Filipinos

This article is about the people of the Philippines. For the demographics, seeDemographics of the Philippines.For other uses, seeFilipino (disambiguation).

Filipinos(Filipino:Mga Pilipino)are citizens or people identified with the country of thePhilippines.The majority of Filipinos today are predominantlyCatholicand come from variousAustronesian peoples,all typically speakingTagalog,English,or otherPhilippine languages.Despite formerly being subject toSpanish colonialism,only around 2–4% of Filipinos are fluent inSpanish.Currently, there are more than 185ethnolinguistic groupsin the Philippines each with its ownlanguage,identity, culture, tradition, and history.

Filipinos

Mga Pilipino
Total population
c. 115 million (c.11–12 million inFilipino diaspora)
Regions with significant populations
Philippines c. 100 million figures below are for various years
United States	4,466,918(2022)
Canada	957,355(2021)
Saudi Arabia	938,490
United Arab Emirates	679,819
Australia	408,842
Japan	332,293(2024)
Malaysia	325,089
Kuwait	241,999 (December 31, 2020)
Qatar	236,000
Spain	200,000(2018)
Singapore	200,000
United Kingdom	164,000(2021 uk census)
Taiwan	152,529(2023)
Hong Kong	130,810
New Zealand	108,297(2023)
Italy	100,859
South Korea	63,464
Germany	60,000
France	50,000(2020)
Bahrain	40,000
Israel	31,000
Brazil	30,368 (2022)
Netherlands	25,365 (2021)
Papua New Guinea	25,000
Belgium	19,772(2019)
Macau	14,544
Sweden	13,000
Ireland	12,791
Austria	12,474
Norway	12,262
China	12,254
Switzerland	10,000
Cayman Islands	7,600
Indonesia	7,400(2022)
Kazakhstan	7,000
Palau	7,000
Greece	6,500
Finland	5,665
Turkey	5,500
Russia	5,000
Nigeria	4,500
Morocco	3,000
Iceland	2,900
Finland	2,114
Languages
English,Filipino,andindigenous languages
Religion
PredominantlyRoman Catholicism Minority others are: Protestantism Islam Mga Saksi ni Jehova Iglesia ni Cristo Members Church of God International Iglesia Filipina Independiente Indigenous Philippine folk religions Atheism
Related ethnic groups
Indonesians,Native Indonesian,Austronesian peoples

Names

See also:Names of the Philippines

The nameFilipino,as ademonym,was derived from the termlas Islas Filipinas'the Philippine Islands',the name given to the archipelago in 1543 by the Spanish explorer andDominicanpriestRuy López de Villalobos,in honor ofPhilip II of Spain.During theSpanish colonial period,natives of the Philippine islands were usually known in the Philippines itself by the generic termsindio( "Indian (native of theEast Indies) ") orindigena'indigenous',while the generic termchino( "Chinese" ),short forindio chinowas used inSpanish Americato differentiate from theNative Americanindiosof the Spanish colonies in theAmericasand theWest Indies.The termFilipinowas sometimes added by Spanish writers to distinguish theindio chinonative of the Philippine archipelago from theindioof the Spanish colonies in the Americas, which were free people and legally barred from being used as slaves, unlike those from the Philippines. The termIndio Filipinoappears as a term of self-identification beginning in the 18th century.

In 1955,Agnes Newton Keithwrote that a 19th century edict prohibited the use of the word "Filipino" to refer to indios. This reflected popular belief, although no such edict has been found.The idea that the termFilipinowas not used to refer toindiosuntil the 19th century has also been mentioned by historians such as Salah JubairandRenato Constantino.However, in a 1994 publication the historianWilliam Henry Scottidentified instances in Spanish writing where "Filipino" did refer to "indio" natives.Instances of such usage include theRelación de las Islas Filipinas(1604) ofPedro Chirino,in which he wrote chapters entitled "Of the civilities, terms of courtesy, and good breeding among the Filipinos" (Chapter XVI), "Of the Letters of the Filipinos" (Chapter XVII), "Concerning the false heathen religion, idolatries, and superstitions of the Filipinos" (Chapter XXI), "Of marriages, dowries, and divorces among the Filipinos" (Chapter XXX),while also using the term "Filipino" to refer unequivocally to the non-Spaniard natives of the archipelago like in the following sentence:

The first and last concern of the Filipinos in cases of sickness was, as we have stated, to offer some sacrifice to theiranitosordiwatas,which were their gods.

— Pedro Chirino,Relación de las Islas Filipinas

In theCrónicas(1738) of Juan Francisco de San Antonio, the author devoted a chapter to "The Letters, languages and politeness of the Philippinos", while Francisco Antolín argued in 1789 that "the ancient wealth of the Philippinos is much like that which the Igorots have at present".These examples prompted the historianWilliam Henry Scottto conclude that during the Spanish colonial period:

[...]the people of the Philippines were called Filipinos when they were practicing their own culture—or, to put it another way, before they becameindios.

— William Henry Scott,Barangay- Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society

While the Philippine-born Spaniards during the 19th century began to be calledespañoles filipinos,logically contracted to justFilipino,to distinguish them from the Spaniards born in Spain, they themselves resented the term, preferring to identify themselves as"hijo/s del país"( "sons of the country" ).

In the latter half of the 19th century,ilustrados,an educated class ofmestizos(bothSpanish mestizosandSangleyChinese mestizos,especially Chinese mestizos) andindiosarose whose writings are credited with buildingPhilippine nationalism.These writings are also credited with transforming the termFilipinoto one which refers to everyone born in the Philippines,especially during thePhilippine RevolutionandAmerican Colonial Eraand the term shifting from a geographic designation to a national one as acitizenship nationality by law.HistorianAmbeth Ocampohas suggested that the first documented use of the wordFilipinoto refer to Indios was theSpanish-languagepoemA la juventud filipina,published in 1879 byJosé Rizal.Writer and publisherNick Joaquinhas asserted thatLuis Rodríguez Varelawas the first to describe himself asFilipinoin print.Apolinario Mabini (1896) used the termFilipinoto refer to all inhabitants of the Philippines. Father Jose Burgos earlier called all natives of the archipelago asFilipinos.InWenceslao Retaña'sDiccionario de filipinismos,he definedFilipinosas follows,

todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

— Wenceslao E. Retaña,Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española

American authoritiesduring theAmerican colonial eraalso started to colloquially use the termFilipinoto refer to the native inhabitants of the archipelago,but despite this, it became the official term for allcitizensof the sovereign independentRepublic of the Philippines,including non-native inhabitants of the country as per thePhilippine nationality law.However, the term has been rejected as an identification in some instances by minorities who did not come under Spanish control, such as theIgorotandMuslimMoros.

The lack of the letter "F"in the 1940–1987 standardizedTagalogAlpha bet (Abakada) caused the letter "P"to be substituted for"F",though the Alpha bets or writing scripts of some non-Tagalog ethnic groups included the letter" F ". Upon official adoption of the modern, 28-letterFilipinoAlpha bet in 1987, the termFilipinowas preferred overPilipino.Locally, some still use "Filipino" to refer to the people and "Pilipino" to refer to the language, but in international use "Filipino" is the usual form for both.

A number of Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as "Pinoy"(feminine:"Pinay"), which is a slang word formed by taking the last four letters of"Filipino"and adding thediminutivesuffix"-y".Or the non-gender or gender fluid form Pinxy.

In 2020, the neologismFilipinxappeared; a demonym applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora and specifically referring to and coined byFilipino AmericansimitatingLatinx,itself a recently coined gender-inclusive alternative toLatinoorLatina.An online dictionary made an entry of the term, applying it to all Filipinos within the Philippines or in the diaspora.In actual practice, however, the term is unknown among and not applied to Filipinos living in the Philippines, andFilipinoitself is already treated as gender-neutral. The dictionary entry resulted in confusion, backlash and ridicule from Filipinos residing in the Philippines who never identified themselves with the foreign term.

Native Filipinos were also calledManilamen(orManila men) by English-speaking regions or Tagalas by Spanish-speakers during the colonial era. They were mostly sailors and pearl-divers and established communities in various ports around the world.One of the notable settlements of Manilamen is the community ofSaint Malo, Louisiana,founded at around 1763 to 1765 by escaped slaves and deserters from theSpanish Navy.There were also significant numbers of Manilamen inNorthern Australiaand theTorres Strait Islandsin the late 1800s who were employed in thepearl huntingindustries.

InMexico(especially in the Mexican states ofGuerreroandColima),Filipino immigrantsarriving toNew Spainduring the 16th and 17th centuries via theManila galleonswere calledchino,which led to the confusion of early Filipino immigrants with that of the much laterChinese immigrants to Mexicofrom the 1880s to the 1940s. A genetic study in 2018 has also revealed that around one-third of the population of Guerrero have 10% Filipino ancestry.

History

Main article:History of the Philippines

Prehistory

Main article:Prehistory of the Philippines

See also:NegritoandAustronesian peoples

Left to right:[1] Five teeth attributed toHomo luzonensis.;[2] CCH1, a third metatarsal bone (MT3) discovered on May 5, 2007, inCallao Cave,belonging toHomo luzonensis,a species ofarchaic human.;[3]Callao Cave.

The oldestarchaic humanremains in the Philippines are the "Callao Man"specimens discovered in 2007 in theCallao CaveinNorthern Luzon.They were dated in 2010 throughuranium-series datingto theLate Pleistocene,c. 67,000 years old. The remains were initially identified as modern human, but after the discovery of more specimens in 2019, they have been reclassified as being members of a new species –Homo luzonensis.

The oldest indisputable modern human (Homo sapiens) remains in thePhilippinesare the "Tabon Man"fossils discovered in theTabon Cavesin the 1960s byRobert B. Fox,ananthropologistfrom theNational Museum.These were dated to thePaleolithic,at around 26,000 to 24,000 years ago. The Tabon Cave complex also indicates that the caves were inhabited by humans continuously from at least 47,000 ± 11,000 years ago to around 9,000 years ago.The caves were also later used as a burial site by unrelatedNeolithicandMetal Agecultures in the area.

Migration of the sea-faringAustronesian peoplesand theirlanguages.

The Negritos are descendants of one of the earliest groups of modern humans to reach thePhilippines

The Tabon Cave remains (along with theNiah Caveremains ofBorneoand theTam Pa Lingremains ofLaos) are part of the "FirstSundalandPeople ", the earliest branch ofanatomically modern humansto reachIsland Southeast Asiaat the time of lowered sea levels ofSundaland,with only one 3km sea crossing.They entered the Philippines from Borneo viaPalawanat around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago. Their descendants are collectively known as theNegrito people,although they are highly genetically divergent from each other. Philippine Negritos show a high degree ofDenisovan Admixture,similar toPapuansandIndigenous Australians,in contrast to Malaysian and Andamanese Negritos (theOrang Asli). This indicates that Philippine Negritos, Papuans, and Indigenous Australians share a common ancestor that admixed withDenisovansat around 44,000 years ago.Negritos include ethnic groups like theAeta(including the Agta, Arta, Dumagat, etc.) of Luzon, theAtiofWestern Visayas,theBatakofPalawan,and theMamanwaofMindanao.Today they comprise just 0.03% of the total Philippine population.

After the Negritos, were two early Paleolithic migrations from East Asian (basalAustric,an ethnic group which includesAustroasiatics) people, they entered the Philippines at around 15,000 and 12,000 years ago, respectively. Like the Negritos, they entered the Philippines during the lowered sea levels during thelast ice age,when the only water crossings required were less than 3km wide (such as theSibutu strait).They retain partial genetic signals among theManobo peopleand theSama-Bajau peopleofMindanao.

The last wave of prehistoric migrations to reach the Philippines was theAustronesian expansionwhich started in theNeolithicat around 4,500 to 3,500 years ago, when a branch ofAustronesiansfromTaiwan(the ancestralMalayo-Polynesian-speakers) migrated to theBatanes IslandsandLuzon.They spread quickly throughout the rest of the islands of the Philippines and became the dominant ethnolinguistic group. They admixed with the earlier settlers, resulting in the modern Filipinos – which though predominantly genetically Austronesian still show varying genetic admixture with Negritos (and vice versa for Negrito ethnic groups which show significant Austronesian admixture).Austronesians possessed advanced sailing technologies and colonized the Philippines via sea-borne migration, in contrast to earlier groups.

Maritime Jade Road,connecting the Philippines to its neighbors

Austronesians from the Philippines also later settledGuamand the other islands ofMaritime Southeast Asia,and parts ofMainland Southeast Asia.From there, they colonized the rest ofAustronesia,which in modern times includeMicronesia,coastalNew Guinea,Island Melanesia,Polynesia,andMadagascar,in addition to Maritime Southeast Asia and Taiwan.

The connections between the variousAustronesian peopleshave also been known since thecolonial eradue to sharedmaterial cultureand linguistic similarities of various peoples of the islands of theIndo-Pacific,leading to the designation of Austronesians as the "Malay race"(or the"Brown race") during the age ofscientific racismbyJohann Friedrich Blumenbach.Due to thecolonial Americaneducation system in the early 20th century, the term "Malay race" is still used incorrectly in the Philippines to refer to the Austronesian peoples, leading toconfusionwith the non-indigenousMelayu people.

Archaic epoch (to 1565)

Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.South AsianandEast Asianpeople together with the people of the Indonesian archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, traded with Filipinos and introducedHinduismandBuddhismto the native tribes of the Philippines. Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into local societies.

Many of thebarangay(tribal municipalities) were, to a varying extent, under thede jurejurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them theMalaySrivijaya,JavaneseMajapahit,Brunei,Malacca,TamilChola,ChampaandKhmer empires,althoughde factohad established their own independent system of rule. Trading links withSumatra,Borneo,Java,Cambodia,Malay Peninsula,Indochina,China,Japan,IndiaandArabia.Athalassocracyhad thus emerged based on international trade.

Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century.Hindu-Buddhistculture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era.

In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom ofNamayanwhich flourished alongsideManila Bay,Cebu,Iloilo,Butuan,the Kingdom ofSanfotsisituated inPangasinan,the Kingdom of Luzon now known asPampangawhich specialized in trade with most of what is now known as Southeast Asia and with China, Japan and theKingdom of RyukyuinOkinawa.

From the 9th century onwards, a large number ofArabtraders from the Middle East settled in theMalay Archipelagoand intermarried with the localMalay,Bruneian, Malaysian, Indonesian andLuzonandVisayasindigenous populations.

In the years leading up to 1000 AD, there were already several maritime societies existing in the islands but there was no unifying politicalstateencompassing the entire Philippine archipelago. Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomousbarangays(settlements ranging in size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competingthalassocraciesruled bydatus,rajahsorsultansor by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". Nations such as the Wangdoms ofPangasinanandMa-ias well as Ma-i's subordinates, theBarangay statesofPuliluandSandao;the Kingdoms ofMaynila,Namayan,andTondo;theKedatuans of Madja-as,Dapitan,andCainta;the Rajahnates ofCebu,ButuanandSanmalan;and the Sultanates ofBuayan,Maguindanao,LanaoandSulu;existed alongside the highland societies of theIfugaoandMangyan.Some of these regions were part of the Malayan empires ofSrivijaya,MajapahitandBrunei.

• 
  Tagalogmaharlika,c.1590Boxer Codex
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  Tagalogmaginoo,c.1590Boxer Codex
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  Visayankadatuan,c.1590Boxer Codex
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  Nativecommonerwomen (likelyMuslimsinManilaat the time), c.1590Boxer Codex
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  Visayantimawa,c.1590Boxer Codex
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  Visayanpintados(tattooed), c. 1590Boxer Codex
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  Visayanuripon(slaves), c. 1590Boxer Codex
• 
  BinukotfromVisayas,c. 1590Boxer Codex

Historic caste systems

Datu– TheTagalogmaginoo,theKapampanganginuand theVisayantumaowere the nobility social class among various cultures of the pre-colonial Philippines. Among the Visayans, the tumao were further distinguished from the immediate royal families or a ruling class.

Timawa– The timawa class were free commoners of Luzon and the Visayas who could own their own land and who did not have to pay a regular tribute to a maginoo, though they would, from time to time, be obliged to work on a datu's land and help in community projects and events. They were free to change their allegiance to another datu if they married into another community or if they decided to move.

Maharlika– Members of the Tagalog warrior class known as maharlika had the same rights and responsibilities as the timawa, but in times of war they were bound to serve their datu in battle. They had to arm themselves at their own expense, but they did get to keep the loot they took. Although they were partly related to the nobility, the maharlikas were technically less free than the timawas because they could not leave a datu's service without first hosting a large public feast and paying the datu between 6 and 18 pesos in gold – a large sum in those days.

Alipin– Commonly described as "servant" or "slave". However, this is inaccurate. The concept of the alipin relied on a complex system of obligation and repayment through labor in ancient Philippine society, rather than on the actual purchase of a person as in Western and Islamicslavery.Members of the alipin class who owned their own houses were more accurately equivalent to medieval Europeanserfsand commoners.

By the 15th century, Arab and Indian missionaries and traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions. Before that, indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture ofAnimism,HinduismandBuddhism.Native villages, calledbarangayswere populated by locals called Timawa (Middle Class/freemen) and Alipin (servants and slaves). They were ruled byRajahs,DatusandSultans,a class calledMaginoo(royals) and defended by theMaharlika(Lesser nobles, royal warriors and aristocrats).These Royals and Nobles are descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees ofIndo-AryanandDravidian,which is evident in today's DNA analysis among South East Asian Royals. This tradition continued among the Spanish andPortuguesetraders who also intermarried with the local populations.

Spanish colonization and rule (1521–1898)

Tipos del Paísworks byJustiniano Asuncion

Economic life in theSpanish Philippines,withNativeandSangleyChinesetraders

Depiction of Filipino celebration

The first census in the Philippines was in 1591, based on tributes collected. The tributes counted the total founding population of the Spanish Philippines as 667,612 people.20,000 were Chinese migrant traders,at different times: around 15,600 individuals were Latino soldier-colonists who were cumulatively sent from Peru and Mexico and they were shipped to the Philippines annually,3,000 were Japanese residents,and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe.There was a large but unknown number ofSouth Asian Filipinos,as the majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were fromBengaland Southern India,addingDravidianspeaking South Indians andIndo-EuropeanspeakingBengalisinto the ethnic mix.

The Philippines was colonized by the Spaniards. The arrival of Portuguese explorerFerdinand Magellan(Portuguese:Fernão de Magalhães) in 1521 began a period of European colonization. During the period of Spanishcolonialism,the Philippines was part of theViceroyaltyofNew Spain,which was governed and administered fromMexico City.Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials and religiousmissionariesborn in Spain and Mexico. Most Spaniards who settled were ofBasqueancestry,but there were also settlers ofAndalusian,Catalan,andMoorishdescent.ThePeninsulares(governors born in Spain), mostly ofCastilianancestry, settled in the islands to govern their territory. Most settlers married the daughters ofrajahs,datus,andsultansto reinforce the colonization of the islands. TheGinooandMaharlikacastes (royals and nobles) in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spaniards formed the privilegedPrincipalía(nobility) during the early Spanish period.

SangleyChinesemerchantandNative FilipinaofManilabyJosé Honorato Lozano

TheSelden Map,connectingQuanzhouto Manila

TheUrdanetareturn route of theManila-Acapulco galleon trade,connecting the Philippines to theAmericas

Global trade routes of theSpanishandPortuguese Empires

The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines, especially through the commencement of theManila-Acapulco galleon tradethat connected thePhilippinesthroughManilatoAcapulcoinMexico,attracted new waves of immigrants fromChina,as Manila was already previously connected to theMaritime Silk RoadandMaritime Jade Road,as shown in theSelden Map,fromQuanzhouandZhangzhouinSouthern Fu giantoManila,maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period, especially as Manila was connected to the ports ofSouthern Fu gian,such asYuegang(the old port ofHaichenginZhangzhou,Fu gian).The Spaniards recruited thousands of Chinese migrant workers from "Chinchew"(Quanzhou), "Chiõ Chiu"(Zhangzhou), "Canton"(Guangzhou), andMacaucalledsangleys(fromHokkienChinese:Sinh lý;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Sng-lí;lit.'business') to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Many Chinese immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names and customs and became assimilated, although the children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese that became assimilated continued to be designated in official records asmestizos de sangley.The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to theBinondoarea until the 19th century. However, they eventually spread all over the islands and became traders, landowners and moneylenders. Today, their descendants still comprise a significant part of thePhilippine populationespecially itsbourgeois,who during the lateSpanish Colonial Erain the late 19th century, produced a major part of theilustradointelligentsiaof the lateSpanish Colonial Philippines,that were very influential with the creation ofFilipino nationalismand the sparking of thePhilippine Revolutionas part of the foundation of theFirst Philippine Republicand subsequent sovereign independentPhilippines.Today, the bulk of the families in thelist of the political families in the Philippineshave such family background. Meanwhile, the colonial-era Sangley's pure ethnic Chinese descendants of which, replenished by later migrants in the 20th century, that preserved at least some of theirChinese culture,integrated together with mainstreamFilipino culture,are now in the form of the modernChinese Filipinocommunity, who currently play a leading role in the Philippine business sector and contribute a significant share of thePhilippine economytoday,where most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year compriseTaipanbillionairesof Chinese Filipino background, mostly ofHokkiendescent, where most still trace their roots back to mostlyJin gian gorNan'anwithinQuanzhouor sometimesXiamen(Amoy) orZhangzhou,all withinSouthern Fu gian,the Philippines' historical trade partner withMainland China.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands ofJapanesetraders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population.Many were assimilated throughout the centuries, especially through the tumultuous period ofWorld War II.Today, there is a small growingNikkeicommunity ofJapanese FilipinosinDavaowith roots to the oldLittle Japanin Mintal or Calinan inDavao Cityduring theAmerican colonial period,where many had roots starting out inAbacaplantations or from workers of the Benguet Road (Kennon Road) toBaguio.

British forces occupied Manilabetween 1762 and 1764 as a part of theSeven Years' War.However, the only part of the Philippines which the British held was theSpanish colonial capitalofManilaand the principal naval port ofCavite,both of which are located by theManila Bay.The war was ended by theTreaty of Paris (1763).At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to theSpanish Empire.ManyIndianSepoytroops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and some parts of theIlocosandCagayan.TheIndian Filipinosin Manila settled atCainta, Rizaland the ones in the north settled inIsabela.Most were assimilated into the local population. Even before the British invasion, there were already also a large but unknown number ofIndian Filipinosas majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were fromBengalor SouthernIndia,addingDravidianspeaking South Indians andIndo-EuropeanspeakingBangladeshisinto the ethnic mix.

Leaders of the reform movement in Spain: left to right:José Rizal,Marcelo H. del Pilar,andMariano Ponce(c. 1890)

MestizosSangleyyChino(Sangley Chinese or Chinese Mestizos), c. 1841Tipos del País,watercolor byJustiniano Asuncion

A total of 110Manila-Acapulco galleonsset sail between 1565 and 1815, during the Philippines trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. Europeancriollos,mestizosand Portuguese, French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos.Japanese,IndianandCambodianChristians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries. The Mexicans especially were a major source of military migration to the Philippines and during the Spanish period they were referred to as guachinangosand they readily intermarried and mixed with native Filipinos. Bernal, the author of the book "Mexico en Filipinas" contends, that they were middlemen, the guachinangos in contrast to the Spanish and criollos, known as Castila, that had positions in power and were isolated, the guachinangos in the meantime, had interacted with the natives of the Philippines, while in contrast, the exchanges between Castila and native were negligent. Following Bernal, these two groups—native Filipinos and the Castila—had been two "mutually unfamiliar castes" that had "no real contact." Between them, he clarifies however, were the Chinese traders and the guachinangos (Mexicans).In the 1600s, Spain deployed thousands of Mexican and Peruvian soldiers across the many cities and presidios of the Philippines.

Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.

Location	1603	1636	1642	1644	1654	1655	1670	1672
Manila	900	446	—	407	821	799	708	667
Fort Santiago	—	22	—	—	50	—	86	81
Cavite	—	70	—	—	89	—	225	211
Cagayan	46	80	—	—	—	—	155	155
Calamianes	—	—	—	—	—	—	73	73
Caraga	—	45	—	—	—	—	81	81
Cebu	86	50	—	—	—	—	135	135
Formosa	—	180	—	—	—	—	—	—
Moluccas	80	480	507	—	389	—	—	—
Otón	66	50	—	—	—	—	169	169
Zamboanga	—	210	—	—	184	—	—	—
Other	255	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Total Reinforcements	1,533	1,633	2,067	2,085	n/a	n/a	1,632	1,572

With the inauguration of theSuez Canalin 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international trade. European investors of British, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Russian, Italian, and French nationality were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards and Chinese arrived during the next century. Many of these migrants intermarried with localmestizosand assimilated with the indigenous population.

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten childrenand two parents, per tribute)and came upon the following statistics:

Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province

Province	Native Tributes	Spanish Mestizo Tributes	All Tributes
Tondo	14,437-1/2	3,528	27,897-7
Cavite	5,724-1/2	859	9,132-4
Laguna	14,392-1/2	336	19,448-6
Batangas	15,014	451	21,579-7
Mindoro	3,165	3-1/2	4,000-8
Bulacan	16,586-1/2	2,007	25,760-5
Pampanga	16,604-1/2	2,641	27,358-1
Bataan	3,082	619	5,433
Zambales	1,136	73	4,389
Ilocos	44,852-1/2	631	68,856
Pangasinan	19,836	719-1/2	25,366
Cagayan	9,888	0	11,244-6
Camarines	19,686-1/2	154-1/2	24,994
Albay	12,339	146	16,093
Tayabas	7,396	12	9,228
Cebu	28,112-1/2	625	28,863
Samar	3,042	103	4,060
Leyte	7,678	37-1/2	10,011
Caraga	3,497	0	4,977
Misamis	1,278	0	1,674
Negros Island	5,741	0	7,176
Iloilo	29,723	166	37,760
Capiz	11,459	89	14,867
Antique	9,228	0	11,620
Calamianes	2,289	0	3,161
TOTAL	299,049	13,201	424,992-16

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province(The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,Cavite at 13%,Laguna 2.28%,Batangas 3%,Bulacan 10.79%,Bataan 16.72%,Ilocos 1.38%,Pangasinan 3.49%,Albay 1.16%,Cebu 2.17%,Samar 3.27%, Iloilo 1%,Capiz 1%,Bicol20%,andZamboanga40%.According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.Across the whole Philippines, as estimated, the total ratio of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to 5% of the totality.

MestizosdeEspañol(Spanish Mestizos), by Jean Mallat de Bassilan, c. 1846

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%. The Spanish Filipino and Chinese Filipino Mestizo populations also fluctuated. Eventually, many families belonging to the non-native categories from centuries ago beyond the late 19th century diminished because their descendants intermarried enough and were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as Filipinos while forgetting their ancestor's rootssince during the Philippine Revolution to modern times, the term "Filipino" was expanded to include everyone born in the Philippines coming from any race, as per thePhilippine nationality law.That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo, percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.By the 20th century, the remaining ethnic Spaniards and ethnic Chinese, replenished by further Chinese migrants in the 20th century, now later came to compose the modernSpanish Filipinocommunity andChinese Filipinocommunity respectively, where families of such background contribute a significant share of thePhilippine economytoday,where most in the current list of the Philippines' richest each year comprisebillionairesof eitherChinese Filipinobackground or the old elite families ofSpanish Filipinobackground.

Late modern

Filipina women inFilipinianadress, (Manila, 1899).

After the defeat of Spain during theSpanish–American Warin 1898, Filipino general,Emilio Aguinaldodeclaredindependenceon June 12 while GeneralWesley Merrittbecame the first Americangovernorof the Philippines. On December 10, 1898, theTreaty of Parisformally ended the war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to theUnited Statesin exchange for $20 million.

A native Filipina withChinese,American/EuropeanandJapanesesettlers in the Philippines, 1900

ThePhilippine–American Warresulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 Filipino civilians.Some estimates for total civilian dead reach up to 1,000,000.After the Philippine–American War, the United States civil governance was established in 1901, withWilliam Howard Taftas the first AmericanGovernor-General.A number of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then. Owing to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of theCold War,but left behind thousands ofAmerasianchildren.The country gainedindependencefrom the United States in 1946. ThePearl S. Buck International Foundationestimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines. However, according to the center of Amerasian Research, there might be as many as 250,000Amerasiansscattered across the cities ofClark,Angeles City,Manila,andOlongapo.In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second- or third-generation families returned to the country.

Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving American, European, Chinese and Japanese peoples. After World War II,South Asianscontinued to migrate into the islands, most of which assimilated and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low profile or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Arab and Chinese immigrants, many of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country byKoreans,Persians,Brazilians,and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries ofmigration,diaspora,assimilation,andcultural diversitymade most Filipinos accepting ofinterracial marriageandmulticulturalism.

Philippine nationality lawis currently based upon the principle ofjus sanguinisand, therefore, descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens born in the Philippines. Since many of the above historical groups came to the Philippines before its establishment as an independent state, many have also gained citizenship before the founding of either theFirst Philippines RepublicorThird Republic of the Philippines.For example, manyCold-War-eraChinese migrantswho had relatives in the Philippines attainFilipino citizenshipfor their children throughmarriagewithChinese Filipinofamilies that trace back to either the lateSpanish Colonial EraorAmerican Colonial Era.Likewise, many other modern expatriates from various countries, such as theUS,often come to thePhilippinesto marry with aFilipino citizen,ensuring their future children attainFilipino citizenshipand their Filipino spouses ensureproperty ownership.

Social classifications

During theSpanish colonial period,SpaniardsfromSpainandHispanic Americamainly referred toSpaniards born in the Philippines (Spanish Filipinos)inSpanish:"Filipino/s"(m) or"Filipina/s"(f)in relation to those born in Hispanic America called inSpanish:"Americano/s"(m) /"Americana/s"(f) or"Criollo/s",whereas the Spaniards born in the Philippines themselves called the Spaniards from Spain as "Peninsular/es"with themselves also referred to as"Insular/es".Meanwhile, the colonial caste system hierarchy and taxation system during the Spanish Colonial Times dictated that those of mixed descent were known as "Mestizo/s"(m) / "Mestiza/s"(f), specifically those of mixedSpanishandnative Filipinodescent were known as "Mestizo/sdeEspañol"(Spanish Mestizos), whereas those of mixedChineseandnative Filipinodescent were known as "Mestizo/sdeSangley"(Chinese Mestizos) and the mix of all of the above or a mix ofSpanishandChinesewere known as "Tornatrás".Meanwhile, theethnic Chinesemigrants (Chinese Filipinos) were historically referred to as "Sangley/es"(fromHokkienChinese:Sinh lý;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Sng-lí;lit.'business'), while thenatives of the Philippine islandswere usually known by the generic term "Indio/s"(lit. "Indian,native of theEast Indies").

Filipinos of mixed ethnic origins are still referred today asmestizos.However, in common popular parlance, mestizos usually refer to Filipinos mixed with Spanish or any other European ancestry. Filipinos mixed with any other foreign ethnicities are named depending on the non-Filipino part. Historically though, it was theMestizodeSangley(ChineseMestizo) that numbered the most amongmestizos,though theMestizosdeEspañol(SpanishMestizos) carried moresocial prestigedue to thecolonial caste systemhierarchy that usually elevatedSpanishblood andChristianized nativesto the peak, while most descendants of theMestizodeSangley(ChineseMestizo), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social and political life of the nation, would readily assimilate into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation.

Term	Definition
Peninsulares	Person of pureSpanishdescent born in Spain ( "from theIberian Peninsula").
Americano	Person ofCriollo(pure or almost pureSpanish),Castizo(3/4Spanish,1/4Native American) orMestizo(1/2Spanish,1/2Native American) descent born inSpanish America( "from theAmericas").
Filipinos/Insulares	Person of pureSpanishdescent born in thePhilippines( "from thePhilippine Islands").
Mestizo de Español	Person of mixedSpanishandnativeAustronesiandescent.
Tornatrás	Person of mixedSpanishandChinesedescent or mixedSpanish,ChineseandnativeAustronesiandescent.
Mestizo de Sangley	Person of mixedChineseorJapanesedescent withnativeAustronesiandescent.
Mestizo de Bombay	Person of mixedIndianandnativeAustronesiandescent.
Indio(Christianized)	Person of purenativeAustronesiandescent who wasChristianized,usually under theSpanish missionariesof theCatholic Church.
Sangley/Chino(Christianized)	Person of pureChinesedescent who wasChristianized,usually by theSpanish missionariesof theCatholic Church.
Indio(Unchristianized)	Person of purenativeAustronesiandescent who was notChristianized.
Sangley/Chino(Unchristianized)	Person of pureChinesedescent who was notChristianized.
Moro	Person of purenativeAustronesiandescent who wasIslamized.
Negrito	Person of pureindigenouspre-Austronesian descent, such as a member of theAeta,Ati,Batak,Mamanwa,etc.

Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero,the only Spanish prime minister of mestizo (Filipino) descent

People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the insulares or "Filipinos" (a person born in the Philippines of pure Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), Español mestizos (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry) and tornatrás (a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and Spanish ancestry).Manilawas racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city ofIntramuros,un-Christianized sangleys in Parían, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo and the rest of the 7,000 islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites (including mestizos de español) as servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio were native Austronesians, but as a legal classification, Indio were those who embraced Roman Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.

People who lived outsideManila,Cebuand the major Spanish posts were classified as such: 'Naturales' were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Catholic Negritos andAustronesianswho lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) wereindigenousAustronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish colonials everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony. People of pure Spanish descent living in thePhilippineswho were born in Spanish America were classified as 'americanos'. Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines kept their legal classification as such and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Ins'. The Philippine-born children of mestizos and Africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal descent.

Amestiza de sangleywoman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875

The termnegritowas coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both Christianized negritos who lived in the colony and un-Christianized negritos who lived in tribes outside the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized negritos who lived in Manila were not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for indios.

A person of mixedNegritoandAustronesianancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent; the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed as being outside the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside the colony and resisted conversion toChristianity.

This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the Spanish-ruled colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity.

However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de español', 'peninsular' or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrás. An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as mestizo de español. A mestiza de español who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but her status will never change from mestiza de español if she married a mestizo de español, Filipino or peninsular. In contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or español) man's status stayed the same regardless of whom he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or español) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish descent), she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband and become a mestiza de español or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent.

Thede factosocial stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the country had its beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with a discriminating caste system.

The Spanish colonizers reserved the termFilipinoto refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines. The use of the term was later extended to include Spanish and Chinesemestizosor those born of mixed Chinese-indio or Spanish-indio descent. Late in the 19th century,José Rizalpopularized the use of the termFilipinoto refer to all those born in the Philippines, including the Indios.When ordered to sign the notification of his death sentence, which described him as a Chinese mestizo, Rizal refused. He went to his death saying that he wasindio puro.

After the Philippines' independence from Spain in 1898 and the word Filipino "officially" expanded to include the entire population of the Philippines regardless of racial ancestry, as per thePhilippine nationality lawand as described byWenceslao Retana'sDiccionario de filipinismos,where he definedFilipinosas follows,

todos los nacidos en Filipinas sin distincion de origen ni de raza.
All those born in the Philippines without distinction of origin or race.

— Wenceslao E. Retaña,Diccionario De Filipinismos: Con La Revisión De Lo Que Al Respecto Lleva Publicado La Real Academia Española

• 
  Native Filipinos as illustrated in theCarta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas(1734)
• 
  A Spaniard and Criollo talking, while Indios are cockfight with Aetas in the background. detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas.
• 
  "Mestizo de luto"(A Native Filipino Mestizo) byJosé Honorato Lozano
• 
  Native riding a horse by José Honorato Lozano
• 
  Cuadrillero by José Honorato Lozano
• 
  AGobernadorcillo,mostly of Indio descent. Painting by José Honorato Lozano
• 
  SangleyPancitvendor by José Honorato Lozano
• 
  Damián Domingo,A mestizo deSangleysoldier and artist.
• 
  Typical costume of aPrincipalíafamily of the late 19th century. Exhibit in the Villa Escudero Museum,San Pablo, Laguna,Philippines.

Origins and genetic studies

See also:Models of migration to the Philippines,Demographics of the Philippines,andEthnic groups in the Philippines

Migration of theAustronesian peoplesand theirlanguages.

The aboriginal settlers of the Philippines were primarilyNegritogroups. Negritos today comprise a small minority of the nation's overall population, and received significant geneflow from Austronesian groups, as well as an even earlier "Basal-East Asian" group, while the modern Austronesian-speaking majority population does not, or only marginally show evidence for admixture, and cluster closely with otherEast/Southeast Asian people.There were also immigrations fromAustroasiatic,Papuan,andSouth Asianpeoples.

The majority population of Filipinos areAustronesians,a linguistic and genetic group whose historical ties lay inMaritime Southeast Asiaand southern East Asia, but through ancient migrations can be found as indigenous peoples stretching as far east as thePacific Islandsand as far west asMadagascaroff the coast of Africa.The current predominant theory on Austronesian expansion holds that Austronesians settled the Philippine islands through successive southward and eastward seaborne migrations from theNeolithicAustronesian populations of Taiwan.

Other hypotheses have also been put forward based on linguistic, archeological, and genetic studies. These include an origin from mainlandsouthern China(linking them to theLiangzhu cultureand theTapengkeng culture,later displaced or assimilated by the expansion of speakers ofSino-Tibetan languages);anin situorigin from theSundalandcontinental shelf prior to thesea level riseat the end of thelast glacial period(c. 10,000 BC);or a combination of the two (theNusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Networkhypothesis) which advocatescultural diffusionrather than a series of linear migrations.

Genetics

Main article:Genetic studies on Filipinos

The results of a massive DNA study conducted by theNational Geographic's, "The Genographic Project", based ongenetic testingsof 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that the average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American.

According to a genetic study done by theKaiser Permanente(KP) Research Program on Genes, Environment, and Health (RPGEH), most self-identified Filipinos sampled, have "modest" amounts of European ancestry consistent with older admixture.

Dental morphology

Dental morphologyprovides clues to prehistoric migration patterns of the Philippines, with Sinodont dental patterns occurring in East Asia, Central Asia, North Asia, and the Americas. Sundadont patterns occur in Southeast Asia as well as the bulk of Oceania.Filipinos exhibitSundadonty,and are regarded as having a more generalised dental morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty.

Historic reports

Published in 1849, TheCatalogo Alfabetico de Apellidoscontains 141 pages of surnames with both Spanish and Hispanicized indigenous roots.

Authored by Spanish Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua and Domingo Abella, the catalog was created in response to the Decree of November 21, 1849, which gave every Filipino a surname from the book. The decree in the Philippines was created to fulfill a Spanish colonial decree that sought to address colonial subjects who did not have a last name. This explains why most Filipinos share the same surnames as many Hispanics today, without having Spanish ancestry.

Augustinian Friar, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, in the 1800s, measured varying ratios of Spanish-Mestizos as percentages of the populations of the various provinces, with ranges such as: 19.5% of the population of Tondo (The most populous province), to Pampanga (13.7%), Cavite (13%) and Bulacan (10.8%) to as low as 5% in Cebu, and non-existent in the isolated provinces.Overall the whole Philippines, even including the provinces with no Spanish settlement, as summed up, the average percentage of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to 5% of the total population.The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)" gave the number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s,in a Philippine population which was only around 1.5 Million,thus the Latin Americans formed 2.33% of the population.

In relation to this, a population survey conducted by German ethnographerFedor Jagorconcluded that 1/3rd of Luzon which holds half of the Philippines' population had varying degrees of Spanish and Mexican ancestry.

Meanwhile, according to older records held by theSenate of the Philippines,there were approximately 1.35 millionethnic (or pure)Chinesewithin the Philippine population, while Filipinos with anyChinese descentcomprised 22.8 million of the population.

Current immigration

Main article:Immigration to the Philippines

Recent studies during 2015, record around 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country.There are also 250,000AmerasiansacrossAngeles City,Manila,ClarkandOlongapo.

Languages

Main articles:Languages of the PhilippinesandPhilippine languages

The indigenous (native) Philippine languages spoken around the country that have the largest number of speakers in a particular region with Tagalog being the largest. Note that on regions marked with black diamonds, the language with the most speakers denotes a minority of the population.

Austronesian languageshave been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years. According to a 2014 study by Mark Donohue of the Australian National University and Tim Denham of Monash University, there is no linguistic evidence for an orderly north-to-south dispersal of the Austronesian languages from Taiwan through the Philippines and into Island Southeast Asia (ISEA).Many adopted words fromSanskritand Tamil were incorporated during the strong wave ofIndian (Hindu-Buddhist) cultural influencestarting from the 5th century BC, in common with its Southeast Asian neighbors. Chinese languages were also commonly spoken among the traders of the archipelago. However, with the advent of Islam, Arabic and Persian soon came to supplant Sanskrit and Tamil as holy languages. Starting in the second half of the 16th century, Spanish was the official language of the country for the more than three centuries that the islands were governed throughMexico Cityon behalf of the Spanish Empire. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Spanish was the preferred language amongIlustradosand educated Filipinos in general. Significant disagreements exist, however, on the extent Spanish use beyond that. It has been argued that the Philippines were less hispanized thanCanariesandAmerica,with Spanish only being adopted by the ruling class involved in civil and judicial administration and culture. Spanish was the language of only approximately ten percent of the Philippine population when Spanish rule ended in 1898.As a lingua franca or creole language of Filipinos, major languages of the country likeChavacano,Cebuano,Tagalog,Kapampangan,Pangasinan,Bikol,Hiligaynon,Waray-Waray,andIlocanoassimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish.

Chavacanois the only Spanish-basedcreole languagein Asia. Its vocabulary is 90 percent Spanish, and the remaining 10 percent is a mixture of predominantlyPortuguese,Hiligaynon,and some English. Chavacano is considered by theInstituto Cervantesto be a Spanish-based language.

In sharp contrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as theirmother tonguein the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.An additional 60% is said to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II, but this is also disputed as to whether this percentage spoke "kitchen Spanish", which was used as marketplace lingua compared to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers.

In 1863 a Spanish decree introduceduniversal education,creating free public schooling in Spanish, yet it was never implemented, even before the advent of American annexation.It was also the language of thePhilippine Revolution,and the 1899Malolos Constitutionproclaimed it as the "official language" of theFirst Philippine Republic,albeit a temporary official language. Spanish continued to be the predominantlingua francaused in the islands by the elite class before and during the American colonial regime. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition ofEnglish,the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.

According toEthnologue,there are about 180 languages spoken in the Philippines.The1987 Constitution of the Philippinesimposed theFilipino languageas thenational languageand designates it, along with theEnglish language,as one of theofficial languages.Regional languagesare designated asauxiliary official languages.The constitution also provides that Spanish andArabicshall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.

Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 1,000,000 native and indigenous speakers includeCebuano,Ilocano,Hiligaynon,Waray,Central Bikol,Kapampangan,Pangasinan,Chavacano(Spanish-based creole),Albay Bikol,Maranao,Maguindanao,Kinaray-a,Tausug,Surigaonon,Masbateño,AklanonandIbanag.The 28-letter modernFilipino Alpha bet,adopted in 1987, is the official writing system. In addition, each ethnicity's language has their own writing scripts and set of Alpha bets, many of which are no longer used.

Religion

Main article:Religion in the Philippines

Devotees flock to theBasilica Minore del Santo Niñoduring the novena Masses.

According to thenNational Statistics Office (NSO)as of 2010, over 92% of the population wereChristians,with 80.6% professingRoman Catholicism.The latter was introduced by the Spanish beginning in 1521, and during their more than 330-yearcolonization of the islands,they managed to convert a vast majority of Filipinos, resulting in the Philippines becoming the largest predominantly catholic country in Asia. There are also large groups ofProtestantdenominations, which either grew or were founded following thedisestablishmentof theCatholic Churchduring theAmerican Colonial period.The homegrownIglesia ni Cristois currently the single largest church whose headquarters is in the Philippines, followed byUnited Church of Christ in the Philippines.TheIglesia Filipina Independiente(also known as the Aglipayan Church) was an earlier development, and is anational churchdirectly resulting from the1898 Philippine Revolution.Other Christian groups such as theVictory Church,Eddie Villanueva-founded and ledJesus Is Lord Church,Jesus Miracle Crusade,Mormonism,Orthodoxy,and theJehovah's Witnesseshave a visible presence in the country.

The second largest religion in the country isIslam,estimated in 2014to account for 5% to 8% of the population.Islam in the Philippinesis mostly concentrated in southwesternMindanaoand theSulu Archipelagowhich, though part of the Philippines, are very close to the neighboringIslamic countriesofMalaysiaandIndonesia.The Muslims call themselvesMoros,aSpanishword that refers to theMoors(albeit the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam).

Historically, ancient Filipinos held animist religions that were influenced byHinduismandBuddhism,which were brought by traders from neighbouring Asian states. Theseindigenous Philippine folk religionscontinue to be present among the populace, with some communities, such as theAeta,Igorot,andLumad,having some strong adherents and some who mix beliefs originating from the indigenous religions with beliefs from Christianity or Islam.

As of 2013,religious groups together constituting less than five percent of the population includedSikhism,Hinduism,Buddhism,Seventh-day Adventists,United Church of Christ,United Methodists,theEpiscopal Church in the Philippines,Assemblies of God,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints(Mormons), and Philippine (Southern)Baptists;and the following domestically established churches:Iglesia ni Cristo(Church of Christ),Philippine Independent Church(Aglipayan),Members Church of God International,Jesus Is Lord Church,andThe Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the Name Above Every Name.In addition, there areLumad,who are indigenous peoples of various animistic and syncretic religions.

Diaspora

Main article:Overseas Filipinos

Further information:Filipinos in the New York metropolitan areaandFilipinos in Hawaii

Spectators at the annualPhilippine Independence Day ParadeonMadison AvenueinManhattan,New York City

There are currently more than 10 million Filipinos who live overseas. Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,the Middle East, and other regions of the world.

There are an estimated four millionAmericans of Filipino ancestryin the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.According to the U.S. Census Bureau, immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that soughtfamily reunification.

Filipinos make up over a third of the entire population of theNorthern Marianas Islands,an American territory in theNorth Pacific Ocean,and a large proportion of the populations ofGuam,Palau, theBritish Indian Ocean Territory,andSabah.

See also

• Spanish Filipino
• Chinese Filipino
• Filipino Americans

Publications

• Peter Bellwood (July 1991). "The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages".Scientific American.265(1): 88–93.Bibcode:1991SciAm.265a..88B.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88.
• Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James;Tryon, Darrell(1995).The Austronesians: Historical and comparative perspectives.Department of Anthropology, Australian National University.ISBN978-0-7315-2132-6.
• Peter Bellwood (1998). "Taiwan and the Prehistory of the Austronesians-speaking Peoples".Review of Archaeology.18:39–48.
• Peter Bellwood; Alicia Sánchez-Mazas (June 2005). "Human Migrations in Continental East Asia and Taiwan: Genetic, Linguistic, and Archaeological Evidence".Current Anthropology.46(3): 480–485.doi:10.1086/430018.S2CID145495386.
• David Blundell. "Austronesian Disperal".Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology.35:1–26.
• Robert Blust (1985). "The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective".Asian Perspectives.20:46–67.
• Peter Fuller (2002)."Asia Pacific Research".Reading the Full Picture.Canberra, Australia: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Archived fromthe originalon September 27, 2011.RetrievedJuly 28,2005.
• Penny, Ralph; Penny, Ralph John (2002).A History of the Spanish Language.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-01184-6.
• "Homepage of linguist Dr. Lawrence Reid".RetrievedJuly 28,2005.
• Malcolm Ross;Andrew Pawley(1993). "Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history".Annual Review of Anthropology.22:425–459.doi:10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.002233.
• Frederic H. Sawyer (1900).The Inhabitants of the Philippines.Library of Alexandria.ISBN978-1-4655-1185-0.
• Scott, William Henry(1984).Prehispanic Source Materials for the study of Philippine History.New Day Publishers.ISBN978-971-10-0227-5.RetrievedAugust 5,2008.ISBN978-971-10-0226-8.
• John Edward Terrell (December 2004). "Introduction: 'Austronesia' and the great Austronesian migration".World Archaeology.36(4): 586–591.doi:10.1080/0043824042000303764.S2CID162244203.
• Zaide, Sonia M. (1999) [1994].The Philippines: A Unique Nation.All-Nations Publishing.ISBN978-971-642-071-5.
• Jocano, F. Landa(2001).Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage.Quezon City: Punlad Research House, Inc.ISBN978-971-622-006-3.

External links

• Media related toPeople of the Philippinesat Wikimedia Commons