Forest of Dean

This article is about the historic Forest. For the local authority, which covers a wider area, seeForest of Dean District.For the constituency, seeForest of Dean (UK Parliament constituency).

TheForest of Deanis a geographical, historical andcultural regionin the western part of thecountyofGloucestershire,England. It forms a roughlytriangularplateaubounded by theRiver Wyeto the west and northwest,Herefordshireto the north, theRiver Severnto the south, and theCity of Gloucesterto the east.

The view north towardsRoss-on-WyefromSymonds Yat Rock,a popular tourist destination near the Forest

The area is characterised by more than 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi) of mixed woodland, one of the survivingancient woodlandsin England. A large area was reserved for royal hunting before 1066, and remained as the second largestcrown forestin England, after theNew Forest.Although the name is used loosely to refer to the part of Gloucestershire between the Severn and Wye, the Forest of Dean proper has covered a much smaller area since theMiddle Ages.In 1327, it was defined to cover only the royaldemesneand parts of parishes within thehundred of St Briavels,and after 1668 comprised the royal demesne only. The Forest proper is within the civil parishes ofWest Dean,Lydbrook,Cinderford,Ruspidge,andDrybrook,together with a strip of land in the parish ofEnglish Bicknor.

Traditionally the main sources of work have beenforestry– includingcharcoalproduction –ironworking andcoal mining.Archaeological studies have dated the earliest use of coal toRomantimes for domestic heating and industrial processes such as the preparation of iron ore.

The area gives its name to thelocal government district,Forest of Dean,and aparliamentary constituency,both of which cover wider areas than the historic Forest. The administrative centre of the local authority isColeford,one of the main towns in the historic Forest area, together with Cinderford andLydney.

Toponym

The origin of the name is unknown. The prevalence ofWelshplace names in the area suggests a possible corruption ofdin(meaning "hillfort" ). However, similar or identical elements fromOld Englishexist throughout England.In Welsh, Forest of Dean isFforest y Ddena.

Gerald of Wales,writing in the 12th century, refers to the area asDanubiawhich may translate as "land of Danes" following the Viking settlements in that era. It is possible that an original nameDenedeveloped from this.

History

Prehistory

The area was inhabited inMesolithictimes,and there are also remains of latermegalithicmonuments, including the LongstonenearStauntonand the Broadstoneat Wibdon,Stroat.Barrowshave been identified atTidenhamandBlakeney.Bronze Agefield systemshave been identified at Welshbury Hill nearLittledean,and there areIron Agehill fortsatSymonds Yatand Welshbury. There is archaeological evidence of early trading by sea, probably throughLydney.BeforeRomantimes, the area may have been occupied by theBritishDobunnitribe, although few of their coins have been found in the area and control may have been contested with the neighbouringSilures.

Roman Britain

The area was occupied by the Romans in around AD 50. They were attracted by its natural resources which includediron ore,ochreandcharcoal.Thecoal miningindustry was probably established on a small scale in Roman times.The area was governed from the Roman town ofAriconiumatWeston under PenyardnearRoss-on-Wye,and a road was built from there to a river crossing atNewnham on Severnand port at Lydney. The "Dean Road", still visible atSoudley,is believed to be a medieval rebuilding of theRoman road,and would have been an important route to transportiron oreand finished metal products. During Roman times there wereRoman villasat Blakeney,Woolastonand elsewhere, and towards the end of the Roman period, around AD 370, a majorRoman templecomplex dedicated to the godNodenswas completed at Lydney. The central parts of the woodlands in the forest are believed to have been protected for hunting since Roman times.

Medieval

See also:Cantref Coch

St Briavels Castle

The area formed part of theCantref Cochand was traditionally considered part of theBrythonickingdom ofErgyng,centered in modern Herefordshire. Even when the area came under Anglo-Saxon control, the Forest of Dean remained under the auspices of thedioceseofHereford,rather than Gloucester. TheBeachleyandLancautpeninsulas east of the Lower Wye remained in Welsh control at least until the 8th century.

Around 790 theSaxonKingOffa of Merciabuilt hisdykehigh above the Wye, but the area was still claimed by theKingdom of GwentandMorgannwgbefore it was annexed into thekingdom of EnglandbyÆthelstanin 926.

Throughout the next few centuriesVikingsconducted raids up the Severn, but by the 11th century, the kingdom ofWessexhad established civil government.The core of the forest was used by the late Anglo-Saxon kings, and after 1066 theNormans,as their personal hunting ground. The area was kept stocked withdeerandwild boarand became important fortimber,charcoal,iron oreandlimestone.

Norman era

TheHundred of St Briavelswas established in the 12th century, at the same time as many Norman laws concerning the Forest of Dean were put in place.St Briavels Castlebecame the Forest's administrative and judicial centre.Verdererswere appointed to act for the king and protect his royal rights, and local people were given somecommon rights.Flaxley Abbeywas built and given rights and privileges. In 1296, miners from the Hundred of St Briavels supported KingEdward Iat thesiegeofBerwick-on-Tweedin theScottish Wars of Independenceby undermining the then Scottish town's defences in the first step of his campaign to seize Scotland fromJohn Balliol.As a result, the king granted free mining rights within the forest to the miners and their descendants; the rights continue to the present day. Miners at that time were mainly involved in iron ore mining – although the presence of coal was well known, and limited amounts had been recovered in Roman times. Coal was not used forironmakingwith the methods ofsmeltingthen in use. Later thefreeminerrights were used mainly for coal mining.The activities of the miners were regulated by the Court of Mine Law.This, and other forms of self-governance, coupled with the Forest's geographic isolation between the rivers Severn and Wye, has given rise to a strong sense of cultural identity in those from the area, who are collectively known as "Foresters".The ancient rights were put on the statute books in theDean Forest (Mines) Act 1838,the only public act to affect private individuals.Residents of the hundred over 18 can graze sheep in the Forest in accordance with an agreement between Forestry England and the Commoners Association.

In October 2010 a woman won the right to be classified as a Freeminer. Elaine Morman, an employee atClearwell Cavesin the Forest, who had worked as a miner ofochrefor a number of years, raised a claim ofsexual discriminationagainst theForestry Commission.AfterMark HarperMP raised the matter in theHouse of Commons,theForestry Commissionreversed its position and agreed to register her.

Early modern period

Speech House

The forest was used exclusively as aroyal hunting groundfor theTudors,and subsequently a source of food for the royal court. Its rich deposits of iron ore led to its becoming a major source of iron. The forest's timber was particularly fine, and was regarded as the best material for building ships.

In the 17th century, as a result of KingCharles I's decision torule without Parliament,he sought to raise finances through grants of royal forest lands. 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) of the Forest of Dean was disafforested in the 1620s, causing aseries of riotsin 1631–32; this was part of enclosure riots across the South West commonly known as the Western Rising. In 1639 22,000 acres (8,900 ha) were disafforested, with 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) going to manorial lords and freeholders in compensation. 18,000 acres (7,300 ha) were to go to the Crown, and be sold on to SirJohn Winter.Riots ensued in 1641.Winter's claim to the lands was voided by Parliament in March 1642, in part because he had failed to pay. His assets were sequestrated for supporting the Crown during theCivil War.TheProtectoratetried to enclose a third of the forest in 1657, leaving two thirds to the Commoners. Although a relatively generous settlement, it caused resistance in April and May 1659, when fences of new enclosures were broken and cattle brought in to graze. Royalists includingEdward Masseyattempted to bring the discontented to the side ofCharles II.

After the restoration Sir John Winter successfully reasserted his right to the Forest of Dean. However forest law was reestablished by Act of Parliament in 1668. In 1672 the King's ironworks were closed to reduce pressure on the forest from mining.TheSpeech House,betweenColefordandCinderford,was built in 1682 to host the Court of Mine Law and "Court of the Speech", a sort of parliament for theVerderersandFree Minersmanaging the forest, game, and mineral resources.The Gaveller and his deputy were responsible for leasing gales – areas allocated for mining – on behalf of the Crown.The Speech House has been used as an inn and hotel since the 19th century.

Georgian era

The Forest of Dean, with its huge iron ore reserves and ready supply of timber, had been of national importance in the production of iron, using charcoal, for hundreds of years.Despite the abundance of coal, it was not until the last decade of the 18th century that localironmasterswere prepared to invest in the technology needed to produce iron fromcoke,when coke-fired furnaces atCinderford,WhitecliffandParkendwere built almost simultaneously.

During the 18th century, squatters established roughly-built hamlets around the fringes of the Crown forest demesne. By about 1800, these settlements were well established atBerry HillandParkend.

In 1808Parliamentpassed theDean and New Forests Act 1808,which included the provision to enclose 11,000 acres (4,500 ha) of woodland. This enclosure was carried out between 1814 and 1816.

There were bread riots in 1795 and in 1801. Ordinary Foresters were already poverty-stricken, and their plight had grown worse. They were denied access to the enclosed areas and unable to hunt or remove timber. In particular, they lost their ancient grazing and mining rights.

As unrest grew, a populist leader namedWarren Jamesemerged in the riots against the enclosures. Attempts to peaceably resolve the matter failed, and on 8 June 1831, James, leading more than 100 Foresters, demolished the enclosure at Park Hill, between Parkend andBream.Around 50 unarmed Crown Officers were powerless to intervene. On the Friday, a party of 50 soldiers arrived fromMonmouth,but by now the number of Foresters had grown to around 2,000 and the soldiers returned to barracks.Over the next few days more troops arrived from around the country.The Foresters' resistance crumbled and most of those arrested elected to rebuild the enclosures, rather than be charged with rioting. James was sentenced to death but his sentence was later commuted to transportation. He was sent toVan Diemen's Land(Tasmania) in October 1831, only to be pardoned five years later, although he never returned home.

Conservatives were disliked in the Forest of Dean; on polling day in 1874, there was a riot in the market town of Cinderford in which the Conservative party headquarters and nearby houses were ransacked and damaged.

"Who killed the bears?"

On 26 April 1889, four Frenchmen and their twobearswere making their way toRuardean,having performed in Cinderford. They were attacked by an angry mob, enraged by claims that the bears had killed a child and injured a woman. The bears were killed and the Frenchmen badly beaten.

It soon became clear that the bears had not attacked anyone. Police proceedings followed and a week later 13 colliers and labourers appeared before magistrates at Littledean, charged with ill-treating and killing the bears and assaulting the Frenchmen. All but two were found guilty on one or more charges, with another convicted a week later. A total of £85 (equivalent to £11,900 in 2023) was paid in fines. Asubscriptionwas also launched which generously compensated the Frenchmen.

The term "Who killed the bears?" existed for many years as an insult, directed particularly towards the people of Ruardean – despite the fact that all those convicted were from Cinderford.

A fictional version of the incident was used byDennis Potterfor his TV playA Beast With Two Backs.

Rise and fall of industrialisation

Robert Forester Mushet(1811–1891), steel industry pioneer

Exploitation of theForest of Dean Coalfielddeveloped rapidly in the early 19th century with increased demand from local ironworks, and when some of the earliesttramroadsin the UK were built here to transport coal to local ports the area was transformed by the growth ofminingand the production of iron and steel.

In 1818–19David MushetbuiltDarkhill Ironworks,where he experimented with iron and steel making. In 1845, his youngest son,Robert Forester Mushet,took over its management. He perfected theBessemer Processby solving the quality problems which beset the process.In a second key advance in metallurgy he inventedMushet steel(R.M.S.) in 1868.It was the first truetool steeland the firstair-hardening steel.It revolutionised the design of machine tools and the progress of industrial metalworking, and was the forerunner ofHigh speed steel.The remains of Darkhill are preserved as an Industrial Archaeological Site of International Importance and are open to the public.

The Park Gutter pit was renamed Princess Royal afterPrincess Victoriain 1842. The Princess Royal Colliery Company was founded in 1891 to work Park Gutter and Flour Mill Pits. It reached peak production in the 1930s, employing 1300 men. The pits closed in 1962.

Cinderford was laid out as a planned town in the mid-19th century, but the characteristic form of settlement remained the sprawling hamlets of haphazardly placed cottages. Characteristics shared with other British coalfields, such as a devotion to sport, the central role of miners' clubs, and the formation ofbrass bands,created a distinct community identity.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Forest was a complex industrial region with deep coal mines, iron mines, iron andtinplateworks, foundries, quarries and stone-dressing works, wood distillation works producing chemicals, a network of railways, and numerous tramroads. The tradition of independence in the area resulted in a great number of smaller and not necessarily economically successful mines. In 1904 the Gaveller oversaw a period of amalgamation of collieries which allowed deeper mines to be sunk. During the early 20th century, annual output from the coalfield rarely fell below 1 million tons.

Part of the pithead structure atHopewell Colliery museum

In 1945 half of the male working population worked in the coal industry but after the Second World War increased pumping costs and other factors made the coalfield less economic. The last commercial iron mine closed in 1946 followed in 1965 by the closure of the last large colliery, Northern United.There are still small private mines in operation, worked byfreeminersandHopewell Collieryis open to the public.

With the decline of the mines, the area has undergone a period of significant change, ameliorated to some extent by a shift tohigh technology,with companies establishing themselves in the area, attracted bygrantsand a willing workforce.

Visitor destination

Many mines have now been reclaimed by the forest and the area is characterised by picturesque scenery punctuated by remnants of the industrial age and small towns. There remains a number of industrial areas but the focus has been to capitalise on the scenery and to create jobs from tourist attractions and the leisure sector. Significant numbers of residents work outside the area,commutingtoGloucester,Cheltenham,Bristol,NewportandCardiff.

Natural history

Geology

See also:Geology of the Forest of DeanandForest of Dean Coalfield

The Forest of Dean is formed of a raised basin ofpalaeozoicrocks folded in theVariscan Orogeny,similar to theSouth Wales coalfieldto the west. Underlain by great thicknesses of theOld Red Sandstone,the basin is filled withCarboniferouslimestones,sandstonesandcoal measures,all of which have contributed to the industrial history of the region. Its highest point isRuardean Hill(290 m, 950 ft).

Ecology

Lake atMallards Pike,frozen during winter

The forest is composed ofdeciduousandevergreentrees. Predominant isoak,bothpedunculateandsessile.Beechis common andsweet chestnuthas grown here for many centuries. The forest is home tofoxglovesand other wild flowers. Conifers include someWeymouth pinefrom 1781,Norway spruce,Douglas firandlarch.The deer are predominantlyfallow deerand have been present since the second world war (there were no deer from about 1855 when they were removed in accordance with an Act of Parliament). A number of fallow deer in the central area aremelanistic.Small numbers ofroe deerandmuntjac deerhave spread in from the east.

The Forest is also home towild boar.A population in the Ross-on-Wye area on the northern edge of the forest escaped from a wild boar farm around 1999 and are believed to be of pure Eastern European origin; in a second introduction, a domestic herd was dumped nearStauntonin 2004, but are not pure bred wild boar. Attempts to locate the source of the illegal dumps were unsuccessful and boar can now be found in many parts of the Forest.

Locally there are mixed feelings about the presence of boar.Problems have included ploughing up gardens and picnic areas, attacking dogs and panicking horses, road traffic accidents, and ripping open rubbish bags. The local authority undertook a public consultation and have recommended to the Verderers that control is necessary. Under its international obligations the UK government is obliged to consider the reintroduction of species made extinct through the activities of man, the wild boar included.

The Forest of Dean is known for its woodland birds;pied flycatchers,redstarts,wood warblers,lesser spotted woodpecker,nightjarsandhawfinchescan be seen atRSPB Nagsheadand other parts of the forest. The mixed forest supports one of Britain's highest concentrations ofgoshawksand a viewing site at New Fancy is manned during February and March. However, goshawks are still illegally killed in the area, with a bird found dead with a shotgun wound in June 2022.Peregrine falconscan be seen from the viewpoint atSymonds Yatrock.Mandarin ducks,which nest in the trees, andreed warblerscan be seen atCannop Pondsand Cannop Brook, running from the ponds through Parkend, is famed for itsdippers.

Butterflies of note are thesmall pearl-bordered fritillary,wood whiteandwhite admiral.Gorsty Knollis famed for itsglowwormsand Woorgreens Lake for itsdragonflies.

The Forest of Dean is also a stronghold for Britain's only venomous snake, theEuropean adder,although its population is now believed to be in dramatic decline.

Geography

The lists below include towns, villages and places of interest which are within the historic Forest; they do not include places which are located outside that area, but which are within the largerDistrict Councilarea.

Towns and villages

• Alvington
• Aylburton
• Awre
• Berry Hill
• Blaize Bailey
• Blakeney
• Bream
• Brierley
• Broadwell
• Cinderford
• Clearwell
• Coleford
• Coalway
• Drybrook
• Dymock
• Edge End
• Ellwood
• English Bicknor
• Gorsty Knoll
• Harrow Hill
• Hewelsfield
• Hartpury
• Huntley
• Joys Green
• Littledean
• Little London
• Longhope
• Lydbrook
• Milkwall
• Mitcheldean
• Newland
• Newnham
• Parkend
• Pillowell
• Ruardean
• Ruardean Hill
• Ruardean Woodside
• Ruspidge
• Soudley
• Sling
• St Briavels
• Staunton
• Steam Mills
• The Pludds
• Westbury
• Whitecroft
• Woolaston
• Yorkley

Places of interest

• Beechenhurst
• Bixslade
• Blaize Bailey View Point
• Cannop Ponds
• Clearwell Caves
• Cyril Hart Arboretum
• Darkhill Ironworks
• Dean Forest Railway
• Dean Heritage Centre
• Forest of Dean Cycle Centre
• Great Western Railway Museum
• Laymoor Quag
• Littledean Jail
• Lydney Canal
• Mallards Pike Lake
• New Fancy
• Parkend Ironworks
• Parkend railway station
• Perrygrove Railway
• Puzzlewood
• RSPB Nagshead
• Sculpture Trail
• Soudley Ponds
• Speech House
• Symond's Yat
• Whitecliff Ironworks
• Woorgreens Lake and Marsh

Transport

Roads

TheA40runs along the northern and northeastern edges of the Forest of Dean. The road provides the Forest with a direct connection toRoss-on-Wyeand theM50inHerefordshire.Westbound, the road runs towardsMonmouthandSouth Wales.To the East, the road links the Forest directly toGloucester,theM5,CheltenhamandOxford.North of the Forest, the road is managed byNational Highways.

To the southeast of the Forest, theA48links the region toChepstow,theM4andNewport,orGloucester.This route passes around theLydneyarea and follows the course of theRiver Severn.

Other key routes include:

• theA4136–Huntleyto Monmouth, viaMitcheldeanandColeford
• theA4151–Westbury-on-Severnto Mitcheldean viaCinderford

Nitrogen Dioxide(NO₂) levels, measured using roadsidediffusion tubes,are generally well below the UK national target for clean air, set at 40 μg/m³(microgramspercubic metre). In 2017, no roadside monitoring site in theForest of Dean Districtfailed to meet the UK objective. The most polluted site measured was on Lydney High Street, with a 2017 average NO₂concentration of 36.9 μg/m³.

Railways

The Forest of Dean once boasted a developed railway network, much of which evolved fromplatewaysbuilt in the early 19th century to facilitate freight traffic to and from mineral workings in the Forest. Many of these lines were part of theSevern & Wye Railway,which ran from theRiver Severnat Lydney to Cinderford, with branch lines to Lydbrook, where it connected with theRoss & Monmouth Railway,and Coleford, where it linked to theWye Valley Railwayvia a line known as theColeford Railway.TheForest of Dean Railwayalso ran towards Cinderford and its nearby collieries, branching from theSouth Wales RailwayatBullo Pill.The less successfulForest of Dean Central Railwayattempted to compete with the other lines for coal traffic but was rendered obsolete by the opening of the Mineral Loop, a new line opened by the Severn & Wye to connect a number of pitheads. Most of these railways now cease to exist, with most of the railways in the Forest abandoned by 1968.A section of theDean Forest RailwaybetweenLydney JunctionandNorchardis now aheritage railway.

TheGloucester-Newport linecontinues to carry passengers.Lydney railway stationserves the Forest of Dean, with 0.196 million passenger entries and exits in 2017–18. The station is served by trains operated byTransport for Wales,linking the Forest directly toCheltenhamandGloucesterto the north, andChepstow,Newport,Cardiffand onward destinations inSouth Wales.CrossCountryruns limited services to the station, linking the Forest toBirmingham New Streetand onward destinations in theMidlands.

Dean Forest RailwaynearParkend

Notable people

• SirArthur Hulin GoslingFRSE(1901–1982) Director General of theForestry Commissionborn and raised in Forest of Dean.

In popular culture

In 1967,John Berger's sociological workA Fortunate Manwas set in the Forest of Dean. A film of the same name was filmed in the Forest of Dean in 1972.

Heavy metalbandBlack SabbathrentedClearwell Castlein 1973 to write and record their fifth album,Sabbath Bloody Sabbath.The band rehearsed in the castle dungeon for inspiration.In 1978, the members ofLed Zeppelinreconvened at the castle after a period apart, and began writing and rehearsing what became theirIn Through the Out Dooralbum.

J. K. Rowling,author of theHarry Potterseries, sets several crucial chapters of her final Harry Potter book in this forest.

In July 2014, scenes fromStar Wars: The Force Awakenswere filmed inPuzzlewood.

The 2023Channel FourseriesThe Changewas set in the forest.

See also

• Beast of Dean
• Blue Remembered Hills
• Forest Styre,old English variety of cider apple which was local to the Forest
• Hands off our Forest(HOOF)

References

Bibliography

• Foot, Sarah (2011).Æthelstan: The First King of England.New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-12535-1.
• Sharp, Buchanan (1980),In contempt of all authority,Berkeley, CA: University of California Press,ISBN0-520-03681-6,OL4742314M,0520036816
• Stenton, Frank(1971).Anglo-Saxon England(3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-280139-5.

External links

• Forest of Dean District Council website
• Official Forest of Dean visitor information website
• The Forester local newspaper
• Royal Forest of Dean College website(archived 13 September 2008)