNational Museum of the Philippines.The cloth was most likely made by the native Asia people of northwestRomblon.
• 
  A doubleikatweaving made by theTausug peoplefromSulu,made of banana leaf stalk fiber (Abacá)
• 
  Advertisement for Zepel, the trade name used to marketTeflonas a fabric treatment
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  Aweaving shedof theFinlayson & Cofactory inTampere,Finland, in 1932
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  Textile machinery at the Cambrian Factory,Llanwrtyd,Wales, in the 1940s
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  Cottonfiber
• 
  Nylon
• 
  A variety of contemporary fabrics. From the left: evenweavecotton,velvet,printed cotton,calico,felt,satin,silk,hessian,polycotton.
• 
  A textile factory inIsrael,1969
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  Woven tartan ofClan Campbell,Scotland
• 
  Embroideredskirts by the Alfaro-Nùñez family of Cochas,Peru,using traditional Peruvian embroidery methods
• 
  A modern umbrella fabric has specific requirements forcolour fastnessto light, water and wet rubbing, and permeability.
• 
  Appliqué cross. The edges are covered and stitches are hidden. It is overlaid with decorative gold thread.
• 
  Clothing made of textiles,Thailand
• 
  Close-up view of abarong tagalogmade withpiñafiber in thePhilippines
• 
  A fabric tunnel inMoulvibazar District,Bangladesh
• 
  A modernManila hempmade on industrial weaving machines
• 
  Textile doll (11th century),Chancay culture,found nearLima,Walters Art Museum.Of their small size, dolls are frequently found in ancient Peruvian tombs.

See also

• Bamboo textile– Textile made from various parts of the bamboo plant
• Clothing in the ancient world– What people wore in antiquity as inferred from archaeological and historical evidence
• Green textile– textiles or fibers produced sustainablyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
• International Down and Feather Testing Laboratory
• List of textile fibres
• Sustainable fashion– Reduction of environmental impacts of the fashion industry
• Technical textile– Textile product valued for its functional characteristics
• Textile arts– Form of arts and crafts using fibers
• Textile manufacturing– The industry which produces textiles
  • Glossary of textile manufacturing
• Textile printing– Method for applying patterns to cloth using printing techniques
• Textile recycling– Method of reusing or reprocessing used clothing, fibrous material and rags
• Timeline of clothing and textiles technology

Further reading

• Boucher, François.20,000 Years of Fashion:The history of costume and personal adornment.New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987ISBN0-8109-1693-2.
• Conrad, James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History".Technology and culture36.1 (1995): 1–28.online.
• Jenkins, David, ed.:The Cambridge History of Western Textiles,Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003,ISBN0-521-34107-8.
• Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane (1992)The History of Costume, from the Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century,2nd Edn, HarperCollinsISBN0-06-047141-7.
• Piponnier, Françoise, and Perrine Mane;Dress in the Middle Ages;Yale UP; 1997;ISBN0-300-06906-5.
• Postrel, Virginia(10 Nov 2020).The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World(Hardcover ed.). New York, NY:Basic Books.ISBN978-1-5416-1760-5.
• Fisher, Nora (1994).Rio Grande Textiles(Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press.ISBN0-89013-266-6.Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of theMuseum of International Folk Art.
• Good, Irene (2006). "Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia". In Mair, Victor H. (ed.).Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World.Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press.pp. 191–214.ISBN978-0-8248-2884-4.
• Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). "From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-Century Japan"(Archive).Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings.Textile Society of America,January 1, 1998.