Wikipedia

Getae

Not to be confused withGeats,Jat people,getai,Gaeta,Getafe,orGepids.
This article is about a Thracian tribe. For a group that are believed to have been related to the Getae, seeMassagetae.

TheGetae(/ˈdʒiːtiː,ˈɡiːtiː/JEE-tee,GHEE-tee) orGets(/dʒɛts,ɡɛts/JETS,GHETS;Ancient Greek:Γέται,singularΓέτης) were aThracian-related[1]tribe that once inhabited the regions to either side of the LowerDanube,in what is today northernBulgariaand southernRomania.Although it is believed that the Getae were related to their westward neighbours, theDacians,several scholars[who?],especially in the Romanian historiography, posit that the Getae and the Dacians were the same people.

The area of land most often historically associated with the Getae people, shown in red dots at the mouth of the Danube River
TheThracian Tomb of Sveshtari,3rd century BC

Ethnonym

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The ethnonymGetaewas first used byHerodotus.The root was also used for theTyragetae,Thyssagetae,Massagetae,and others.

Getae and Dacians

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See also:Dacians

Ancient sources

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Beaker with birds and animals, Thraco-Getic, 4th century BC, silver, height: 18.7 cm (7.4 in),Metropolitan Museum of Art

Strabo,one of the first ancient sources to mention Getae and Dacians, stated in hisGeographica(c.7BC – 20AD) that the Dacians lived in the western parts ofDacia,"towardsGermaniaand the sources of the Danube ", while the Getae lived in the eastern parts, towards theBlack Sea,both south and north of the Danube.[2]The ancient geographer also wrote that the Dacians and Getae spoke the same language,[3]after stating the same about Getae and Thracians.[4]

Strabo's account of the lands inhabited by the Getae:

As for the southern part ofGermanybeyond theAlbis,the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by theSuevi;then immediately adjoining this is the land of the Getae, which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the IsterDanubeon its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the HercynianBlack Forest(for the land of the Getae also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as theTyragetae;but I cannot tell the precise boundaries
[...]
they give the name "Ister" to the lower part [of the Danuvius], from the cataracts on to the Pontus, the part which flows past the country of the Getae.

Pliny the Elder,in hisNaturalis Historia(Natural History), c.77–79AD: "... though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot theGetae,by the Romans calledDaci".[5]

Appian,who began writing hisRoman HistoryunderAntoninus Pius,Roman Emperor from 138 to 161, noted: "[B]ut going beyond these rivers in places they rule some of theCeltsover theRhineand the Getae over theDanube,whom they call Dacians ".[6][7]

Justin,the 3rd century AD Latin historian, wrote in hisEpitome of Pompeius Trogusthat Dacians are spoken of as descendants of the Getae:"Daci quoque suboles Getarum sunt"(The Dacians as well are ascionof the Getae).[8][9]

In hisRoman History(c.200AD),Cassius Dioadded: "I call the people Dacians, the name used by the natives themselves as well as by theRomans,though I am not ignorant that some Greek writers refer to them asGetae,whether that is the right term or not... ".[10][11]He also said the Dacians lived on both sides of the LowerDanube;the ones south of the river (today's northernBulgaria), inMoesia,were calledMoesians,while the ones north of the river were called Dacians. He argued that the Dacians are "Getae orThraciansof Dacian race ":[12]

In ancient times, it is true, Moesians and Getae occupied all the land betweenHaemusand the Ister; but as time went on some of them changed their names, and since then there have been included under the name of Moesia all the tribes living aboveDalmatia,Macedonia,andThrace,and separated fromPannoniaby theSavus,a tributary of theIster.Two of the many tribes found among them are those formerly called theTriballi,and theDardani,who still retain their old name.[13]

Modern interpretations

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There is a dispute among scholars about the relations between the Getae andDacians,and this dispute also covers the interpretation of ancient sources. Some historians such asRonald Arthur Crosslandstate that even Ancient Greeks used the two designations "interchangeable or with some confusion". Thus, it is generally considered that the two groups were related to a certain degree;[14]the exact relation is a matter of controversy.

Same people

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Onomasticrange of theDacian, Getae, and Moesian townswith thedavaordevaending, covering Dacia, Moesia, Thrace, andDalmatia,and showcasing linguistic continuity

Strabo, as well as other ancient sources, led some modern historians to consider that, if the Thracian ethnic group should be divided, one of this divisions should be the "Daco-Getae".[15]ThelinguistIvan Duridanovalso identified a "Dacian linguistic area"[16]inDacia,Scythia Minor,Lower Moesia,andUpper Moesia.

Romanianscholars generally went further with the identification, historianConstantin C. Giurescuclaiming the two were identical.[17]ThearchaeologistMircea Babeșspoke of a "veritable ethno-cultural unity" between the Getae and the Dacians.[citation needed]According toGlanville Price,the account of the Greek geographerStraboshows that the Getae and the Dacians were one and the same people.[18] Others who support the identity between Getae and Dacians with ancient sources include freelance writerJames MinahanandCatherine B Avery,who claim the people whom the Greek calledGetaewere calledDaciby the Romans.[19][20]This same belief is stated by some British historians such asDavid Sandler BerkowitzandPhilip Matyszak.[21][22]The Bulgarian historian and thracologistAlexander Folconsiders that the Getae became known as "Dacians" in Greek and Latin in the writings ofCaesar,Strabo andPliny the Elder,as Roman observers adopted the name of theDacian tribeto refer to all the unconquered inhabitants north of theDanube.[23]Also,Edward Bunburybelieved the name of Getae, by which they were originally known to the Greeks on theEuxine,was always retained by the latter in common usage: while that of Dacians, whatever be its origin, was that by which the more western tribes, adjoining thePannonians,first became known to the Romans.[24]Some scholars consider the Getae and Dacians to be the same people at different stages of their history and discuss their culture asGeto-Dacian.[25]

Same language, distinct people

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Historian and archaeologistAlexandru Vulpefound a remarkable uniformity of the Geto-Dacian culture;[26]however, he is one of the few Romanian archaeologists to make a clear distinction between the Getae and Dacians, arguing against the traditional position of the Romanian historiography that considered the two people the same.[27]Nevertheless, he chose to use the term "Geto-Dacians" as a conventional concept for the Thracian tribes inhabiting the future territory of Romania, not necessarily meaning an "absolute ethnic, linguistic or historical unity".[27]

Crossland suggested the two designations may refer to two groups of a "linguistically homogeneous people" that had come to historical prominence at two distinct periods of time. He also compared the probable linguistic situation with the relation between modernNorwegianandDanishlanguages.[28]Paul Lachlan MacKendrickconsidered the two as "branches" of the same tribe, speaking two dialects of a common language.[29]

The Romanianhistorian of ideasandhistoriographerLucian Boiastated: "At a certain point, the phrase Geto-Dacian was coined in the Romanian historiography to suggest a unity of Getae and Dacians".[30]Lucian Boia took a sceptical position, arguing the ancient writers distinguished among the two people, treating them as two distinct groups of the Thracian ethnos.[30][31]Boia contended that it would be naive to assume Strabo knew theThraciandialects so well,[30]alleging that Strabo had "no competence in the field of Thracian dialects".[31]The latter claim is contested, some studies attesting Strabo's reliability and sources.[32]There is no reason to disregard Strabo's belief that the Daci and the Getae spoke the same language.[18]Boia also stressed that some Romanian authors cited Strabo indiscriminately.[31]

A similar position was adopted by Romanian historian and archaeologistG. A. Niculescu,who also criticized the Romanian historiography and the archaeological interpretation, particularly on the "Geto-Dacian" culture.[33]In his opinion, Alexandru Vulpe saw ancient people as modern nations, leading the latter to interpret the common language as a sign of a common people, despite Strabo making a distinction between the two.[27]

History

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Eastern Europe in 200BC showing the Getae north of the Danube river

7th – 4th centuries BC

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From the 7th century BC onwards, the Getae came into economic and cultural contact with theGreeks,who were establishingcolonieson the western side of Pontus Euxinus, nowadays the Black Sea. The Getae are mentioned for the first time together inHerodotusin his narrative of theScythian campaignofDarius Iin 513BC, during which the latter conquered the Getae.[34]According to Herodotus, the Getae differed from other Thracian tribes in their religion, centered around the god (daimon)Zalmoxiswhom some of the Getae calledGebeleizis.[35]

Between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC, the Getae were mostly under the rule of the flourishingOdrysian kingdom.During this time, the Getae provided military services and became famous for their cavalry. After the disintegration of the Odrysian kingdom, smaller Getic principalities began to consolidate themselves.

Prosperity

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Before setting out on hisPersianexpedition,Alexander the Greatdefeated the Getae and razed one of their settlements.[36]In 313BC, the Getae formed an alliance withCallatis,Odessos,and other western Pontic Greek colonies againstLysimachus,who held a fortress at Tirizis (modernKaliakra).[37]

The Getae flourished especially in the first half of the 3rd century BC. By about 200BC, the authority of the Getic prince,Zalmodegicus,stretched as far asHistria,as a contemporary inscription shows.[38]Other strong princes includedZoltesandRhemaxos(about 180BC). Also, several Getic rulers minted their own coins. The ancient authorsStrabo[39]andCassius Dio[40]say that Getae practicedruler cult,and this is confirmed by archaeological remains.

Conflict with Rome

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In 72–71 BCMarcus Terentius Varro Lucullusbecame the firstRomancommander to march against the Getae. This was done to strike at the western Pontic allies ofMithridates VI,but he had limited success. A decade later, a coalition ofScythians,Getae,Bastarnaeand Greek colonists defeated C.Antonius HybridaatHistria.[41][42]This victory over the Romans allowedBurebista,the leader of this coalition, to dominate the region for a short period (60–50 BC).

In the mid-first century BCBurebistaorganized akingdomconsisting of descendants of those whom the Greeks had calledGetae,as well asDacians,orDaci,the name applied to people of the region by the Romans.[25]

Augustusaimed at subjugating the entireBalkan peninsula,and used an incursion of the Bastarnae across the Danube as a pretext to devastate the Getae and Thracians. He putMarcus Licinius Crassusin charge of the plan. In 29BC, Crassus defeated the Bastarnae with the help of the Getic princeRholes.[43]Crassus promised him help for his support against the Getic rulerDapyx.[44]After Crassus had reached as far theDanube Delta,Rholes was appointed king and returned to Rome. In 16BC, theSarmataeinvaded the Getic territory and were driven back by Roman troops.[45]The Getae were placed under the control of the Roman vassal king in Thrace,Rhoemetalces I.In 6AD, the province ofMoesiawas founded, incorporating the Getae south of theDanube River.The Getae north of the Danube continued tribal autonomy outside the Roman Empire.

Culture

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According toHerodotus,the Getae were "the noblest as well as the mostjustof all the Thracian tribes ".[46]When thePersians,led byDarius the Great,campaigned against theScythians,the Thracian tribes in theBalkanssurrenderedto Darius on his way toScythia,and only the Getae offered resistance.[46]

One episode from the history of the Getae is attested by several ancient writers.[47][48]

WhenLysimachustried to subdue the Getae he was defeated by them. The Getae king,Dromichaetes,took him prisoner but he treated him well and convinced Lysimachus there is more to gain as an ally than as an enemy of the Getae and released him. According to Diodorus, Dromichaetes entertained Lysimachus at his palace at Helis, where food was served on gold and silver plates. The discovery of the celebrated tomb atSveshtari(1982) suggests that Helis was located perhaps in its vicinity,[49]where remains of a large antique city are found along with dozens of other Thracian mound tombs.

As stated earlier, just like the Dacians, the principal god of the Getae wasZalmoxiswhom they sometimes calledGebeleizis.

This same people, when itlightensandthunders,aim theirarrowsat thesky,uttering threats against the god; and they do not believe that there is any god but their own.

— Herodotus.Histories,4.94.

Pliny the Elderin hisNaturalis Historiamentions a tribe called theTyragetae,[50]apparently a Daco-Thracian tribe who dwelt by the river Tyras (theDniester). Theirtribal nameappears to be a combination ofTyrasandGetae;see also the namesThyssagetaeandMassagetae.

TheRomanpoetOvid,during his long exile inTomis,is asserted to have written poetry (now lost) in theGetic language.In hisEpistulae ex Ponto,written from the northern coast of the Black Sea, he asserts that two major, distinct languages were spoken by the sundry tribes of Scythia, which he referred to as Getic, and Sarmatian.

Physical appearance

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Jerome(Letter CVII to Laeta. II) described the Getae as red and yellow-haired, though he may be referring to the Goths, with whom the Getae were sometimes confused in Late Antiquity.[51]

Fringe views on alternative origins

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The Getae are sometimes confused with theGothsin works of early medieval authors.[52][53][54][55][56]This confusion is notably expanded on in works ofJordanes,himself of Gothic background, who transferred earlier historical narratives about the Getae to the Goths.[57]At the close of the 4th century AD,Claudian,court poet to the emperorHonoriusand thepatricianStilicho,uses the ethnonymGetaeto refer to theVisigoths.

During 5th and 6th centuries, several historians and ethnographers (Marcellinus Comes,Orosius,John Lydus,Isidore of Seville,Procopius of Caesarea) used the same ethnonymGetaeto name populations invading theEastern Roman Empire(Goths,Gepids,Kutrigurs,Slavs). For instance, in the third book of theHistory of the WarsProcopiusdetails: "There were many Gothic nations in earlier times, just as also at the present, but the greatest and most important of all are the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, and Gepaedes. In ancient times, however, they were named Sauromatae and Melanchlaeni; and there were some too who called these nations Getic."[58]The Getae were considered the same people as the Goths byJordanesin hisGeticawritten at the middle of the 6th century. He also claims that at one point the "Getae" migrated out ofScandza,while identifying their deityZalmoxisas a Gothic king. Jordanes assumed the earlier testimony of Orosius. The 9th-century workDe UniversoofRabanus Maurusstates, "The Massagetae are in origin from the tribe of the Scythians, and are called Massagetae, as if heavy, that is, strong Getae.[59]

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There have long been attempts to link the Getae andMassagetaeto theJatsof South Asia. Likewise, the Dacians have been linked to theDahaeof Central Asia (and the Dahae to theDasasof South Asia).W. W. Hunterclaimed in 1886, suggested that the Jats were anIranian people– most likelyScythian/Sakain origin,[60]Alexander Cunningham(1888) believed that references in classical European sources – likeStrabo,PtolemyandPliny– to peoples such as theZaths,may have been the Getae and/or Jats.[61][62]More recent authors, likeTadeusz Sulimirski,[63]Weer Rajendra Rishi,[64]and Chandra Chakraberty,[65][66]have also linked the Getae and Jats.

Less credible, however, are parallel claims by Alexander Cunningham that theXanthii(orZanthi) andIatioi– mentioned by Strabo, Ptolemy and Pliny – may have been synonymous with the Getae and/or Jats.[61]TheXanthiiwere later established to be a subgroup (tribe or clan) of the Dahae. Subsequent scholars, such asEdwin Pulleyblank,Josef Markwart(also known as Joseph Marquart) andLászló Torday,suggest thatIatioimay be another name for a people known in classical Chinese sources as theYuezhiand in South Asian contexts as theKuṣānas(or Kushans).[62]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^"Getae".Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.RetrievedAugust 16,2018.Getae, an ancient people of Thracian origin, inhabiting the banks of the lower Danube region and nearby plains
  2. ^Strabo & 20 AD,VII 3,13.
  3. ^Strabo & 20 AD,VII 3,14.
  4. ^The Cambridge Ancient History (Volume 3)(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1982.ISBN1108007147.
  5. ^Pliny the Elder & 77 AD,IV 25.
  6. ^Appian & 160 AD,Praef. 1.4.
  7. ^Millar, Fergus; Cotton, Hannah M.; Rogers, Guy M. (2004).Rome, the Greek World, and the East, Volume 2: Government, Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire page 189.University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-0-8078-5520-1.
  8. ^Justin & 3rd century AD,XXXII 3.
  9. ^Papazoglu, Fanula (1978).The Central Balkan Tribes in Pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci, & Moesians, translated by Mary Stansfield-Popovic page 335.John Benjamins North America.ISBN978-90-256-0793-7.
  10. ^Shelley, William Scott (199).The Origins of the Europeans: Classical Observations in Culture and Personality, page 108, Cassius Dio (LXVII.4).Intl Scholars Pubns.ISBN1-57309-220-7.
  11. ^Sidebottom 2007,p. 6.
  12. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,55.22.6-55.22.7."TheSuebi,to be exact, dwell beyond the Rhine (though many people elsewhere claim their name), and theDacianson both sides of theIster;those of the latter, however, who live on this side of the river near the country of the Triballi are reckoned in with the district of Moesia and are called Moesians, except by those living in the immediate neighbourhood, while those on the other side are called Dacians and are either a branch of the Getae are Thracians belonging to the Dacian race that once inhabited Rhodope. "
  13. ^Cassius Dio LI 27
  14. ^The Cambridge Ancient History (Volume 10)(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1996.J. J. Wilkes mentions "the Getae of the Dobrudja, who were akin to the Dacians"; (p. 562)
  15. ^András Mócsy (1974).Pannonia and Upper Moesia.Routledge and Kegan Paul.ISBN0-7100-7714-9.See p. 364, n. 41: "If there is any justification for dividing the Thracian ethnic group, then, unlike V. Georgiev who suggests splitting it into the Thraco-Getae and the Daco-Mysi, I consider a division into the Thraco-Mysi and the Daco-Getae the more likely."
  16. ^Duridanov, Ivan."The Thracian, Dacian and Paeonian languages".Retrieved2007-02-11.
  17. ^Giurescu, Constantin C. (1973).Formarea poporului român(in Romanian). Craiova. p. 23.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)"They (Dacians and Getae) are two names for the same people [...] divided in a large number of tribes". See also the hypothesis of aDaco-Moesian language / dialectal areasupported by linguists like Vladimir Georgiev, Ivan Duridanov and Sorin Olteanu.
  18. ^abPrice, Glanville (2000).Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe.Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN0-631-22039-9.,p. 120
  19. ^Minahan 2000,p. 549.
  20. ^Avery 1962,p. 497.
  21. ^Sandler Berkowitz & Morison 1984,p. 160.
  22. ^Matyszak 2009,p. 215.
  23. ^Fol 1996,p. 223.
  24. ^Bunbury 1979,p. 151.
  25. ^abWaldman & Mason 2006,p. 335.
  26. ^Petrescu-Dîmbovița, Mircea; Vulpe, Alexandru, eds. (2001).Istoria Românilor, vol. I(in Romanian). Bucharest.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[page needed]
  27. ^abcNiculescu, Gheorghe Alexandru (2007). "Archaeology and Nationalism in The History of the Romanians". In Kohl, Philip; Kozelsky, Mara; Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (eds.).Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts.University of Chicago Press. pp. 139–141.ISBN978-0-226-45059-9.
  28. ^The Cambridge Ancient History (Volume 3)(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1982.ISBN1-108-00714-7.In chapter "20c Linguistic problems of the Balkan area", at page 838,Ronald Crosslandargues "it may be the distinction made by Greeks and Romans between the Getae and Daci, for example, reflected the importance of different sections of a linguistically homogenous people at different times". He furthermore recalls Strabo's testimony and Georgiev's hypothesis for a 'Thraco-Dacian' language.
  29. ^Paul Lachlan MacKendrick (1975).The Dacian Stones Speak.University of North Carolina Press.ISBN0-8078-4939-1."The natives with whom we shall be concerned in this chapter are the Getae of Muntenia and Moldavia in the eastern steppes, and the Dacians of the Carpathian Mountains. Herodotus calls them 'the bravest and the justest of the Thracians,' and they were in fact two branches of the same tribe, speaking two dialects of the same Indo-European language." (p. 45)
  30. ^abcBoia, Lucian (2004).Romania: Borderland of Europe.Reaktion Books. p. 43.ISBN1-86189-103-2.
  31. ^abcBoia, Lucian (2001).History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness.Central European University Press. p. 14.ISBN963-9116-97-1.
  32. ^Janakieva, Svetlana (2002). "La notion de ΟΜΟΓΛΩΤΤΟΙ chez Strabon et la situation ethno-linguistique sur les territoires thraces".Études Balkaniques(in French) (4): 75–79.The author concluded Strabo's claim sums an experience following of many centuries of neighbourhood and cultural interferences between the Greeks and the Thracian tribes
  33. ^Niculescu, Gheorghe Alexandru (2004–2005). "Archaeology, Nationalism and" The History of the Romanians "(2001)".Dacia, Revue d'Archéologie et d'Histoire Ancienne(48–49): 99–124.He dedicates a large part of his assessment to the archaeology of "Geto-Dacians" and he concludes that with few exceptions "the archaeological interpretations [...] are following G. Kossinna’s concepts of culture, archaeology and ethnicity".
  34. ^The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 10 - Persia, Greece, and the Western MediterraneanCambridge University Press,1982.ISBN978-0521228046p 494
  35. ^Herodotus.Histories,4.93–4.97.
  36. ^Arrian.Anabasis,Book IA."The Getae did not sustain even the first charge of the cavalry; for Alexander’s audacity seemed incredible to them, in having thus easily crossed the Ister, the largest of rivers, in a single night, without throwing a bridge over the stream. Terrible to them also was the closely locked order of the phalanx, and violent the charge of the cavalry. At first they fled for refuge into their city, which was distant about a parasang from the Ister; but when they saw that Alexander was leading his phalanx carefully along the side of the river, to prevent his infantry being anywhere surrounded by the Getae lying in ambush, but that he was sending his cavalry straight on, they again abandoned the city, because it was badly fortified."
  37. ^Strabo.Geography,7.6.1."On this coast-line is Cape Tirizis, a stronghold, which Lysimachus once used as a treasury."
  38. ^Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum 18.288
  39. ^Strabo.Geography,16.2.38–16.2.39.
  40. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,68.9.
  41. ^Livy.Ab urbe condita,103.
  42. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,38.10.1–38.10.3.
  43. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,51.24.7; 26.1.
  44. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,51.26.
  45. ^Cassius Dio.Roman History,54.20.1–54.20.3.
  46. ^abHerodotus.Histories,4.93.
  47. ^Strabo.Geography,3.8.
  48. ^Pausanias.Description of Greece,1.9.5.
  49. ^Delev, P. (2000). "Lysimachus, the Getae, and Archaeology (2000)".The Classical Quarterly.New Series.50(2): 384–401.doi:10.1093/cq/50.2.384.
  50. ^Pliny the Elder.Naturalis Historia,4.26."Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the Auchetæ, in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the Geloni, the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the Agathyrsi with their azure-coloured hair."
  51. ^"Jerome".orthodoxchurchfathers.
  52. ^Theodor Mommsen(2005).A History of Rome Under the Emperors.New York:Routledge.p. 281. "The Getae wereThracians,the GothsGermans,and apart from the coincidental similarity in their names they had nothing whatever in common. "
  53. ^David Punter(2015).A New Companion to The Gothic.Hoboken, New Jersey:John Wiley & Sons.p. 31.
  54. ^Robert W. Rix (2014).The Barbarian North in Medieval Imagination: Ethnicity, Legend, and Literature.New York:Routledge.p. 33.
  55. ^Harold W. Attridge(1992).Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism.Detroit, Michigan:Wayne State University Press.p. 696.
  56. ^Irmeli Valtonen (2008).The North in the Old English Orosius: A Geographical Narrative in Context.Helsinki: Société Néophilologique. p. 110.
  57. ^Shami Ghosh (2015).Writing the Barbarian Past: Studies in Early Medieval Historical Narrative.Leiden:Brill Publishers.pp. 49–50.
  58. ^Procopius.History of the Wars,Book III (Wikisource).
  59. ^Maurus, Rabanus(1864). Migne, Jacques Paul (ed.).De universo.Paris.The Massagetae are in origin from the tribe of the Scythians, and are called Massagetae, as if heavy, that is, strong Getae.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  60. ^W. W. Hunter, 2013,The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products,Routledge, 2013, p. 179-180.
  61. ^abAlexander Cunningham, 1888, cited by: Sundeep S. Jhutti, 2003,The Getes,Philadelphia, PA; Department of East Asian languages & Civilizations University of Pennsylvania, p. 13.
  62. ^abSundeep S. Jhutti, 2003, "The Getes",Sino-Platonic Papers,no. 127 (October),pp. 15–17. (Access: 18 March 2016).
  63. ^Sulimirski, Tadeusz(1970).The Sarmatians: Volume 73 of Ancient peoples and places.New York: Praeger. pp. 113–114.ISBN9789080057272.The evidence of both the ancient authors and the archaeological remains point to a massive migration of Sacian (Sakas)/Massagetan ( "great" Jat) tribes from the Syr Daria Delta (Central Asia) by the middle of the second century B.C. Some of the Syr Darian tribes; they also invaded North India.
  64. ^Rishi, Weer Rajendra(1982).India & Russia: linguistic & cultural affinity.Roma. p. 95.
  65. ^Chakraberty, Chandra (1948).The prehistory of India: tribal migrations.Vijayakrishna Bros. p. 35.
  66. ^Chakraberty, Chandra (1997).Racial basis of Indian culture: including Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal.Aryan Books International.ISBN8173051100.

References

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Ancient

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Modern

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