This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(July 2020) |
TheCounty of Flanders[b]was one of the most powerful political entities in the medievalLow Countries,located on theNorth Seacoast of what is nowBelgium.Unlike its neighbours, such as the counties ofBrabantandHainaut,it was within the territory of theKingdom of France.Thecounts of Flandersheld the most northerly part of the kingdom, and were among the original twelvepeersof France. For centuries, the economic activity of the Flemish cities, such asGhent,BrugesandYpres,made Flanders one of the most affluent regions in Europe, and also gave them strong international connections to trading partners.
County of Flanders | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 862–1797 | |||||||||||||||||
 County of Flanders, 1350, in relation to theLow Countriesand theHoly Roman Empire.The county was located where the border betweenFranceand theHoly Roman Empiremet theNorth Sea. | |||||||||||||||||
| Status | FrenchandImperialfiefdom | ||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Bruges,laterGhentandLille | ||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||||||||
| Religion |
| ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Feudal monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Count of Flanders[a] | |||||||||||||||||
• 862–879 | Baldwin I | ||||||||||||||||
• 1792–1797 | Francis II | ||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Ages/ | ||||||||||||||||
• Fief granted to CountBaldwin I | 862 | ||||||||||||||||
• Annexed byFrance | 1797 | ||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||||||||||
Up to 1477, the core area under French suzerainty was west of theScheldtand historians call this "Royal Flanders" (Dutch:Kroon-Vlaanderen,French:Flandre royale). Aside from this, the counts, from the 11th century onward, held land east of the river as a fief of theHoly Roman Empire,and this is referred to as "Imperial Flanders" (Rijks-VlaanderenorFlandre impériale). From 1384, the county was politically united to theDuchy of Burgundy,and it formed the starting point for more acquisitions in the area, and the eventual creation of theBurgundian Netherlands.The expansion of Flemish ( "Burgundian" ) power deep into the Holy Roman Empire further complicated the relationship between Flanders and France, but reinforced the connections with Brabant, Hainaut, Holland and other parts of theLow Countries.The link to the empire was strengthened even more when the Burgundian Netherlands came into the hands of the imperial Habsburg dynasty in 1477. Most of Flanders became part of the empire after thePeace of Madridin 1526 and thePeace of the Ladiesin 1529, although it came to be ruled under the Habsburg crown of Spain. The territories of the old county are now the only part of the late medieval French kingdom outside of modern-day France, Catalonia having been renounced in 1258.
By 1795 the entireAustrian Netherlands,the successor of theSpanish Netherlands,was acquired by France under theFrench First Republic,and this was recognized by treaty in 1797. After theBattle of Waterlooin 1815, these territories, including most of the old county of Flanders, passed to the newly establishedUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands,which was split up between 1830 and 1839 into the modern countries of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Although the French Republic had avoided using the names of the great medieval counties for their administrative départements, the Dutch and Belgian regimes brought back such names, and as a consequence the two westernmost provinces of theFlandersregion of modern Belgium are now calledWest FlandersandEast Flanders.
Etymology
editThe termFlandersoriginally referred to the area aroundBruges.It is first mentioned in the biography ofSaint Eligius(c. 590–660), theVita sancti Eligii.The work was written before 684 but has been known only since 725. This work mentions only the place "in Flandris".
AGermanicetymology forFlandersandFlemish(Dutch:Vlaanderen,Vlaams) was proposed byMaurits Gysselingin 1948,[2]based upon an article by René Verdeyen in 1943.[3][4]
According to this proposal, the termsFlandersandFlemishare likely derived from words derived fromProto-Germanic*flaumaz,meaning stream, current, flood or eddy. Based on this, it is proposed that there was a proto-Germanic term*flaumdrawhich referred to waterlogged land. According to Toorians, the strength of this proposal is that it would describe the salt marshes and mud flats of this low-lying coastal region. It was regularly inundated, before the development of dykes which started around 1050. However, a weak point of the proposal is that the Germanic wordforms which it requires are not found in any records of Dutch or its dialects. Comparison was instead based uponOld High Germanflewenandflouwen,and Old Norseflaumr.
Geography
edit
The geography of the historic County of Flanders only partially overlaps with the present-day region ofFlandersin Belgium, but even there, it extends beyond the present provinces of West Flanders and East Flanders. Some of the historic county is now part of France and the Netherlands. The land covered by the county is spread out over:
- Belgium:
- two of the five Flemish provinces:West FlandersandEast Flanders
- part of the Flemish province ofAntwerp:the land ofBornem
- part of the Walloon province ofHainaut:Tournaisisand the region aroundMoeskroen(that belonged to West Flanders until 1962)
- France:
- French Flanders(in theNord departement)
- theFrench westcorner:the region aroundDunkirk,BerguesandBailleul,an area whereFlemishused to be the main language
- Walloon Flanders,where thePicard language,closely related to French, was spoken.
- Artois(in thePas-de-Calaisdepartment): removed from Flanders in 1191 and created as independent county in 1237
- French Flanders(in theNord departement)
- Netherlands:
- Zeelandic Flanders,a region between Belgium and theWestern Scheldtin the southern part of the modern province ofZeeland,which from 1581 formed part of theGenerality Landsunder control of theDutch Republic.
Flag and arms
edit
Thearms of the County of Flanderswere allegedly created byPhilip of Alsace,count of Flanders from 1168 to 1191; a climbing or rampant black lion on a gold field. In the story about theBattle of the Golden Spurs,the arms and its corresponding battlecryVlaendr'n den leeuw( "Flanders, the Lion" ) plays a crucial role in the forming of a Flemish consciousness, which was popularised in the 19th century by the bookDe Leeuw van VlaanderenbyHendrik Conscience.As a result, the arms of the county live on as arms of theFlemish community.
It is said that Philip of Alsace brought the lion flag with him from theHoly Land,where, in 1177, he supposedly conquered it from a Saracen knight, but this is a myth. The simple fact that the lion appeared on his personal seal since 1163, when he had not yet taken one step in theLevant,disproves it. In reality Philip was following a West-European trend. In the same period lions also appeared in the arms ofBrabant,Luxembourg,Holland,Limburgand other territories. The lion as a heraldic symbol was mostly used in border territories and neighbouring countries of theHoly Roman Empire.It was in all likelihood a way of showing independence from the emperor, who used aneaglein his personal arms. In Europe the lion had been a well-known figure since Roman times, through works such as the fables ofAesop.
History
editPrehistory and antiquity
editThe future county of Flanders had been inhabited since prehistory. During the Iron Age theKemmelbergformed an important Celtic settlement. During the times of Julius Caesar, the inhabitants were part of theBelgae,a collective name for all Celtic and Germanic tribes in the north ofGaul.For Flanders in specific these were theMenapii,theMorini,theNerviiand theAtrebates.
Julius Caesarconquered the area around 54 BC and the population was partially romanised from the 1st to the 3rd century. TheRoman roadthat connectedColognewithBoulogne-sur-Merwas used as a defense perimeter. In the south the Gallo-Romanic population was able to maintain itself, while the north became a no-mans land that also suffered from regular floods from theNorth Sea.
In the coastal andScheldtareas Saxon tribes gradually appeared. For the Romans,Saxonwas a general term, and includedAngles,Saxons,Jutesand Erules. The coastal defense around Boulogne andOudenburg,theLitus Saxonicum,remained functional until about 420. These forts were manned by Saxon soldiers.
From their base landToxandriatheSalian Franksfurther expanded into the Roman empire. The first incursion into the lands of the Atrebates was turned away in 448 at Vicus Helena. But after the murder of the Roman generalFlavius Aëtiusin 454 and Roman emperorValentinianus IIIin 455, the Salic Franks encountered hardly any resistance. FromDuisburg,kingChlodioconqueredCambraiandTournai,and he reached theSomme.After his death two Salic kingdoms emerged.Childericis recorded in 463 as king of Tournay and ally of the Romans against theVisigoths.He was also administrator of the province ofBelgica Secunda.His sonClovis Iconquered from 486 on all of Northern France.
Early Middle Ages
editThe abandoned coast and Scheldt region had been partially repopulated since the 4th century by Saxons and Franks from the east of theRhinethat retained theirGermanic cultureand language. In the 5th century Salic Franks settled in present-day Northern-France andWallonia,primarily around the cities ofCourtrai,TournaiandBavay.They adapted to the local Gallo-Romanic population. From the 6th century on the no-mans-land farther north was filled byFranksfrom the Rhinelands and other Germanic groups from the Netherlands and Germany.
The first wave of immigration in the present day Flemish territory was accompanied by limited Christianisation. In the wake of the immigrants, missionaries tried to convert the heathen population, but had little success. The bishoprics were reinstated, usually with the same natural borders of the Late-Roman era; theSilva Carbonariaseparated theBishopric of Cambraifrom theBishopric of Tongeren,while the Scheldt again became the border between the bishoprics of Cambrai andTournai.VedastandEleutherius of Tournaiwere assigned to reinstate the bishoprics ofArrasand Tournai. However, these bishoprics failed to survive independently. In the late 6th century the bishopric of Arras was connected to that of Cambrai, and at the start of the 7th century the same was done to the bishoprics of Tournai andNoyon.
At the end of the 6th century, the duchy ofDentelinuswas created in the north of what would later constituteNeustria.The duchy presumably included the bishoprics of Boulogne, Thérouanne, Arras, Tournai, Cambrai and Noyon: thus, the northwestern region between the North Sea and the Silva Carbonaria, an area the outlines of which were very similar to the later Flanders. The duchy was primarily intended to serve as a military and strategic deterrent against Frisian and Saxon invasions, and was a cornerstone in the military defense of theMerovingian Empire.In 600,Chlothar II(584–628) was forced to temporarily cede the duchy toAustrasia,but after the restoration of the Austrasian dual-monarchy in 622–623, the duchy was returned.
7th century
edit
At the end of the 6th and the 7th century a new inflow emerged from the westernPas-de-Calais.This area had beengermanisedin the 5th century and descendants of theSaxonsandFrankshad settled in future Flanders and theDuchy of Brabant.New groups of germanic settlers also came in from the Netherlands and Germany. Their new settlements often received the name of their germanic leader, with-inga haimadded. -Inga haimmeant 'the settlement of the tribe of X'. For example:Petegemcomes fromPetta-inga-haim,which meant 'the settlement of the tribe of Petta'.
The colonisation and germanisation of Flanders took place primarily in the 6th and 7th centuries. In the 7th century the population-level had risen sufficiently to start rebuilding the religious, military and administrative infrastructure. In the area of linguistics, the situation stabilised so that a large,bilingualregion with a linearlanguage bordercould emerge in the 8th century. InPas-de-Calais,which had been densely populated a long time, a language barrier had emerged in the 6th–7th century, but in the 9th century aromanisation-movement started that has continued until the present day.
The Christianisation attempts in the 6th century by bishops likeEleutheriusandVedasthad largely failed. Thus, in the 8th century a different strategy was chosen. A new Christianisation attempt was made under influence from KingDagobert I.He appointed several devoted missionaries from the southern parts of his kingdom to his royal domains in the northern parts of his kingdom. The missionaries were tasked with founding monasteries and abbeys there, that were to serve as centers of Christianity in a pagan region. From these centers, the conversion of the local populace could be started.
In 649Audomarfounded an abbey atSithiu(theAbbey of Saint Bertin) and in 680Aubertusfounded theAbbey of St. VaastnearArras.The Christianisation of the population was mainly the work of missionaries likeAmandus(St. Bavo's AbbeyandSt. Peter's Abbeyin Ghent) andEligius(coastal region andAntwerp). In hisvita,Eligius makes the first mention of the wordFlanders,when he toured the area around 650.
During the 7th century the firstgaueorpagiwere created in the Flemish territories.Gauewere administrative subdivisions of thecivitates.Thegauefrom the 7th and 8th centuries would form the basis of the county of Flanders. Thepagus Tornacensisdates fromc. 580,and from the 7th century we know of thepagus Cambracinsisin 663, thepagus Taroanensisfrom 649 and thepagus Bracbatensisat the end of the century. From the 8th century we know of thepagus Rodaninsisfrom 707, thepagus Gandaofrom the first quarter of the 8th century, thepagus Mempiscusfrom 723 and thepagus Flandrensisfrom around 745. Lastly, thepagus Austrebatensisand thepagus Curtracensisare also counted as Merovingiangaue.
Carolingians
edit
In 751 theCarolingianMayors of the Palacesucceeded in removing the Merovingians from power and obtaining the throne for themselves. The last Merovingian king,Childeric III,was placed in captivity at the laterAbbey of Saint Bertinusin St. Omer, and his long hair, a symbol of royal power, was cut off.
Charlemagnesucceeded his fatherPepin the Shortin Neustria and Austrasia, and after the death of his brother Karloman he was able to reunite the entire Frankish Empire. Though he resided inAachen,he spent much time travelling through his territories. In 811 he inspected the fleet that he had ordered built in Boulogne and Ghent, to protect againstVikinginvasions.
The region comprising future Flanders was, from an economic point of view, a flourishing region, with a series of ports along theScheldtriver:Ghent,Tournai,Valenciennes,CambraiandLambresatDouaion theScarpeand a number of seaports:Quentovic,Boulogneand I sắc re portus, a port at the mouth of theYser.Moreover, the region included a number of rich abbeys, such asAbbey of Saint Bertin,Saint Bavo's Abbey,Saint-Amand Abbeyand theAbbey of St. Vaast.
Charlemagne was succeeded by his sonLouis the Pious.Even during Louis' life his three sons started fighting over his heritage. They eventually concluded multiple treaties, of which theTreaty of Verdun,signed in 843, would be the definitive treaty. These treaties createdEast Francia,Middle FranciaandWest Francia.West Francia, inherited byCharles the Bald,included the original county of Flanders, that spanned roughly betweenOudenburg,AardenburgandTorhout.
After the Middle-Frankish kings died out, the rulers of the West and East-Frankish Kingdoms divided the Middle-Frankish kingdom amongst themselves in thetreaty of Meerssenin 870. Now Western Europe had been divided into two sides: the solidWest Francia(the later France) and the loose confederation of principalities ofEast Francia,that would become theHoly Roman Empire.
In the north these two powers were separated by the Scheldt river, which had previously separated West Francia fromMiddle Francia.This separation remained unchanged until the times ofCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor.
Growth in the 9th to the 11th centuries (864–1071)
edit
Militarily, economically and politically, Europe went through a deep crisis. TheVikingsinvaded from the north, theMagyarfrom the east and theSaracensfrom the south. All left trails of destruction. The central authorities of the two Frankish kingdoms were unable to organise an effective defensive, causing the population to lose faith and trust in their far-removed rulers. In the wake of this power vacuum, local powerful individuals saw their chance. Often these individuals were the descendants of people associated withCharlemagne.
The county of Flanders originated from theGauorPagusFlandrensis(Dutch:Vlaanderengouw), led by the Forestiers dynasty, who had been appointed by Charlemagne, who had made a small contribution by uniting small feudal territories in the higher parts of theFlemish Valley.The Forestiers dynasty also strengthened the hold of the church on the relatively desolate area.
The firstMargrave(Count) of Flanders wasBaldwin I,[5]who became count in 862, and a romantic anecdote is connected to this: Baldwin eloped with the daughter of the Frankish kingCharles the Bald,Judith of West Francia.Judith, who had previously been married to two English kings, refused her father's command to return to him. After mediation by the pope, the Frankish king reconciled with his son-in-law, and gave him the title of margrave, and the corresponding feudal territories as dowry. Margrave was primarily a military appointment and some versions of the story theorize that King Charles made Baldwin Margrave in the hope that he would be killed by the Vikings.
Initially the French kings meant to secure the safety of the northern French border from Viking invasions with this act. The counts, however, made good use of the crisis situation by incorporating the surrounding plundered territories into the county. The counts expanded the influence of the original Flemishpagusover the years over all territories south and west of theScheldt river,including the lordship of the Four Amts,Zeelandic Flanders,theBurgraviate of Aalstto the east and theCounty of Artoisto the southwest, which remained part of Flanders until it became a separate county in 1237. After that date, the county of Artois at various times still came under the dominion of the count of Flanders as a separate title, until it was absorbed by the French crown.
The 11th to 13th centuries (1071–1278)
edit
In 1071,Robert Ibecame count of Flanders after his successful rebellion against his nephewArnulf IIIwho died in thebattle of Cassel.[6]Flemishknightsin the 11th and 12th centuries were some of the most effective and well-respected knights of Europe even before theCrusades.[7]They were known to be chivalrous but lax on enforcing religious norms.[8]Nevertheless,count Robert IIand his wifeClementia of Burgundywere supporters of theCluniac reform movementand on October 1096Robert left with an armyfor theFirst Crusade.[9]Though the majority of Flemish nobles was absent for four years, law and order was kept thanks to the steady leadership of countess Clementia and the advocacy of bishopLambert of Arras.[10]For this, the local clergy promoted thePeace and Truce of Godmovement.[11]
Prosperity in the 12th and 13th centuries
editTheHouse of Flandersremained in power until 1119, whenBaldwin VII of Flandersdied heirless, and the county was inherited byCharles the Good,of theHouse of Denmark.He abandoned the title "Marquis of Flanders", which had been used alongside the comital style since the 10th century. The counts of Flanders were the last French lords using the title marquis, which would not be used again in France until 1504.[12]After a short interlude underWilliam Clitoof Normandy (1127–1128), the county went toThierry of Alsaceof theHouse of Alsace.Under Thierry (1128–1168) and his successorPhilip of Alsace,Flanders' importance and power increased.
In the second half of the 12th century, the county went through a period of great prosperity when Philip of Alsace managed to incorporate theCounty of Vermandoisinto Flanders through the inheritance of his wife. The territories he controlled now came to within 25 kilometers of Paris, and were larger than the territories his feudal lord, the French king, directly controlled.
During the rule of the House of Alsace, cities developed and new institutions were formed. The ports ofGravelines,Nieuwpoort,Damme,Biervliet,Dunkirk,andMardijkwere founded, as well asCalaisby Philip's brotherMatthew of Alsace.Aside from colonisation, the ports also functioned to reduce the silting of the riversAa,YserandZwin,which were endangering the accessibility ofSaint-Omer,YpresandBruges.Biervliet also served as a counter to Hollandic influence.
Trade partners included England, theBaltic countriesand France over sea, and theRhinelandand Italy over land. The wool trade with England was of special importance to the risingcloth industryin Flanders. The wealth of many Flemish cities (as theirBelltowersandcloth hallstestify) came from the drapery industry. Aside from this, thegrain tradewith England and through Holland with Hamburg were also important.Saint-Omerbecame the most important transit-port for French wine in the 12th century. These were the centuries of the breakthrough of the Flemish merchants, with their trade with England, the Baltic area and South-West France, as well as the land routes to theRhinelandand Italy though later only the yearly fairs of Champagne. Flanders's flourishing trading towns made it one of the most urbanised parts of Europe.
In 1194,Baldwin I of Constantinopleof theHouse of Hainaut,succeeded the House of Alsace.
The crisis of the 14th century (1278–1384)
editIn 1278Guy of Dampierre,of theHouse of Dampierre,became count of Flanders. The king of France wanted to definitively conquer Flanders, and started theFranco-Flemish War (1297–1305).Increasingly powerful in the 12th century, the territory's autonomous urban centres were instrumental in defeating the French invasion attempt, defeating the French at theBattle of the Golden Spursin 1302. But finally the French prevailed at thebattle of Mons-en-Pévèleand with the subsequenttreaty of Athis-sur-Orge(1305) Flanders lost Lille, Douai, and Orchies to France and had to pay exorbitant fines but retained their independence as a fief of the French kingdom. During this period, Flanders experienced a period of relative prosperity with its strong cloth industry and diverse artwork. Trade in Flanders was so extensive that statues of the Madonna and Child were made in Flanders with ivory, which was accessible only by the Indian Ocean trade networks.[13]
Flemish prosperity waned in the following century, however, owing to widespread European population decline following theBlack Deathof 1348, the disruption of trade during the Anglo-FrenchHundred Years' War(1338–1453), and increased English cloth production. Flemish weavers had gone over toWorsteadandNorth WalshaminNorfolkin the 12th century and established the wool industry.
The Burgundian 15th century (1384–1506)
edit
Through his marriage withMargaret of Dampierrein 1369,Philip the Bold,duke ofBurgundy,made an end to the independence of Flanders. Flanders became the possession of theHouse of Valois-Burgundy,that ruled over theBurgundian State.In 1449 the city ofGhent revoltedagainst dukePhilip the Good.In 1453 Philip crushed the rebels at thebattle of Gavere,ending the revolt.
The cities of Ghent and Bruges had previously operated virtually as city-states,[15]: 49 and upon the death of dukeCharles the Boldattempted to re-assert this position by means of theGreat Privilegethat they wrested fromMary of Burgundy,Charles' daughter and successor. In 1482 this last Burgundian ruler died, making her young sonPhilip I of Castileof theHouse of Habsburgthe new count, and her husbandMaximilian I of Austriathe regent. The Flemish cities stagedtwo more revolts,but these were ultimately subdued by the armies of theHoly Roman Empire.
The 1493Treaty of Senlisestablished peace between France and the Habsburgs; per the terms of the treaty, Flanders would henceforth be a territory of the Holy Roman Empire.
The seventeen provinces in the 16th century (1506–98)
edit
UnderCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor(born in the Flemish cityGhent), Flanders became a member of theBurgundian Circle.The county was later involved in theGuelders Wars.
Through thePragmatic Sanction of 1549,the County of Flanders was officially detached from France. It became an independent territory of theHoly Roman Empire.This constitutional act made Flanders part of theSeventeen Provinces,that constituted theLow Countriesand from then on would be inherited as a whole.
The Low Countries held an important place in the Empire. For Charles personally, they were the region where he spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the rich cities, they were also important for the treasury. Lordship transferred to the Spanish branch of the House of Habsburg withPhilip II of Spain,and after 1556 belonged to the Kings of Spain.
It was inSteenvoorde(InFrench Flanders) in 1566 that theBeeldenstormbroke loose. The Beeldenstorm spread through all of theLow Countriesand eventually led to the outbreak of theEighty Years' Warand the secession of theRepublic of the Seven United Netherlands.Originally Flanders cooperated with the northern provinces as a member of theUnion of Utrecht,and also signed theAct of Abjurationin 1581, but from 1579 to 1585, in the period known as the "Calvinist Republic of Ghent",it was reconquered by the Spanish army.
The Spanish 17th century (1598–1713)
edit
Flanders stayed under Spanish control. Through the efforts of the French kingLouis XIV,the entire southern part of Flanders was annexed by France, and became known as South-Flanders orFrench Flanders.This situation was formalised in 1678 at theTreaty of Nijmegen.
The Austrian 18th century (1713–89)
edit
After the extinction of the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs became counts of Flanders. UnderMaria Theresa of Austria,theAustrian Netherlandsflourished.
Last years (1789–97)
editIn 1789 a revolution broke out against emperorJoseph II.In 1790 the county of Flanders and a separate province calledWest Flanders,which constituted the territories given back by France to the Emperor, were two of the founding members of theUnited States of Belgium.Just like the other parts of the Austrian Netherlands, the county of Flanders declared its independence. This took place on the Friday-market at Ghent on 4 January 1790. The "Manifest van Vlaenderen" was drawn up byCharles-Joseph de GraeveandJean-Joseph Raepsaet.
The county of Flanders officially ceased to exist in 1795, when it was annexed by France, and divided into twodepartments:Lys(present dayWest Flanders) andEscaut(present dayEast FlandersandZeelandic Flanders). Austria confirmed its loss in the 1797Treaty of Campo Formio.
After theFrench Revolutionthe county was not restored, and instead the two departments continued their existence as the provinces of East and West Flanders in theUnitarianUnited Kingdom of the Netherlandsand later, after theBelgian Revolution,in Belgium.
Count of Flanders title
editFrom 1840 onwards, the title "Count of Flanders" has been appropriated by the monarchy of Belgium. As a rule it was given to the second in line of succession to the Belgian throne. The title of count of Flanders was abolished by royal decision on 16 October 2001.
Important treaties and battles which involved the County of Flanders
edit- Battle of Cassel(1071)
- Battle of Axpoelein 1128
- Peace of Peronnein 1199
- Battle of Bouvinesin 1214
- Peace of Melunin 1226
- Battle of West-Kapellein 1253
- Battle of the Golden Spursin 1302
- Battle of Arkein 1303
- Battle of Zierikzeein 1304
- Battle of Mons-en-Pevelein 1304
- Treaty of Athis-sur-Orgein 1305
- Battle of Cassel(1328)
- Battle of Westrozebekein 1382
- Eighty Years' Warfrom 1568 to 1648
- Pacification of Ghentin 1576
- Union of Utrechtin 1579
- Act of Abjurationin 1581
See also
editReferences
edit- ^"Medieval Flanders was a cultural crossroads full of multilingualism - News - Utrecht University".18 November 2022.
- ^Dhondt; Gysseling (1948), "Vlaanderen, oorspronkelijke ligging en etymologie", in De Smaele (ed.),Album Prof. Dr. Frank Baur. Den jubilaris bij zijn zestigsten verjaardag als huldeblijk aangeboden door collega's vakgenoten en oud-leerlingen,vol. I, pp. 192–220.Cited by Toorians 2021.
- ^Verdeyen, René (1943),"Vlaanderen en Vlaming",Verslagen en Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Taal- en Letterkunde:407–479
- ^Toorians, Lauran (2021), "Een etymologie voor Vlaanderen, waar de wol vandaan komt",Bulletin d'Information de la Société Belge d'Études Celtiques / Nieuwsbericht van het Belgisch Genootschap voor Keltische Studies,35:65–72
- ^Gilliat-Smith, Ernest(2009).The Story of Bruges.Stoddard Press. p. 5.ISBN978-1-4446-6629-8.
- ^Vanderputten 2013,pp. 23–24, 36.
- ^Harl, Kenneth W.(2023).Empires of the Steppes: A History of the Nomadic Tribes Who Shaped Civilization.United States:Hanover Square Press.pp. 263, 516.ISBN978-1-335-42927-8.
- ^McLynn, Frank(2007).Richard and John: Kings at War(1st Da Capo Press ed.). Cambridge:Da Capo Press.pp. 64–65.ISBN9780306815799.
- ^Vanderputten 2013,pp. 42, 73.
- ^Ott 2015,p. 111.
- ^Ott 2015,pp. 111, 247–248.
- ^D'Arcy Jonathan D. Boulton, "Marquis/Marquisate",Medieval France: An Encyclopedia(Taylor & Francis, 1995), 1120.
- ^"The Indian Ocean Trade: A Classroom Simulation » African Studies Center – Boston University".
- ^"Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois[manuscript]".lib.ugent.be.Retrieved2020-08-25.
- ^Koenigsberger, H. G. (2001).Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments: The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521803304.
Notes
edit- ^The earlier rulers were styled as margrave.
- ^Dutch:Graafschap Vlaanderen;West Flemish:Groafschap Vloandern;French:Comté de Flandre
Bibliography
edit- Gysseling, M.en Dhondt, J.(1948): "Vlaanderen, oorspronkelijke ligging en etymologie", inAlbum Prof. Dr. Frank Baurp. 192–220, Leuven.
- Gysseling, M.(1960):Toponymisch woordenboek van België, Nederland, Luxemburg, Noord-Frankrijk en West-Duitsland (voor 1226),Tongeren.
- Blok, D.P.(red)et al(1977–1983):Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden,Fibula-Van Dishoeck, Haarlem,ISBN90-228-3800-5
- Blom, J.C.H., Lamberts, E., redactie(2006):Geschiedenis van de Nederlanden,HBuitgevers, Baarn,ISBN90-5574-474-3
- Dhondt, J.(1943):Korte geschiedenis van het ontstaan van het graafschap Vlaanderen van Boudewijn de IJzeren tot Robrecht den Fries,Brussels – The Hague.
- Dhondt, J.(1941–1942): "Het ontstaan van het vorstendom Vlaanderen",Belgisch tijdschrift voor filologie en geschiedenis,XX, 553–572 en XXI, 53–93.
- Ganshof, F.-L.(1944):Vlaanderen onder de eerste graven,Antwerp.
- Nicolas, D.(1992):Medieval Flanders,London,ISBN0-582-01679-7
- Niermeyer, J.F., Presser, J., Van Houtte, J.A.(1949–1958):Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden,Haarlem – Antwerp.
- Ott, John S. (1 December 2015).Bishops, Authority and Community in Northwestern Europe, c.1050–1150.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-316-36824-4.Retrieved22 May2024.
- Vanderputten, Steven (2013).Reform, Conflict, and the Shaping of Corporate Identities: Collected Studies on Benedictine Monasticism, 1050 - 1150.LIT Verlag Münster.ISBN978-3-643-90429-4.Retrieved22 May2024.
- Voet, L.(1942): "De graven van Vlaanderen en hun domein, 864–1191",Wetenschappelijke Tijdingen,VII, 25–32.
External links
edit