God(word)

TheEnglishwordgodcomes from theOld Englishgod,which itself is derived from theProto-Germanic*gudą.Its cognates in otherGermanic languagesincludeguþ, gudis(bothGothic),guð(Old Norse),god(Old Saxon,Old Frisian,andOld Dutch), andgot(Old High German).

Earliest attestation of the Germanic word in the 6th-centuryCodex Argenteus(Mt5:34)

Etymology

TheProto-Germanicmeaning of*gudąand its etymology is uncertain. It is generally agreed that it derives from aProto-Indo-Europeanneuterpassive perfect participle*ǵʰu-tó-m.^[1]^{: 193–194}This form within (late) Proto-Indo-European itself was possibly ambiguous, and thought to derive from a root*ǵʰew-"to pour, libate" (the idea survives in the Dutch wordgiet,meaning "pour" ) (Sanskrithuta,seehotṛ), or from a root*ǵʰaw-(*ǵʰewh₂-) "to call, to invoke" (Sanskrithūta). Sanskrithutá= "having been sacrificed", from the verb roothu= "sacrifice", but a slight shift in translation gives the meaning "one to whom sacrifices are made." Thus it can be related to the ancient Indian nameGautamand its Sanskrit roots.

Depending on which possibility is preferred, thepre-Christianmeaning of the Germanic term may either have been (in the "pouring" case) "libation"or" that which is libated upon,idol"— or, as Watkins^[2]opines in the light ofGreekχυτη γαια"poured earth" meaning "tumulus","the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound "— or (in the" invoke "case)" invocation, prayer "(compare the meanings of Sanskritbrahman) or "that which is invoked". The term "Godan" was the name used forWodanamongst the pre-Christian Lombards.^[3]

Influence of Christianity

Godentered English when the language still had a system ofgrammatical gender.The word and its cognates were initially neutral but underwent transition when their speakers converted to Christianity, "as a means of distinguishing the personal God of the Christians from the impersonal divine powers acknowledged by pagans."^[4]^: 15However, traces of the neuter endured. While these words became syntactically masculine, so thatdeterminersandadjectivesconnected to them took masculine endings, they sometimes remained morphologically neuter, which could be seen in their inflections: In the phrase,guþ meins,"my God," from the Gothic Bible, for example,guþinflects as if it were still a neuter because it lacks a final-s,but the possessive adjectivemeinstakes the final-sthat it would with other masculine nouns.^[4]^: 15

Godand its cognates likely had a general, predominantly plural or collective sense prior to conversion to Christianity. After conversion, the word was commonly used in the singular to refer to the Christian deity, and also took on characteristics of a name.^[4]^: 15–16^[5]

Translations

The wordgodwas used to representGreektheosandLatindeusinBibletranslations, first in the Gothic translation of theNew Testamentby Ulfilas. For the etymology ofdeus,see*dyēus.

Greek "θεός"(theos) means god in English. It is often connected with Greek "θέω" (theō), "run",^[6]^[7]and "θεωρέω" (theoreō), "to look at, to see, to observe",^[8]^[9]Latinferiae"holidays",fanum"temple", and also Armeniandi-k`"gods". Alternative suggestions (e.g. byDe Saussure) connect*dhu̯es-"smoke, spirit", attested in Baltic and Germanic words for "spook"and ultimately cognate with Latinfumus"smoke." The earliest attested form of the word is theMycenaean Greekte-o^[10](pluralte-o-i^[11]), written inLinear Bsyllabic script.

Capitalization

KJV of 1611 (Psalms23:1,2): Occurrence of "LORD" (and "God" in the heading)

The development ofEnglish orthographywas dominated byChristiantexts. Capitalized, "God"was first used to refer to theAbrahamic Godand may now signify any monotheisticconception of God,including the translations of theArabicAllāh,PersianKhuda,IndicIshvaraand theMaasaiNgai.

In theEnglish language,capitalization is used for names by which a god is known, including "God". Consequently, its capitalized form is not used for multiple gods or when referring to the generic idea of adeity.^[12]^[13]

Pronouns referring to a god are also often capitalized by adherents to a religion as an indication of reverence, and are traditionally in themasculine gender( "He", "Him", "His" etc) unless specifically referring to agoddess.^[14]^[15]

References

^Kroonen, Guus (2013).Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-90-04-18340-7.
^Watkins, Calvert, ed., The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.
^Paul the Deacon (2003). Peters, Edward (ed.). History of the Lombards. Translated by Foulke, William Dudley. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN 0812210794.
^^a ^b ^cGreen, D. H. (1998).Language and History in the Early Germanic World.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521794237.
^"god".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
^"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, θεός".perseus.tufts.edu.
^"Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, θέω".perseus.tufts.edu.
^θεωρέω,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,on Perseus
^Dermot Moran,The Philosophy of John Scottus Eriugena: A Study of Idealism in the Middle Ages,Cambridge University Press
^Palaeolexicon,Word study tool of ancient languages
^Palaeolexicon,Word study tool of ancient languages
^Webster's New World Dictionary;"God n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty"
^Dictionary;"God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony."
^The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge.25 October 2011.ISBN 9780312643027.Retrieved27 December2011.Pronoun references to a deity worshiped by people in the present are sometimes capitalized, although some writers use capitals only to prevent confusion:God helped Abraham carry out His law.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
^Alcoholic Thinking: language, culture, and belief in Alcoholics Anonymous.Greenwood Publishing Group.1998.ISBN 9780275960490.Retrieved27 December2011.Traditional biblical translations that always capitalize the word "God" and the pronouns, "He," "Him," and "His" in reference to God itself and the use of archaic forms such as "Thee," "Thou," and "Thy" are familiar.

External links

[1] Kroonen, Guus (2013).Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-90-04-18340-7.

[2] Watkins, Calvert, ed., The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.

[3] Paul the Deacon (2003). Peters, Edward (ed.). History of the Lombards. Translated by Foulke, William Dudley. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN 0812210794.

[Green1998-4] Green, D. H. (1998).Language and History in the Early Germanic World.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521794237.

[5] "god".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)

[6] "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, θεός".perseus.tufts.edu.

[7] "Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, θέω".perseus.tufts.edu.

[8] θεωρέω,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,on Perseus

[9] Dermot Moran,The Philosophy of John Scottus Eriugena: A Study of Idealism in the Middle Ages,Cambridge University Press

[10] Palaeolexicon,Word study tool of ancient languages

[11] Palaeolexicon,Word study tool of ancient languages

[12] Webster's New World Dictionary;"God n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * ĝhau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans havaté, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty"

[13] Dictionary;"God /gɒd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony."

[Religion1-14] The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge.25 October 2011.ISBN 9780312643027.Retrieved27 December2011.Pronoun references to a deity worshiped by people in the present are sometimes capitalized, although some writers use capitals only to prevent confusion:God helped Abraham carry out His law.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)

[Religion2-15] Alcoholic Thinking: language, culture, and belief in Alcoholics Anonymous.Greenwood Publishing Group.1998.ISBN 9780275960490.Retrieved27 December2011.Traditional biblical translations that always capitalize the word "God" and the pronouns, "He," "Him," and "His" in reference to God itself and the use of archaic forms such as "Thee," "Thou," and "Thy" are familiar.

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