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Geology of New Zealand

Thegeology of New Zealandis noted for itsvolcanicactivity,earthquakesandgeothermal areasbecause of its position on the boundary of theAustralian PlateandPacific Plates.New Zealand is part ofZealandia,amicrocontinentnearly half the size of Australia that broke away from theGondwanansupercontinent about 83 million years ago.[1]New Zealand's early separation from other landmasses and subsequent evolution have created a uniquefossilrecord and modernecology.

New Zealand andNew Caledoniarepresent the visible part of a portion ofcontinental crust,usually referred to as Zealandia. The rest of Zealandia includes theChallenger PlateauandLord Howe Rise,which stretch from Northwest of New Zealand almost to Northern Australia, and theCampbell PlateauandChatham Rise,to the southeast of New Zealand.

New Zealand'sgeologycan be simplified into three phases. First thebasement rocksof New Zealand formed. These rocks were once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along withSouth America,Africa,Madagascar,India,AntarcticaandAustralia.The rocks that now form the mostly submerged continent of Zealandia were then nestled between Eastern Australia andWestern Antarctica.[2]Secondly New Zealand drifted away from Gondwana and manysedimentary basinsformed, which later became thesedimentary rockscovering the geological basement. The final phase is represented by the uplift of theSouthern Alpsand the eruptions of theTaupō Volcanic Zone.[3]

Basement rocks (Cambrian-Cretaceous)

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See also:Stratigraphy of New Zealand
Basic geological regions of New Zealand
Source:Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences,New Zealand

New Zealand'sbasement rocksrange in age from mid-Cambrianin north-westNelsontoCretaceousnearKaikōura.These rocks were formed in amarineenvironment before New Zealand separated from Gondwana. They are divided into the "Western Province", consisting mainly ofgreywacke,graniteandgneiss,and an "Eastern Province", consisting mainly ofgreywackeandschist.[4]The provinces are further divided intoterranes– large slices of crust with different geological histories that have been brought together by tectonic activity (subductionandstrike-slip faulting) to form New Zealand.

The Western Province is older than the Eastern Province and outcrops along the west coast of the South Island fromNelsontoFiordland.The Western Province is divided into theBullerandTakakaterranes which formed in mid-Cambrian toDevoniantime (510–400 Ma). This includes New Zealand's oldest rocks,trilobite-containing greywacke, which are found in theCobb Valleyin north-west Nelson.[5]

Large sections of the Western Province have been intruded byplutonicrocks ormetamorphosedto gneiss. These plutonic basement rocks are subdivided into theHohonu,Karamea,MedianandPaparoabatholiths.[6]These rocks form the foundations beneath offshoreTaranaki,and much of theWest Coast,Buller,north-westNelson,FiordlandandStewart Island / Rakiura.Most of these plutonic rocks were formed inDevonian-Carboniferoustime (380–335 Ma) andJurassic-Cretaceoustime (155–100 Ma). The Median Batholith represents a long-lived batholith dividing the Western and Eastern Provinces. Before Zealandia's separation fromGondwanait stretched fromQueensland,through what is now New Zealand, into West Antarctica. It marks the site of a former subduction zone on the edge of Gondwana.

The Eastern Province underlies more of New Zealand than the Western Province, including the greywacke and schist of the Southern Alps and all of the basement rocks of the North Island. The Eastern Province contains seven main terranes, theDrumduan,Brook Street,Murihiku,Dun Mountain–Maitai,Caples,Torlesse composite(Rakaia, Aspiring and Pahau terranes) andWaipapacomposite (Morrinsville and Hunua terranes).[7]They are mostly composed of greywacke together withargillite,except for the Brook Street and Dun Mountain–Maitai terranes which have significant igneous components (seeDun Mountain ophiolite belt). New Zealand's greywacke is mostly from the Caples, Torlesse composite (Rakaia and Pahau) and Waipapa composite (Morrinsville and Hunua) terranes formed in Carboniferous–Cretaceous time (330–120 Ma). Much of these rocks were deposited assubmarine fans.They have different origins, as shown by different chemical compositions and differentfossils.In general, the sedimentary basement terranes become younger from West to East across the country, as the newer terranes were scraped off the subducting paleo-Pacific plate,andaccretedto the boundary of Gondwana over hundreds of millions of years.

Many rocks in the Eastern Province have been metamorphosed into theHaast Schist,due to exposure to high pressures and temperatures. Rocks grade continuously from greywacke (e.g., in Canterbury) to high-grade schist (e.g., around the Caples-Torlesse boundary inOtagoandMarlborough,andTorlesserocks just to the East of the Alpine Fault). The Alpine Fault that corresponds to the line of theSouthern Alpshas separated the basement rocks that used to be adjacent by about 480 km.

Separation from Gondwana (Cretaceous–Eocene)

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See also:Natural history of New Zealand

The Australia–New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the late Cretaceous time (95–90 Ma). Then around 83 Ma, Zealandia started to separate from Australia forming theTasman Sea,initially separating from the south. By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north.Dinosaurscontinued to live in New Zealand after it separated from Gondwana, as shown bysauropodfootprints from 70 million years ago in Nelson.[8]this meant that dinosaurs had about 20 million years to evolve unique New Zealand species. During the Cretaceous extension largenormal faultsformed throughout New Zealand, the Hawks Crag Breccia formed next toscarpsand it has become New Zealand's besturaniummineral deposit.[9]

Currently, New Zealand has no native snakes or land mammals (other than bats). Neithermarsupialsnorplacentalmammals evolved and reached Australia in time to be on New Zealand when it drifted away 85 million years ago. The evolution and dispersal of snakes is less certain, but there is no hard evidence of them being in Australia before the opening of the Tasman Sea.[10]Themultituberculates,another type of mammal which is now extinct, may have been in time to cross the land bridge to New Zealand.[11]

The landmasses continued to separate until earlyEocenetimes (53 Ma). The Tasman Sea, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form theAustralian Plate(40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate andPacific Plate.Zealandia ended up at a pivot point between the Pacific and Australian Plates, with spreading in the south, and convergence in the north, where the Pacific Plate was subducted beneath the Australian Plate. A precursor to theKermadec Arcwas created. The convergent part of the plate boundary propagated through Zealandia from the north, eventually forming a proto-Alpine Fault inMiocenetimes (23 Ma). The various ridges and basins north of New Zealand relate to previous positions of theplate boundary.[12]

Sedimentary basins and allochthons (Cretaceous–recent)

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Sedimentary rocks from an uplifted basin –Cape Farewell,South Island

Erosionanddepositionhas led to much of Zealandia now being covered in sedimentary rocks that formed in swamps andmarine sedimentary basins.Much of New Zealand was low lying around MidEocene–Oligocenetimes (40–23 Ma). Swamps became widespread, formingcoal.The land subsided further, and marine organisms producedlimestonedeposits. Limestone of Oligocene–EarlyMioceneage formed in many areas, including theKing Country,known for theWaitomo Glowworm Cave.In the South Island, limestone is present in Buller, Nelson, and theWest Coast,including the Pancake Rocks atPunakaikiin Oligocene–Early Miocene times (34–15 Ma). It is debated whetherall of New Zealand was submergedat this time or if small islands remained as "arks" preserving fauna and flora.[13]

ThePancake Rocksat Punakaiki have irregular chasms and ridges, typical of limestone country.

Anallochthonis land that formed elsewhere and slid on top of other land (in other words, the material of an enormous landslide). Much of the land ofNorthlandandEast Capewere created in this manner.[14]Around 25–22 Ma, Northland and East Cape were adjacent, with East Cape nearWhangārei.Northland–East Cape was an undersea basin. Much of the land that now forms Northland–East Cape was higher land to the northeast (composed of rocks formed 90–25 Ma). The Pacific-Australian plate boundary was further to the northeast, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Australian Plate. Layers of rocks were peeled off the higher land, from the top down, and slid southwest under the influence of gravity, to be stacked the right way up, but in reverse order. Most of the material to slide were sedimentary rocks, however, the last rocks to be slid across were slabs ofoceanic crust(ophiolites), mainlybasalt.Widespread volcanic activity also occurred (23–15 Ma), and is intermixed with the foreign rocks. Sedimentary basins formed on the allochthons while they were moving. East Cape was later separated from Northland and moved further south and east to its present position.

Volcanic activity

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Main article:Volcanology of New Zealand
Whakaari / White Island eruption,9 December 2019

Volcanism is recorded in New Zealand throughout its whole geological history. Most volcanism in New Zealand, both modern and ancient, has been caused by the subduction of one tectonic plate under another; this causes melting in themantle,the layer of the Earth below the crust. This produces avolcanic arc,composed of mainlybasalt,andesiteandrhyolite.Basaltic eruptions tend to be fairly placid, producing scoria cones and lava flows, such as the volcanic cones in theAuckland volcanic field,althoughMount Tarawera's violent 1886 eruption was an exception. Andesitic eruptions tend to form steepstratovolcanoes,including mountains such asRuapehu,TongariroandTaranaki,islands such asLittle Barrier,Whakaari / WhiteandRaoul Islands,or submarineseamountslikeMonowai Seamount.Rhyolitic eruptions with large amounts of water tend to cause violent eruptions, producingcalderas,such asLake TaupōandLake Rotorua.New Zealand also has many volcanoes which are not clearly related to present plate subduction including the extinctDunedin VolcanoandBanks Peninsula,and the dormant Auckland volcanic field.

Extinct volcanoes

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The South Island has no currently active volcanoes. However, in the lateCretaceous(100–65 Ma), there was widespread volcanic activity in Marlborough, West Coast, Canterbury and Otago which contributes to landforms such asMount Somers.InEocenetimes (40 Ma), there wasvolcanic fieldactivity near present dayOamaru.The most well knownMiocenevolcanic centres are the intra-plateDunedin VolcanoandBanks Peninsulas.The Dunedin Volcano which later eroded to formOtago PeninsulanearDunedinwas built up by a series of mainly basaltic intra-plate volcanic eruptions in Miocene times (16–10 Ma).[15]Banks Peninsula nearChristchurchwas built from two mainly basaltic intra-plate volcanoes in Miocene times (12–6 Ma and 9.5–7.5 Ma), corresponding to theLyttelton / WhakaraupoandAkaroaHarbours. Southland'sSolander Islands / Hauterewere active as recently as 150,000 years old.[16]There are also minor volcanics from a similar time period throughout Canterbury, Otago and also on theChatham Islands.

Ancient underwater volcanic eruptions (pillow lava) nearOamaru.

Intra-plate basaltic volcanic eruptions also occurred in the North Island, near theBay of Islandsin Northland, in the Late Miocene (10 Ma), and again more recently (0.5 Ma). TheSouth Auckland volcanic fieldwas active inPleistocenetimes (1.5–0.5 Ma). TheAuckland volcanic fieldstarted erupting around 250,000 years ago. It includes around 50 distinct eruptions, with most of the prominent cones formed in the last 30,000 years, and the most recent eruption, which formedRangitoto Island,around 600 years ago. The field is currently dormant and further eruptions are expected. Over time the volcanic field has slowly been drifting northwards.[17]

Volcanism in the North Island has been dominated by a series of volcanic arcs which have evolved into the still activeTaupō Volcanic Zone.Over time, volcanic activity has moved south and east, as the plate boundary moved eastward. This started in Miocene times (23 Ma) when a volcanic arc became active to the west of Northland, and gradually moved South down toNew Plymouth,whereTaranakiis still active. It produced mainly andesitic strato-volcanoes. The Northland volcanoes include the volcanoes that produced theWaipoua Plateau(site of theWaipoua Forest) and theKaipara Volcano.The Waitakere Volcano (22–16 Ma) has mainly been eroded, butconglomeratefrom the volcano forms theWaitākere Ranges,and produced most of the material that makes up theWaitemata sandstonesand mudstones.[18]Laharsproduced the coarser Parnell Grit. Notable visible volcanoes in the Waikato includeKarioiandPirongia(2.5 Ma). The volcanoes off the West coast of the North Island, together with Taranaki and the Tongariro Volcanic Centre, are responsible for the black iron sand on many of the beaches between Taranaki andAuckland.

Shortly after (18 Ma), a volcanic arc developed further east to create theCoromandel Rangesand underseaColville Ridge.The initial activity was andesitic but later became rhyolitic (12 Ma). In theKauaeranga Valley,volcanic plugsremain, as does a lava lake that now forms the top ofTable Mountain.Activegeothermal systems,similar to those that now exist nearRotorua,were present around 6 Ma, and produced thegoldandsilverdeposits that were laterminedin theCoromandel gold rush.Later (5–2 Ma), volcanic activity moved further south to form theKaimai Range.

Active volcanoes and geothermal areas

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After this, activity shifted further East to the Taupō Volcanic Zone, which runs from theTongariro Volcanic Centre(RuapehuandTongariro), throughTaupō,Rotorua,and out to sea to form the Kermadec Ridge.[19]Activity was initiated around 2 Ma, and continues to this day. The Tongariro Volcanic Centre is composed of andesitic volcanoes, while the areas around Taupō and Rotorua are largely rhyolitic with minor basalt. Early eruptions between Taupō and Rotorua around 1.25 Ma, and 1 Ma, were large enough to produce anignimbritesheet that reachedAuckland,Napier,andGisborne.This includes vastpumicedeposits generated from eruptions in the Taupō Volcanic Zone occur throughout the central North Island, Bay of Plenty,Waikato,King CountryandManawatū-Whanganuiregions. Every so often, there are swarms ofearthquakeswithin an area of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, which last for years. These earthquake swarms indicate that some movement ofmagmais occurring below the surface. While they have not resulted in an eruption in recent times, there is always the potential for a new volcano to be created, or a dormant volcano to come to life.

Eruption ofWhakaari / White Island,New Zealand's most active volcano,Bay of Plenty.

The Tongariro Volcanic Centre developed over the last 275,000 years and contains the active andesitic volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Tongariro, andNgauruhoe(really a side cone of Tongariro). Ruapehu erupts about once a decade, and while the eruptions cause havoc for skiers, plane flights and hydroelectric dams, the eruptions are relatively minor. However, the sudden collapse of the crater wall caused major problems when it generated alaharin 1953, that destroyed a rail bridge, and caused 151 deaths atTangiwai.The last significant eruption was 1995–96. Ngauruhoe last erupted 1973–75. Taranaki is a perfectly formed andesitic strato-volcano, that last erupted in 1755.

Lake Taupō,the largest lake in the North Island, is avolcanic caldera,responsible for rhyolitic eruptions about once every 1,000 years.[20]The largest eruption in the last 65,000 years was the cataclysmicOruanui Eruption26,500 years ago, producing 530 cubic kilometres of magma. The most recent eruption, around 233 AD was also a major event, the biggest eruption worldwide in the last 5,000 years. The eruption caused a pyroclastic flow that devastated the land fromWaiourutoRotoruain 10 minutes.

TheŌkataina Volcanic Centre,to the East of Rotorua, is also responsible for major cataclysmic rhyolitic eruptions. The last eruption, ofTaraweraandLake Rotomahanain 1886, was a relatively minor eruption, which was thought to have destroyed the famousPink and White Terraces,and covered much of the surrounding countryside in ash, killing over 100 people. In 2017 researchers rediscovered the locations of the Pink and White Terraces using a forgotten survey from 1859.[21][22]Many lakes around Rotorua arecalderasfrom rhyolitic eruptions. For example,Lake Rotoruaerupted around 13,500 years ago.

A line of undersea volcanoes extends out along theKermadec Ridge.Whakaari / White Island,in the Bay of Plenty, represents the southern end of this chain and is a very active andesitic volcano, erupting with great frequency. It has the potential to cause a tsunami in the Bay of Plenty, as does the dormantMayor Island / Tūhuavolcano.

The Taupō Volcanic Zone is known for itsgeothermalactivity. For example, Rotorua and the surrounding area have many areas withgeysers,silica terraces,fumaroles,mud-pools,hot springs,etc. Notable geothermal areas includeWhakarewarewa,Tikitere,Waimangu,Waiotapu,Craters of the MoonandOrakei Korako.Geothermal energy is used to generate electricity atWairakei,nearTaupō.Hot pools abound throughout New Zealand.Geothermal energyis used to generate electricity in the Taupō Volcanic Zone.[23]

Modern tectonic setting and earthquakes

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Main article:List of earthquakes in New Zealand
Majoractive faultzones of New Zealand showing variation in displacement vector ofPacific Platerelative toAustralian Platealong the boundary

New Zealand is currently astride the convergent boundary between the Pacific and Australian Plates. Over time, the relative motion of the plates has altered and the current configuration is geologically recent. Currently the Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the Australian Plate from aroundTongain the north, through theTonga Trench,Kermadec Trench,andHikurangi Troughto the east of theNorth Islandof New Zealand, down toCook Strait.Through most of theSouth Island,the plates slide past each other (Alpine Fault), with slightobductionof the Pacific Plate over the Australian Plate, formingSouthern Alps.FromFiordlandsouth, the Australian Plate subducts under the Pacific Plate forming thePuysegur Trench.[24]This configuration has led to volcanism and extension in the North Island forming the Taupō Volcanic Zone and uplift in the South Island forming the Southern Alps.

The Pacific Plate is colliding with the Australian Plate at a rate of about 40 mm/yr.[25]The East coast of the North Island is being compressed and lifted by this collision, producing theNorth IslandandMarlborough Fault Systems.The East Coast of the North Island is also rotating clockwise, relative to Northland,AucklandandTaranaki,stretching theBay of Plenty,and producing theHauraki Rift(Hauraki Plains and Hauraki Gulf) and Taupō Volcanic Zone. The East Coast of the South Island is sliding obliquely towards the Alpine Fault, relative toWestland,causing the Southern Alps to rise about 10 mm/yr (although they are also worn down at a similar rate).[26]TheHauraki Plains,Hamilton,Bay of Plenty,Marlborough Sounds,andChristchurchare sinking. The Marlborough Sounds are known for their sunken mountain ranges. AsWellingtonrises, and Marlborough sinks,Cook Straitis being shifted further south.[27]

Greatstressis built up in the Earth's crust due to the constant movement of the tectonic plates. This stress is released byearthquakes,which can occur on the plate boundary or on any of thousands of smaller faults throughout New Zealand. Because the Pacific Plate is subducting under the eastern side of the North Island, there are frequent deep earthquakes east of a line from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson (the approximate edge of the subducted plate), with the earthquakes being deeper to the west, and shallower to the east. Because the Australian Plate is subducting under the Pacific Plate inFiordland,there are frequent deep earthquakes near Fiordland, with the earthquakes being deeper to the east and shallower near the west.

Shallow earthquakes are more widespread, occurring almost everywhere throughout New Zealand (especially the Bay of Plenty,East Capeto Marlborough, and Alpine Fault). However, Northland,Waikato,andOtagoare relatively stable.Canterburyhad been without a major earthquake in recorded history until the Mw  7.1Canterbury earthquakeon 4 September 2010. The volcanic activity in the central North island also creates many shallow earthquakes.

Paleoclimate of New Zealand

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See also:Climate change in New Zealand
Global palaeotemperature graphs (compressed scale) note the warmer Eocene and Miocene in green and theIce Agein blue.

Since Zealandia separated from Gondwana (80 mya) in the Cretaceous the climate has typically been far warmer than today. However, since theQuaternary glaciation(2.9 mya) Zealandia has experienced climate either cooler or only slightly warmer than today.

In the Cretaceous, New Zealand was positioned at 80 degrees south at the boundary between Antarctica and Australia. But it was covered in trees as the climate of 90 million years ago was much warmer and wetter than today.[28]During the warm Eocene Period vast swamps covered New Zealand which became coal seams in Southland andWaikato.In the Miocene there arepaleontologicalrecords ofwarm lakes in Central Otagowith palm trees andsmall land mammals.[29]

Over the past 30,000 years three major climate events are recorded in New Zealand, thelast glacial maximum'scoldest period from 28 to 18,000 years ago, a transitional period from 18 to 11,000 years ago and the Holocene Inter Glacial which has been occurring for the past 11,000 years.[30]Throughout the last glacial maximum, global sea levels were about 130 metres (430 feet) lower than present levels. When this happened the North Island, South Island, andStewart Islandwere joined.[31]Temperatures dropped by about 4–5 °C. Much of theSouthern AlpsandFiordlandwere glaciated, but the rest of New Zealand was largely ice-free. The land north ofHamiltonwas forested, but much of the rest of New Zealand was covered in grass or shrubs, due to the cold and dry climate.[32][33]This lack of vegetation cover lead to greater wind erosion and the deposition ofloess(windblown dust).[30] The study of New Zealand's paleoclimate has settled some of the debate regarding links between theLittle Ice Age(LIA) in the Northern Hemisphere and the climate in New Zealand at the same time. The key facts to emerge are that New Zealand did experience a noticeable cooler climate, but at a slightly later date than in theNorthern Hemisphere.[34]

Geological hazards

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Earthquake damage in Christchurch (2011).

New Zealand suffers from many natural hazards, includingearthquakesandtsunamis,volcanic and hydrothermal eruptions andlandslides.

The largest earthquake in New Zealand was an M8.2 event in theWairarapa,in 1855,[35]and the most deaths (261) occurred in a M7.8 earthquake inHawkes Bayin 1931. Widespread property damage was caused by the2010 Canterbury earthquake,which measured 7.1; The M6.3 aftershock of 22 February 2011 (2011 Canterbury earthquake) resulted in 185 fatalities. Most recently, the M7.8Kaikōura earthquakestruck just after midnight on 14 November 2016, killing two people in the remote Kaikōura area northeast of Christchurch. Numerous aftershocks of M5.0 or greater are spread over a large area between Wellington and Culverden.

New Zealand is at risk from tsunamis that are generated from both local and international faults. The eastern coast of New Zealand is most at risk as thePacific Oceanis more tectonically active than theTasman Sea.Locally the faults along the North Island's east coast provide the greatest risk. Minor tsunamis have occurred in New Zealand from earthquakes in Chile, Alaska and Japan.

There are many potentially dangerous volcanoes in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. The most severe volcanic eruption since the arrival of Europeans is theTaraweraeruption in 1886. AlaharfromMount Ruapehudestroyed a bridge andderailed a trainin December 1953, killing 151 people. Even a minor eruption at Ruapehu could cause the loss of electricity for Auckland, due to ash on the power lines, and in theWaikato River(stopping the generation of hydroelectric power).

Many parts of New Zealand are susceptible to landslides, particularly due to deforestation and the high earthquake risk. Much of the North Island is steep, and composed of soft mudstone known as papa,[36]that easily generates landslides.[37]

Geological resources

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Main articles:Mining in New ZealandandOil and gas industry in New Zealand

New Zealand main geological resources are coal, gold, oil, and natural gas.[38][39]Coalhas been mined in Northland, theWaikato,Taranaki, Nelson and Westland, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. TheWest Coastcontains some of New Zealand's bestbituminous coal.The largest coal deposits occur in Southland.Goldhas been mined in theCoromandelandKaimai Ranges(especially theMartha MineatWaihi),Westland,Central Otago,and Eastern Otago (especiallyMacraes Mine), and on the west coast of the South Island. The only area in New Zealand with significant known oil and gas deposits is theTaranakiarea, but many other offshore areas have the potential for deposits.[40]Iron sandis also plentiful on the west coast from Taranaki toAuckland.[41]Jade(PounamuinMāori) from South Islandophiolitescontinues to be extracted, mostly fromalluvium,and worked for sale.Groundwaterreservoirs are extracted throughout the country, but are particularly valuable in the dryer eastern regions of both the North and South Islands. Some of these reservoirs also can be used in low temperature heating and for agricultural frost protection, as well as being a potable resource.[42]

History of New Zealand geology

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Hochstetter's map of theAuckland volcanic field(1859).
See also:Surveying in New Zealand

The detailed study of New Zealand's geology began withJulius von HaastandFerdinand von Hochstetterwho created numerous regionalgeological mapsof the country during resource exploration in the mid-late 1800s.[43]In 1865James Hectorwas appointed to found theGeological Survey of New Zealand.Patrick Marshallcoined the termsandesite lineandignimbritein the early 1900s while working in the Taupō Volcanic Zone.Harold Wellmandiscovered the Alpine Fault and its 480 km offset in 1941. Even though Wellman proved that large blocks of land could move considerable distances, the New Zealand geological survey was largely a late adopter of plate tectonics.[44]

Charles Cottonbecame an international authority ongeomorphologyusing New Zealand active tectonics and variable climate to create universally applicably rules.[45]His major works becoming standard text books in New Zealand and overseas.[46]Charles Flemingestablished the Wanganui Basin as a classic site for studying past sea levels and climates. In 1975 thepalaeontologistJoan Wiffendiscovered the first dinosaur fossils in New Zealand.

The Geological Survey of New Zealand now known asGNS Sciencehas done extensive mapping through New Zealand at 1:250,000 and 1:50:000 scales. The most modern map series are the "QMAPs" at 1:250,000.[47]New Zealand's geological research is published by GNS Science, in the New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, and internationally. A Map showing the distribution of earthquakes in New Zealand can be obtained fromTe Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand.[48]Current earthquake and volcanic activity can be obtained from theGeoNetwebsite.[49]The universities ofAuckland,Canterbury,Massey,Otago,VictoriaandWaikatoare activity engaged in geological research in New Zealand,Antarctica,the wider South Pacific and elsewhere.

See also

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Regional geology

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References

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  2. ^New Zealand within Gondwanafrom Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
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  9. ^Beck, A. C.; Reed, J. J.; Willett, R. W. (1958)."Uranium mineralization in the Hawks Crag Breccia of the Lower Buller Gorge Region, South Island, New Zealand".New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics.1(3):432–450.Bibcode:1958NZJGG...1..432B.doi:10.1080/00288306.1958.10422773.ISSN0028-8306.
  10. ^Scanlon, John D.; Lee, Michael S.Y.; Archer, Michael (2003). "Mid-Tertiary elapid snakes (Squamata, Colubroidea) from Riversleigh, northern Australia: early steps in a continent-wide adaptive radiation".Geobios.36(5):573–601.Bibcode:2003Geobi..36..573S.doi:10.1016/S0016-6995(03)00056-1.ISSN0016-6995.
  11. ^Yuan, C.-X.; Ji, Q.; Meng, Q.-J.; Tabrum, A. R.; Luo, Z.-X. (2013). "Earliest Evolution of Multituberculate Mammals Revealed by a New Jurassic Fossil".Science.341(6147):779–783.Bibcode:2013Sci...341..779Y.doi:10.1126/science.1237970.ISSN0036-8075.PMID23950536.S2CID25885140.
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  13. ^Knapp, Michael; Mudaliar, Ragini; Havell, David; Wagstaff, Steven J.; Lockhart, Peter J.; Paterson, Adrian (2007)."The Drowning of New Zealand and the Problem of Agathis".Systematic Biology.56(5):862–870.doi:10.1080/10635150701636412.ISSN1076-836X.PMID17957581.
  14. ^Jiao, Ruohong;Seward, Diane;Little, Timothy A.; Herman, Frédéric; Kohn, Barry P. (2017). "Constraining provenance, thickness and erosion of nappes using low-temperature thermochronology: the Northland Allochthon, New Zealand".Basin Research.29(1):81–95.Bibcode:2017BasR...29...81J.doi:10.1111/bre.12166.ISSN0950-091X.S2CID129198310.
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Further reading

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  • Graham, Ian J. et al.;A continent on the move: New Zealand geoscience into the 21st century– The Geological Society of New Zealand in association with GNS Science, 2008.ISBN978-1-877480-00-3
  • Campbell, Hamish; Hutching, Gerard;In Search of Ancient New Zealand,Penguin Books in association with GNS Science, 2007,ISBN978-0-14-302088-2
  • Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New ZealandAn Overview of New Zealand Geology
  • Hot Stuff to Cold Stone– Aitken, Jefley; GNS Science, 1997.ISBN0-478-09602-X.
  • Rocked and Ruptured– Aitken, Jefley; Reed Books, in association with GNS Science, 1999.ISBN0-7900-0720-7.
  • The Rise and Fall of the Southern Alps– Coates, Glenn; Canterbury University Press, 2002.ISBN0-908812-93-0.
  • Plate Tectonics for Curious Kiwis– Aitken, Jefley; GNS Science, 1996.ISBN0-478-09555-4.
  • Lava and Strata: A guide to the volcanoes and rock formations of Auckland– Homer, Lloyd; Moore, Phil & Kermode, Les; Landscape Publications and the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, 2000.ISBN0-908800-02-9.
  • Vanishing volcanoes: a guide to the landforms and rock formations of Coromandel Peninsula– Homer, Lloyd; Moore, Phil; Landscape Publications and the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, 1992.ISBN0-908800-01-0.
  • Reading the rocks: a guide to geological features of the Wairarapa Coast– Homer, Lloyd; Moore, Phil & Kermode, Les; Landscape Publications and the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, 1989.ISBN0-908800-00-2
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