Wikipedia

Gender expression

Gender expression,orgender presentation,is a person's behavior, mannerisms, and appearance that are socially associated withgender,namelyfemininityormasculinity.[1]Gender expression can also be defined as the external manifestation of one's gender identity through behavior, clothing, hairstyles, voice, or body characteristics.[2][3]Typically, a person's gender expression is thought of in terms of masculinity and femininity, but an individual's gender expression may incorporate both feminine and masculine traits, or neither. A person's gender expression may or may not match their assigned sex at birth. This includesgender roles,and accordingly relies on culturalstereotypesabout gender. It is distinct fromgender identity.[4]

Terminology

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Gender expression typically reflects a person'sgender identity(their internal sense of their own gender), but this is not always the case.[5][6]Gender expression is separate and independent both fromsexual orientationandsex assigned at birth.[7]Gender identity can be expressed through behavior, clothing, hair, makeup, voice, body language and other aspects of one's external appearance.[8]Gender expression does not always fall in line with a person's gender identity.[9]A type of gender expression that is considered atypical for a person's externally perceived gender may be described asgender non-conforming.

Gender expression can vary widely between individuals and cultures, and may not always align with traditionalgender rolesor expectations.[10]Some people may express their gender in a way that is typically associated with the opposite sex, such as a man wearing a dress or a woman having short hair and wearing masculine clothing.[11]Others may prefer a gender-neutral orandrogynousappearance, or may choose to present differently depending on the situation or context.[12][13]

In men and boys, typical ormasculinegender expression is often described asmanly,while atypical or feminine expression is known aseffeminate.[14]In girls and young women, atypically masculine expression is calledtomboyish.In lesbian and queer women, masculine and feminine expressions are known asbutch and femmerespectively. A mixture of typical and atypical expression may be described asandrogynous.

The termgender expressionis used in theYogyakarta Principles,which concern the application of internationalhuman rights lawin relation to sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, andsex characteristics.[15]The term also designates a criterion for human rights protection in certain countries, including Canada.[16]

Versus sexual orientation

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While gender expression does not necessarily connect to sexuality, individuals often are misinterpreted as more masculine iflesbianand more feminine ifgay,regardless of the individual's gender expression. These beliefs can lead to people misinterpreting an individual's gender expression based on their sexuality. Studies on adolescents conducted by Stacey Horn, showed that gay and lesbian individuals who did not express themselves as their assigned gender were seen as less acceptable. Individuals who expressed themselves with their assigned gender typically faced less social harassment and discrimination. On the other hand,heterosexualmales whose gender expression was more feminine than masculine were the most discriminated against.[1]

"The heterosexual matrix" theory created by gender theoristJudith Butlerposits that people often assume someone's sexuality based on their visible gender and sex. Lisa Disch states that it explains why people tend to assume someone's gender expression based on their sex and sexuality.[4]Some sexologists, especially earlier on in the 20th century, viewed gay men and lesbians as "gender inverts". This idea was seen in figures in 1950s New York gay culture: effeminate men referred to as "fairies", as well as butch lesbians. Drag shows also can be considered a way that modifying one's gender expression can indicate their sexuality, though this is not always the case.[17]Some research proved a similar idea, showing that homosexual people are generally more gender nonconforming than heterosexual people, and gender nonconformity throughout life can be an indicator of sexuality.[18]

Discrimination

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People sometimes face discrimination because of their gender expression. Victims of discrimination often culturally express different genders than their gender identity or biological sex. Gender expression-based discrimination can be independent of sexual orientation, and it can lead to bullying, childhood abuse, sexual assault, discrimination, and various other traumatizing hardships.[10]

Discrimination based on sexual orientation can be connected to a person's gender expression. Scholars say it is difficult to separate the connection between anti-LGBTQ discrimination and gender expression, especially when the expression differs from the person's assigned gender at birth. In a study done by Steph M. Anderson, she found that in discriminatory situations, participants' gender affected whether or not they were perceived as LGBTQ. People whose expression aligned with their assigned gender felt less of an impact than those whose expression did not align with their assigned gender.[19]When it comes to health care, one study shows that people with a non-normative gender expression experienced biases during their care. For example, lesbians who presented femininely may be more comfortable in healthcare spaces than people whose expression does not match their assigned gender. Some gender non-conforming people in the study expressed feelings that having one's gender or sexuality assumed because of their expression limited their comfort and access to healthcare.[11]

Gender expression is a sizable aspect of how a person views themselves, and thus will impact self confidence. When an individual is forced, for personal or societal influences, to portray themselves in a manner they do not personally identify with, confidence can be greatly hindered in turn damaging mental health. A 2017 study reported that when masculine presenting lesbians are made to dress in a feminine style, their confidence suffers greatly.[12]

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Other, rarer terms exist for aspects of gender expression. In academic sources, a feminine gender expression in a male (of any orientation) may be calledgynemimesis(adjective:gynemimetic).[20][21]The converse isandromimesis(adj.:andromimetic).[20]: 402 [22]

See also

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References

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  1. ^abHorn, Stacey S (2007)."Adolescents' Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression".Journal of Youth and Adolescence.36(3): 373.doi:10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4.PMID27519035.
  2. ^Edelman, Elijah Adiv (6 November 2019), Bosia, Michael J.; McEvoy, Sandra M.; Rahman, Momin (eds.),"Gender Identity and Transgender Rights in Global Perspective",The Oxford Handbook of Global LGBT and Sexual Diversity Politics,Oxford University Press, pp.61–74,doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190673741.013.24,ISBN978-0-19-067374-1,retrieved17 March2023
  3. ^Carabez, Rebecca; Pellegrini, Marion; Mankovitz, Andrea; Eliason, Mickey; Scott, Megan (12 August 2015)."Does your organization use gender inclusive forms? Nurses' confusion about trans* terminology".Journal of Clinical Nursing.24(21–22):3306–3317.doi:10.1111/jocn.12942.ISSN0962-1067.PMID26263919.
  4. ^abDisch, Lisa (1999). "Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative".Political Theory.27(4):545–559.doi:10.1177/0090591799027004006.S2CID144841050.
  5. ^Summers, Randal W. (2016).Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions [2 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 232.ISBN9781610695923.
  6. ^American Psychological Association (December 2015)."Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People"(PDF).American Psychologist.70(9): 861.doi:10.1037/a0039906.PMID26653312.S2CID1751773.
  7. ^"Gender, Gender Identity, and Gender Expression".Government of Alberta.Retrieved20 September2020.
  8. ^"Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Definitions".HRC.Retrieved17 November2021.
  9. ^Kirkup, Kyle (1 January 2018)."The origins of gender identity and gender expression in Anglo-American legal discourse".University of Toronto Law Journal.68(1):80–117.doi:10.3138/utlj.2017-0080.ISSN0042-0220.S2CID148583324.
  10. ^abLehavot, Keren; Molina, Yamile; Simoni, Jane M. (1 September 2012)."Childhood Trauma, Adult Sexual Assault, and Adult Gender Expression among Lesbian and Bisexual Women".Sex Roles.67(5):272–284.doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0171-1.ISSN1573-2762.PMC3758810.PMID24003263.
  11. ^ab""Automatic assumption of your gender, sexuality and sexual practices is also discrimination": Exploring sexual healthcare experiences and recommendations among sexually and gender diverse persons in Arctic Canada ".Health & Social Care in the Community.27(5):1204–1213. September 2019 – via EBSCO.
  12. ^abHenrichs-Beck, Christine L.; Szymanski, Dawn M. (2017)."Gender expression, body–gender identity incongruence, thin ideal internalization, and lesbian body dissatisfaction".Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity.4(1):23–33.doi:10.1037/sgd0000214.ISSN2329-0390.S2CID151550839.
  13. ^"TRANS 101".A Gender Agenda.Retrieved13 March2023.
  14. ^Kachel, Sven; Steffens, Melanie C.; Niedlich, Claudia (2016)."Traditional Masculinity and Femininity: Validation of a New Scale Assessing Gender Roles".Frontiers in Psychology.7:956.doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00956.ISSN1664-1078.PMC4932111.PMID27458394.
  15. ^Yogyakarta Principles plus 10
  16. ^Macfarlane, Emmett (2018).Policy Change, Courts, and the Canadian Constitution.University of Toronto Press. p. 391.
  17. ^Hillman, Betty Luther (January 2011).""The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972 ".Journal of the History of Sexuality.20(1):153–181.JSTOR40986358.PMID21488422.
  18. ^"Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality".Personality and Individual Differences.152:1–5. 1 January 2020 – via OhioLINK.
  19. ^Anderson, Steph M. (September 2020).""Gender Matters: The Perceived Role of Gender Expression in Discrimination Against Cisgender and Transgender LGBQ Individuals"".Psychology of Women Quarterly.44(3):323–341.doi:10.1177/0361684320929354.S2CID221217350– via EBSCO.
  20. ^abDenny, Dallas (13 May 2013).Current Concepts in Transgender Identity.London: Routledge. pp. 402,412–414.ISBN978-1134-82110-5.OCLC1100456679.
  21. ^Weinrich, James D. (1987).Sexual Landscapes: Why We are what We Are, why We Love Whom We Love.Scribner's. pp.276–277.ISBN978-0-684-18705-1.OCLC299414370.
  22. ^Money, John (30 December 2010).Sin, Science, and the Sex Police: Essays on Sexology & Sexosophy.Prometheus. pp. 246–.ISBN978-1615-92830-9.OCLC1131230541.

Bibliography

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  • Anderson, Steph M (2020). "Gender Matters: The Perceived Role of Gender Expression in Discrimination Against Cisgender and Transgender LGBQ Individuals".Psychology of Women Quarterly.
  • Hillman, Betty Luther (2011). "" The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in ": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972". Journal of the History of Sexuality.
  • Klára Bártová; Zuzana Štěrbová; Marco Antonio Correa Varella; Jaroslava Varella Valentova (2020). "Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality".Personality and Individual Differences.
  • Serano, Julia (2016).Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity(2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
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