Wikipedia

Geats

This article is about the North Germanic tribe. For the Thracian tribe, seeGetae.

TheGeats(/ɡiːts,ˈɡeɪəts,jæts/GHEETS,GAY-əts,YATS;[1][2]Old English:gēatas[ˈjæɑtɑs];Old Norse:gautar[ˈɡɑu̯tɑr];Swedish:götar[ˈjø̂ːtar]), sometimes calledGoths,[3]were a largeNorth Germanictribe who inhabitedGötaland( "land of the Geats" ) in modern southern Sweden from antiquity until theLate Middle Ages.They are one of theprogenitorgroups of modernSwedes,along with the tribes ofSwedesandGutes.The name of the Geats also lives on in theSwedish provincesofVästergötlandandÖstergötland,the western and eastern lands of the Geats, and in many othertoponyms.

Geatish settlements during the 6th century, within the red lines. The green areas show the main areas of North Germanic settlement inScandinavia.

The Swedish dialects spoken in the areas that used to be inhabited by Geats form a distinct group,Götamål.

Etymology

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Further information:GautandName of the Goths

The etymology of the nameGeat(Old EnglishGeatas,from aProto-Germanic*Gautaz,plural *Gautōz) is similar[4]to that ofGothsandGutes(*Gutô,plural *Gutaniz). The names derive fromablautgrades of the Proto-Germanic word *geutaną,meaning "to pour".[5]They have the literal meaning "they who pour their seed".[6](For more information seeGoths § Etymology.) The names could also allude to watercourses in the land where they were living,[7]but this is not generally accepted to be the case, partly because that would mean that the names' similarity would be coincidental.[4]

A more specific theory about the wordGautigothsis that it means the Goths who live near the riverGaut,[5]today'sGöta älv(Old Norse:Gautelfr).[8]It might also have been a conflation of the wordGautiwith aglossofGoths.[9]In the 17th century the nameGöta älv,'River of the Geats', replaced the earlier namesGötälvenandGautelfr.[5]The etymology of the wordGaut(as mentioned above) derives from the Proto-Germanic word *geutan,and the extended meaning of "to pour" is "flow, stream, waterfall", which could refer toTrollhättan Fallsor to the river itself.[5]

The short form ofGautigothswas the Old NorseGautar,which originally referred to just the inhabitants ofVästergötland,or the western parts of today'sGötaland,a meaning which is retained in some Icelandic sagas.[5]

History

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Mentions of Geats, Sea-Geats and Wederas in the manuscript ofBeowulf.

Early history

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The earliest known surviving mention of the Geats appears inPtolemy(2nd century AD), who refers to them asGoutai.In the 6th century,Jordaneswrites of theGautigothsandOstrogoths(the Ostrogoths ofScandza); andProcopiusrefers toGautoi.The NorseSagasknow them asGautar;BeowulfandWidsithasGēatas.[10]Beowulfand theNorse sagasname severalGeatish kings,but onlyHygelacfinds confirmation inLiber Monstrorumwhere he is referred to as "Rex Getarum" and in a copy ofHistoriae Francorumwhere he is called "Rege Gotorum". These sources concern a raid intoFrisia,ca 516, which is also described inBeowulf.C. 551, some decades after Hygelac's raid, Jordanes described the Geats as a nation which was "bold, and quick to engage in war".[11]

TheAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britainincluded many North Germanic people who were losers in the brutal tribal warfare of Scandinavia. The place-name-gatemarks the site of Geatish settlement, often alongside strategically importantRoman roadsand nearbyVisigothicand/orJutishsettlements.[12]Defeated Jutes like Hengest and his brother Horsa fled to Kent, while Geats defeated by encroachingSwedesmoved toYorkshirewhere they foundedGillingshireby theTees,originally the settlement of theGeatlings.[13]It has also been suggested that East Anglia was settled by Geats at this time,[14]or byWulfingswho also came from Götaland, bringing the traditions ofBeowulfwith them.[15]

Any peace that eventually settled in southern Scandinavia was most likely due to exhaustion, and a Danish archaeologist has summarized that in the mid-6th century, and after, Scandinavia "went down to hell".[13]Scandinavian wares appear to have stopped arriving in England, c. 550, suggesting that contact was broken.[14]

Political centralization in Scandinavia

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According to Procopius there were 13 "very numerous nations" on the Scandinavian peninsula in the 6th century, which is supported by recent archaeological analyses. Several scholars consider this to be a reasonable number of independent kingdoms at the time, with each consisting of one or more tribes, as reported by Jordanes.[16]However, by 1350, these 13 kingdoms had been reduced in number to only two, Norway and Sweden.[17]The Geats were one of the largest tribes.[18]

Procopius and Jordanes both mention the Geats, but after them, foreign sources about Scandinavia are scarce until the 9th century, when Anglo-Saxon and Frankish sources do shed some light on the area. In these, the Geats are absent, which has led some scholars to conclude that they were no longer an independent nation and had been subsumed by the Swedes.[19]Norwegian and Icelandic scaldic sources from the 10th century however indicate that they were still politically independent, sometimes opposing Norwegian kings. It has been suggested that their absence from older sources is instead due to their being an inland people.[20]

The nature and the processes ofhow Geats and Swedes came to form one kingdomhave been much debated among Swedish scholars. The scarcity and sometimes debated veracity of sources has left much room open for interpretation. The oldest medieval Swedish sources present the Swedish kingdom as retaining differences between provinces, in laws as well as in weights and measures.[19]Some scholars have argued that the Geats were subjugated by the Swedes, and have suggested various dates for such an event, from the 6th to the 9th centuries.[19]Others have wanted to see a more gradual merging, and that the Geats were slowly subsumed into the more powerful kingdom of Sweden, and in many respects they maintained their own cultural identity during the Middle Ages.[21]Still others have put emphasis on how it was individual rulers, not ethnic groups, who were driving the process towards a unified kingdom, and that the process was very complicated.[22]

Papal letters from the 1080s style the recipients as "king of the Swedes" or "king of the West Geats". In another papal letter from the 1160s, the titlerex Sweorum et Gothorumis first attested.[23]The Swedish kings began the custom of styling themselves as also the kings of the Geats in the 1270s.[24][25][26]

Dynastic struggles

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In the 11th century, the SwedishHouse of Munsöbecame extinct with the death ofEmund the Old.Stenkil,a Geat, was elected king of the Swedes, and the Geats would be influential in the shaping of Sweden as a Christian kingdom. However, this election also ushered in a long period of civil unrest between Christians and pagans and between Geats and Swedes. The Geats tended to be more Christian, and the Swedes more pagan, which was why the Christian Swedish kingInge the Elderfled to Västergötland when deposed in favour ofBlot-Sweyn,a king more favourable towardsNorse paganism,in the 1080s. Inge would retake the throne and rule until his death c. 1100.

Sveær egho konong at taka ok sva vrækæand the following sentences in theWestrogothic law

In hisGesta Danorum(book 13), the Danish 12th-century chroniclerSaxo Grammaticusnoted that the Geats had no say in the election of the king, only the Swedes. When the West Geatish law orWestrogothic lawwas put to paper, it reminded the Geats that they had to accept the election of the Swedes:Sveær egho konong at taka ok sva vrækæmeaning"It is the Swedes who have the right of choosing [" taking "] and also deposing the king"and then he rodeEriksgatan"mæþ gislum ofvan"–"with hostages from above [the realm]"throughSödermanland,the Geatish provinces and then throughNärkeandVästmanlandto be judged to be the lawful king by thelawspeakersof their respectivethings.One of these Swedish kings wasRagnvald Knaphövde,who in 1125 was riding with his retinue in order to be accepted as king by the different provinces. According to material appended to the oldest manuscript of theWestrogothic law,he decided not to demand hostages as he despised the Geats, and was slain nearFalköping.

In anew general lawof Sweden that was issued byMagnus Erikssonin the 1350s, it was stated that twelve men from each province, chosen by their things, should be present at theStone of Morawhen a new king was elected.

The distinction between Swedes and Geats lasted during the Middle Ages, but the Geats became increasingly important for Swedish national claims of greatness due to the Geats' old connection with the Goths. They argued that since the Goths and the Geats were the same nation, and the Geats were part of the kingdom of Sweden, this meant that the Swedes had defeated the Roman empire. The earliest attestation of this claim comes from theCouncil of Basel,1434, during which the Swedish delegation argued with the Spanish about who among them were the true Goths. The Spaniards argued that it was better to be descended from the heroic Visigoths than from stay-at-homers. This cultural movement, which was not restricted to Sweden went by the nameGothicismusor in SwedishGöticism,i.e.Geaticism.

After the 15th century and theKalmar Union,the Swedes and the Geats appear to have begun to perceive themselves as one nation, which is reflected in the evolution ofsvenskinto a common ethnonym.[27][28]It was originally an adjective referring to those belonging to the Swedish tribe, who are calledsvearin Swedish. As early as the 9th century,svearhad been vague, both referring to the Swedish tribe and being a collective term including the Geats,[27]and this is the case inAdam of Bremen's work where the Geats (Goths) appear both as a proper nation and as part of theSueones.[27]The merging/assimilation of the two nations took a long time, however. In the early-20th century,Nordisk familjeboknoted thatsvenskhad almost replacedsvearas a name for the Swedish people.[29]

At the same time, the Swedish ancestors were often referred to as Geats, especially when their heroism or connection to the Goths was to be stressed. This practice disappeared during the 19th century, when thevikingsgradually took over the role as the heroic ancestors.

Society

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The Geats were traditionally divided into severalpetty kingdoms,or districts, which had their own things (popular assemblies) and laws. The largest one of these districts was Västergötland (West Geatland), and it was in Västergötland that theThing of all Geatswas held every year, in the vicinity ofSkara.Despite the name, the thing was only for the inhabitants of Västergötland andDalsland.The equivalent inÖstergötlandwasLionga thing.

Unlike the Swedes, who used the divisionhundare,the Geats usedhærrad(modern Swedishhärad), like the Norwegians and the Danes. Surprisingly, it would be the Geatish name that became the common term in the Swedish kingdom. This is possibly related to the fact that several of the medieval Swedish kings were of Geatish extraction and often resided primarily in Götaland. In Västergötland and Dalsland, there were also a higher-level division where one or more hærrad made up abolinked to akongsgård.

Modern legacy

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Today, the merger of the two nations is complete, as there is no longer any tangible identification in Götaland with a Geatish identity, apart from the common tendency of residents of theprovincesof Västergötland andÖstergötlandto refer to themselves asvästgötar(West Geats) andöstgötar(East Geats), similarly to how residents of other provinces refer to themselves. The dialects spoken in those provinces and some surrounding areas are also collectively calledgötamål.Although the cityGöteborg(Gothenburg) has formerly been considered to have been named after the riverGöta älv,it may instead have been named after the Geats ('fortress of the Geats') when it was founded in 1621.[30]

Until 1973 the official title of theSwedish kingwas "King of Sweden" (earlier: of the Swedes), the Geats/Goths and theWends(with the formulaSveriges, Götes och Vendes konung,in LatinN.N. Dei Gratia, Suecorum, Gothorum et Vandalorum Rex). The title "King of the Wends" was copied from the Danish title, while the Danish kings called themselves "Kings of the Gotlanders" (which, like "Geats", was translated into "Goths" in Latin). "Wends" is a term normally used to describe the Slavic peoples who inhabited large areas of modern east Germany and Pomerania. See further in the Wikipedia articlesKing of the GothsandKing of the Wends.

The titles, however, changed in 1973 when the new kingCarl XVI Gustafdecided that his royal title should simply be "King of Sweden". The disappearance of the old title was his decision alone.

Goths

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Main article:Goths
TraditionalGötaland
The island ofGotland
Wielbark culture,in the early 3rd century
Chernyakhov culture,in the early 4th century
Roman Empireat its greatest extent, 117 AD

Geataswas originallyProto-Germanic*GautozandGothsandGutar(Gotlanders) were *Gutaniz.*Gautozand *Gutanizare two ablaut grades of a Proto-Germanic word *geutanwith the meaning "to pour" (modern Swedishgjuta,modern Germangiessen). The word comes from an Indo-European root meaningto pour, offer sacrifice.[31]There were consequently two derivations from the same Proto-Germanic ethnonym.[32]

It is a long-standing controversy whether the Goths were Geats. Both Old Icelandic and Old English literary sources clearly separate the Geats (Isl.Gautar,OEngGeatas) from the Goths/Gutar(Isl.Gotar,OEng.Gotenas); but the Gothic historianJordaneswrote that the Goths came originally toDaciafrom the island ofScandza.Moreover, he described that on this island there were three tribes called theGautigoths(cf.Geat/Gaut), theOstrogoths(cf. the Swedish province ofÖstergötland) andVagoths(Gutar?) ‒ this implies that the Geats were Goths rather than vice versa. The wordGothis also a term used by the Romans to describe related, culturally linked tribes like theTervingiand theGreuthungs,so it may be correct to label Geats as Goths.

Scandinavian burial customs, such as thestone circles(domarringar), which are most common in Götaland andGotland,andstelae(bautastenar) appeared in what is now northern Poland in the 1st century AD, suggesting an influx of Scandinavians during the formation of the GothicWielbark culture.[33][34]Moreover, inÖstergötland,in Sweden, there is a sudden disappearance of villages during this period.[35]Contemporary accounts beginning in the fourth century further associated these groups with the earlierGetaeof Dacia, but this is now disputed.

Fringe theories

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Götaland theory

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The Götaland theory (Swedish "Västgötaskolan" ) is a disparate group of theories, which have attempted to prove that some events and even places that are traditionally placed aroundMälaren,especially ones that are associated with the formation of medieval Sweden, instead should be located to Västergötland. The methods ranged from relatively scholarly efforts todowsing.[36]This "school" was brought to prominence in the 1980s following a TV series byDag Stålsjö.While some serious scholars have attempted to place more emphasis on the Geats in the early history of Sweden than was traditional, Västgötaskolan has never reached any acceptance.

Identity of the Gēatas

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The generally accepted identification of Old EnglishGēatasas the same ethnonym as Swedishgötarand Old Norsegautaris based on the observation that theömonophthong of modern Swedish and theaudiphthong ofOld Norsecorrespond to theēadiphthong ofOld English.

Correspondences
Old Norse Swedish Old English Modern English
brauð bröd brēad bread
laukr lök lēac onion, cf. leek
lauf löv lēaf leaf
austr öst ēast east
draumr dröm drēam dream
dauðr död dēað death
rauðr röd rēad red

Thus,Gēatasis theOld Englishform ofOld NorseGautarand modern SwedishGötar.This correspondence seems to tip the balance for most scholars. It is also based on the fact that inBeowulf,theGēataslive east of theDani(across the sea) and in close contact with theSweon,which fits the historical position of the Geats between the Danes and the Swedes. Moreover, the story of Beowulf, who leavesGeatlandand arrives at theDanishcourt after a naval voyage, where he kills a beast, finds a parallel inHrólf Kraki's saga.In this saga,Bödvar BjarkileavesGautlandand arrives at theDanishcourt after a naval voyage and kills a beast that has been terrorizing the Danes for two years (see alsoOrigins for Beowulf and Hrólf Kraki).

Jutish hypothesis

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There is a hypothesis that the Jutes also were Geats, and which was proposed by Pontus Fahlbeck in 1884. According to this hypothesis the Geats would have not only resided in southern Sweden but also inJutland,whereBeowulfwould have lived.

The Geats and the Jutes are mentioned inBeowulfas different tribes, and whereas the Geats are calledgēatas,the Jutes are calledēotena(genitive) orēotenum(dative).[37]: 108 Moreover, the Old English poemWidsithalso mentions both Geats and Jutes, and it calls the latterȳtum.[37]: 108 However, Fahlbeck proposed in 1884 that the Gēatas ofBeowulfreferred to Jutes and he proposed that the Jutes originally also were Geats like those of southern Sweden.[37]: 109 This theory was based on an Old English translation ofVenerable Bede'sEcclesiastical History of the English Peopleattributed toAlfred the Greatwhere the Jutes (iutarum,iutis) once are rendered asgēata(genitive) and twice asgēatum(dative)[37]: 108–109 (see e.g. theOEDwhich identifies the Geats throughEotas,Iótas,IútanandGeátas). Fahlbeck did not, however, propose an etymology for how the two ethnonyms could be related.[37]: 109 

Fahlbeck's theory was refuted by Schück who in 1907 noted that another Old English source, theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle,called the Jutesīutna,īotumorīutum.[37]: 109 Moreover, Schück pointed out that when Alfred the Great's translation mentions the Jutes for the second time (book IV, ch. 14(16)) it calls themēotaand in one manuscriptȳtena.[37]: 110 Björkman proposed in 1908 that Alfred the Great's translation of Jutes as Geats was based on a confusion between the West Saxon formGeotas( "Jutes" ) andGēatas( "Geats" ).[37]: 110 

As for the origins of the ethnonymJute,it may be a secondary formation of the toponym Jutland, wherejutis derived from aProto-Indo-Europeanroot *eudmeaning "water".[38]

Gutnish hypothesis

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Since the 19th century, there has also been a suggestion that Beowulf's people wereGutes(from the island ofGotlandin Sweden). According to the poem, theweather-geatsorsea-geats,as they are called are supposed to have lived east of the Danes/Dacians and be separated from the Swedes by wide waters. Some researchers have found it a little far-fetched thatwide watersrelates toVänernin Västergötland or Mälaren. Theweatherinweather-geats,andsea-geatsmarks a people living at a windy, stormy coast by the sea. The Geats of Västergötland were historically an inland people, making an epithet such asweather-orsea-a little strange. Moreover, when Beowulf dies he is buried in a mound at a place calledHrones-naesse,meaning "the cape of whales". Whales have for obvious reasons never lived in Vänern, where, according toBirger Nerman,Beowulf is buried. However, an expanse of water separates the island ofGotlandfrom the Swedes. The island lies east of Denmark/Dacia and whales were once common in the Baltic Sea where Gotland is situated. The name of the Gutes in Swedish,Gutar,is an ablaut-grade of the same name as that of the Geats in Beowulf. These facts made the archaeologistGad Rausingcome to the conclusion that theweather-Geatsmay have been Gutes. This was supported by another Swedish archaeologistBo Gräslund.According to Rausing, Beowulf may be buried in a place calledRoneon Gotland, a name corresponding to theHronesinHrones-naesse.Not far from there lies a place calledArnkullcorresponding to theEarnar-naessein Beowulf, which according to the poem was situated closely to Hrones-naesse.

This theory does not exclude the ancient population of Västergötland and Östergötland from being Geats, but rather holds that the Anglo-Saxon nameGeatcould refer to West-geats (Västergötland), East-geats (Östergötland) as well as weather-geats (Gotland), in accordance with Jordanes account of the Scandinanian tribes Gautigoth, Ostrogoth and Vagoth.

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Geat".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.
  2. ^"Geat".The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(5th ed.). HarperCollins.
  3. ^E.g.Microsoft Encarta(on Swedish history),translations from Old NorseArchived11 December 2005 at theWayback Machine,Anglo-SaxonArchived4 August 2020 at theWayback MachineorLatinArchived8 November 2014 at theWayback Machineand thePrimary Chronicleand some modern scholarly works on Germanic tribes.
  4. ^abHellquist, Elof. "göt".Svensk etymologisk ordbok(in Swedish).Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2014.Retrieved1 March2014.
  5. ^abcde"887–888 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 10. Gossler – Harris)".runeberg.org.22 September 1909.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2016.Retrieved6 March2011.
  6. ^Svenskt ortnamnslexikon,Språk- och folkminnesinstitutet,Uppsala 2003, pages 103 och 92 (articles "Götaland" and "Gotland" ).
  7. ^An interpretation of both names ofGötalandandGotlandaccording to the etymology sentences in their respective articles inNationalencyklopedin.
  8. ^Nationalencyklopedin,the article (in Swedish)Archived2 May 2014 at theWayback MachineaboutKlarälven,which says that Klarälven was calledGautelfrin records from the 13th century. See alsoNationalencyklopedin,the article "Göta älv" (in Swedish).Archived7 August 2011 at theWayback Machine
  9. ^GötarArchived26 September 2011 at theWayback MachineinSvenska Akademiens Ordbok.
  10. ^ Michael Alexander's 1995 (Penguin Classics) edition ofBeowulfmentions a variant:Gēotas
  11. ^Larsson, Mats G. (2004).Götarnas riken.Stockholm: Atlantis. p. 43.
  12. ^Margary, Ivan D. (1973). Roman Roads in Britain, 3rd ed. London: Baker.
  13. ^abShippey, Tom (2018).Laughing Shall I Die.London: Reaction Books Limited. p. 56.ISBN978-1-78023-909-5.
  14. ^abFarrel, R.T. (1972).Beowulf, Swedes and Geats(PDF).Viking Society for Northern Research, University College, London. p. 269.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 July 2021.Retrieved18 August2021.
  15. ^Newton, Sam (1993).The Origins of Beowulf, and the Pre-Viking Kingdom of East Anglia.D. S. Brewer, Cambridge.
  16. ^Iversen, Frode (2020). "Between Tribe and Kingdom – People, Land, and Law in Scandza AD 500–1350".Rulership in 1st to 14th century Scandinavia.De Gruyter. p. 250.doi:10.1515/9783110421101-004.ISBN9783110421101.S2CID213596339.
  17. ^Iversen, Frode (2020). "Between Tribe and Kingdom – People, Land, and Law in Scandza AD 500–1350".Rulership in 1st to 14th century Scandinavia.De Gruyter. pp. 245–304.doi:10.1515/9783110421101-004.ISBN9783110421101.S2CID213596339.
  18. ^Iversen, Frode (2020). "Between Tribe and Kingdom – People, Land, and Law in Scandza AD 500–1350".Rulership in 1st to 14th century Scandinavia.De Gruyter. p. 295.doi:10.1515/9783110421101-004.ISBN9783110421101.S2CID213596339.
  19. ^abcStåhl, Harry (1976).Ortnamn och ortnamnsforskning.Uppsala: Almquist & Wiksell. p. 131.
  20. ^Sawyer, Peter (1991).När Sverige blev Sverige.Viktoria Bokförlag, Alingsås. p. 12.
  21. ^Farrel, R.T. (1972).Beowulf, Swedes and Geats(PDF).Viking Society for Northern Research, University College, London. p. 270.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 July 2021.Retrieved18 August2021.
  22. ^Sawyer, Peter (1991).När Sverige blev Sverige.Viktoria Bokförlag, Alingsås. pp. 9–10.
  23. ^Sawyer, Peter (1991).När Sverige blev Sverige.Viktoria Bokförlag, Alingsås. pp. 58–59.
  24. ^Harrison, Dick (2002).Sveriges historia: Medeltiden.Liber, Stockholm. pp. 58, 70–74.
  25. ^Henriksson, Alf (1963).Svensk historia I.Bonniers, Stockholm. pp. 86–88.
  26. ^Weibull, Jörgen (1993).Swedish History in Outline.The Swedish Institute, Stockholm. p. 18.
  27. ^abcThe articleSvearinNationalencyklopedin.
  28. ^The earliest attestation of this meaning is from the mid-15th centurySwedish Chronicle.
  29. ^"1129–1130 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 27. Stockholm-Nynäs järnväg – Syrsor)".runeberg.org.22 September 1918.Archivedfrom the original on 3 January 2007.Retrieved4 December2006.
  30. ^Wahlberg, Mats (2003).Svenskt ortnamndslexikon.Språk och folkminnesinstitutet. p. 103.
  31. ^"god" inThe Oxford English Dictionary Online.(2006).
  32. ^cf.SerbsandSorbs,PolansandPoles,SlovenesandSlovaksinSlavic languages.
  33. ^"The Goths in Greater Poland"(in Polish). Muzarp.poznan.pl. Archived fromthe originalon 30 June 2001.Retrieved14 June2010.
  34. ^"Gothic Connections | Abstract".Archived fromthe originalon 21 August 2004.Retrieved21 August2004.
  35. ^Oxenstierna, Graf E.C.: Die Urheimat der Goten. Leipzig, Mannus-Buecherei 73, 1945 (later printed in 1948).
  36. ^Larsson, Mats G. (2004).Götarnas riken.Stockholm: Atlantis. pp. 33–34, 90.
  37. ^abcdefghNerman, Birger(1925).Det Svenska Rikets Uppkomst.Stockholm: Ivar Haeggström.Archivedfrom the original on 20 April 2023.Retrieved24 December2020.
  38. ^Hellquist, Elof (1922)."Jut-, Jute".Svensk etymologisk ordbok(in Swedish).Project Runeberg.Archivedfrom the original on 24 November 2007.Retrieved21 November2007.
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