Greek language

For the Greek language used during particular eras, seeProto-Greek language,Mycenaean Greek,Ancient Greek,Koine Greek,Medieval Greek,andModern Greek.

Greek(Modern Greek:Ελληνικά,romanized:Elliniká,pronounced[eliniˈka];Ancient Greek:Ἑλληνική,romanized:Hellēnikḗ) is anIndo-Europeanlanguage, constituting an independent branch of it, native toGreece,Cyprus,Italy(inCalabriaandSalento), southernAlbania,and other regions of theBalkans,Caucasus,theBlack Seacoast,Asia Minor,and theEastern Mediterranean.It has thelongest documented historyof any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.Its writing system is theGreek Alpha bet,which has been used for approximately 2,800 years;previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such asLinear Band theCypriot syllabary.The Alpha bet arose from thePhoenician scriptand was in turn the basis of theLatin,Cyrillic,Coptic,Gothic,and many other writing systems.

Greek
Ελληνικά Elliniká
Pronunciation	[eliniˈka]
Native to	Greece Cyprus Albania(Gjirokastër CountyandVlorë County) Italy(Calabria,SalentoandMessina) and other regions of theBalkans,Caucasus,Black Seacoast,Asia MinorandEastern Mediterranean
Ethnicity	Greeks
Native speakers	13.5 million (2012)
Language family	Indo-European Graeco-Phrygian(?) Hellenic Greek
Early form	Proto-Greek
Dialects	Ancient dialects Koine Medieval Modern dialects
Writing system	Greek Alpha bet
Official status
Official language in	Greece Cyprus European Union Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Recognised minority language in	Albania Argentina Armenia Australia Hungary Italy(ApuliaandCalabria) Romania Turkey Ukraine United States Russia
Language codes
ISO 639-1	el
ISO 639-2	gre(B) ell(T)
ISO 639-3	Variously: ell–Modern Greek grc–Ancient Greek cpg–Cappadocian Greek gmy–Mycenaean Greek pnt–Pontic tsd–Tsakonian yej–Yevanic
Glottolog	gree1276
Linguasphere	56-AAA-a 56-AAA-aato-am(varieties)
Areas where Modern Greek is spoken (Dark blue represents areas where it is the official language.)

The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics ofHomer,ancient Greek literatureincludes many works of lasting importance in theEuropean canon.Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. TheNew Testamentof theChristian Biblewas also originally written in Greek.Together with theLatintexts and traditions of theRoman world,the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline ofClassics.

Duringantiquity,Greek was by far the most widely spokenlingua francain theMediterranean world.It eventually became the official language of theByzantine Empireand developed intoMedieval Greek.In itsmodern form,Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24official languages of the European Union.It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania,Turkey,and the many other countries of theGreek diaspora.

Greekrootshave been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages;Greek and Latinare the predominant sources ofinternational scientific vocabulary.

Idealised portrayal of the authorHomer

History

Main article:History of Greek

Greek has been spoken in theBalkan peninsulasince around the 3rd millennium BC,or possibly earlier.The earliest written evidence is aLinear Bclay tabletfound inMesseniathat dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,making Greek the world'soldest recordedliving language.Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinctAnatolian languages.

Periods

Proto-Greek-speaking area according to linguistVladimir I. Georgiev

The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:

• Proto-Greek:the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered theGreek peninsulasometime in theNeolithicera or theBronze Age.
• Mycenaean Greek:the language of theMycenaean civilization.It is recorded in theLinear Bscript on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards.
• Ancient Greek:in its variousdialects,the language of theArchaicandClassicalperiods of theancient Greek civilization.It was widely known throughout theRoman Empire.Ancient Greek fell into disuse in Western Europe in theMiddle Agesbut remained officially in use in theByzantineworld and was reintroduced to the rest of Europe with theFall of ConstantinopleandGreekmigration to western Europe.
• Koine Greek(also known asHellenistic Greek): The fusion ofIonianwithAttic,the dialect ofAthens,began the process that resulted in the creation of the first common Greek dialect, which became alingua francaacross theEastern MediterraneanandNear East.Koine Greek can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories ofAlexander the Great;after the Hellenistic colonization of the known world, it was spoken fromEgyptto the fringes of India. After theRomanconquest of Greece, an unofficialbilingualismof Greek andLatinwas established in the city ofRomeand Koine Greek became the first or second language in theRoman Empire.The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek because theApostlesused this form of the language to spread Christianity. Because it was the original language of theNew Testament,and theOld Testamentwas translated into it as theSeptuagint,that variety of Koine Greek may be referred to asNew Testament Greekor sometimesBiblical Greek.

Distribution of varieties of Greek inAnatolia,1910.Demoticin yellow.Ponticin orange.Cappadocian Greekin green, with green dots indicating individual Cappadocian Greek villages.

• Medieval Greek(also known asByzantine Greek): the continuation of Koine Greek up to the demise of theByzantine Empirein the 15th century.Medieval Greekis a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine.
• Modern Greek(also known asNeo-Hellenic):Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are severaldialectsof it.

Diglossia

Main article:Greek language question

In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state ofdiglossia:the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as theGreek language questionwas a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek:Dimotiki,the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, andKatharevousa,meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki andAncient Greekdeveloped in the early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth toStandard Modern Greek,used today for all official purposes and ineducation.

Historical unity

The distribution of major modern Greek dialect areas

The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.It is also oftenstated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "Homeric Greekis probably closer toDemoticthan 12-centuryMiddle Englishis tomodern spoken English".

Geographic distribution

Further information:GreeksandGreek diaspora

Geographic distribution of Greek language in the Russian Empire (1897 census)

Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizableGreek-speaking minority in Albanianear the Greek-Albanian border.A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to theGreco-Turkish Warand the resultingpopulation exchange in 1923a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed inTurkey,though very few remain today.A small Greek-speaking community is also found inBulgarianear the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizableGreek diasporawhich has notable communities in theUnited States,Australia,Canada,South Africa,Chile,Brazil,Argentina,Russia,Ukraine,theUnited Kingdom,and throughout theEuropean Union,especially inGermany.

Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout theEastern Mediterranean,in what are todaySouthern Italy,Turkey,Cyprus,Syria,Lebanon,Israel,Palestine,Egypt,andLibya;in the area of theBlack Sea,in what are today Turkey,Bulgaria,Romania,Ukraine,Russia,Georgia,Armenia,andAzerbaijan;and, to a lesser extent, in the WesternMediterraneanin and aroundcoloniessuch asMassalia,Monoikos,andMainake.It was also used as the official language of government and religion in theChristian Nubian kingdoms,for most of their history.

Official status

Greek, in its modern form, is theofficial languageof Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongsideTurkish) and theBritish Overseas TerritoryofAkrotiri and Dhekelia(alongsideEnglish).Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's24 official languages.Greek is recognized as aminority languagein Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts ofGjirokastërandSarandë.It is also an official minority language in the regions ofApuliaandCalabriain Italy. In the framework of theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages,Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia,Hungary,Romania, and Ukraine.It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923Treaty of Lausanne.

Characteristics

See also:Ancient Greek grammar,Koine Greek grammar,andModern Greek grammar

Thephonology,morphology,syntax,andvocabularyof the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it.

Phonology

Main articles:Modern Greek phonology,Koine Greek phonology,andAncient Greek phonology

SpokenModern Greek

Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has onlyoral vowelsand a fairly stable set of consonantalcontrasts.The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (seeKoine Greek phonologyfor details):

• replacement of thepitch accentwith astress accent.
• simplification of the system ofvowelsanddiphthongs:loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in achain shiftof vowels towards/i/(iotacism).
• development of thevoicelessaspiratedplosives/pʰ/and/tʰ/to the voicelessfricatives/f/and/θ/,respectively; the similar development of/kʰ/to/x/may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written withφ,θ,andχ).
• development of thevoicedplosives/b/,/d/,and/ɡ/to their voiced fricative counterparts/β/(later/v/),/ð/,and/ɣ/.

Morphology

In all its stages, themorphologyof Greek shows an extensive set ofproductivederivational affixes,a limited but productive system ofcompoundingand a richinflectionalsystem. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in thenominaland verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of thedative case(its functions being largely taken over by thegenitive). The verbal system has lost theinfinitive,thesynthetically-formed future, andperfect tensesand theoptative mood.Many have been replaced byperiphrastic(analytical) forms.

Nouns and adjectives

Pronouns show distinctions inperson(1st, 2nd, and 3rd),number(singular,dual,and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), andgender(masculine, feminine, and neuter), anddeclineforcase(from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Bothattributiveandpredicativeadjectivesagreewith the noun.

Verbs

The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs havesyntheticinflectional forms for:

	Ancient Greek	Modern Greek
Person	first, second and third	alsosecond person formal
Number	singular,dualand plural	singular and plural
tense	present,pastandfuture	past and non-past (future is expressed by aperiphrastic construction)
aspect	imperfective,perfective(traditionally calledaorist) andperfect(sometimes also calledperfective;seenote about terminology)	imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction)
mood	indicative,subjunctive,imperativeandoptative	indicative, subjunctive,and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions)
Voice	active,medio-passive,andpassive	activeandmedio-passive

Syntax

Many aspects of thesyntaxof Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of themodern form of the language.Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.

Vocabulary

Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number ofborrowingsfrom the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks,some documented inMycenaean texts;they include a large number of Greektoponyms.The form and meaning of many words have changed.Loanwords(words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin,Venetian,andTurkish.During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived fromAlbanian,South Slavic(Macedonian/Bulgarian) andEastern Romance languages(AromanianandMegleno-Romanian).

Loanwords in other languages

Further information:English words of Greek originandList of Greek and Latin roots in English

Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include:mathematics,physics,astronomy,democracy,philosophy,athletics,theatre,rhetoric,baptism,evangelist,etc. Moreover, Greek words andword elementscontinue to be productive as a basis for coinages:anthropology,photography,telephony,isomer,biomechanics,cinematography,etc. Together withLatin words,they form thefoundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary;for example, all words ending in-logy('discourse'). There are manyEnglish words of Greek origin.

Classification

Greek is an independent branch of theIndo-Europeanlanguage family. The ancient language most closely related to it may beancient Macedonian,which, by most accounts, was a distinctdialect of Greekitself.Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regardsPhrygianas the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexicalisoglosses,with some being exclusive between them.Scholars have proposed aGraeco-Phrygiansubgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated.

Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related toArmenian(seeGraeco-Armenian) or theIndo-Iranian languages(seeGraeco-Aryan), but little definitive evidence has been found.In addition,Albanianhas also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with otherextinct languagesof the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termedPalaeo-Balkan,and Greek has a central position in it.

Writing system

See also:Greek Braille

Linear B

Main article:Linear B

Linear B,attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.It is basically asyllabary,which was finally deciphered byMichael VentrisandJohn Chadwickin the 1950s (its precursor,Linear A,has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).The language of the Linear B texts,Mycenaean Greek,is the earliest known form of Greek.

Cypriot syllabary

Main article:Cypriot syllabary

Greek inscription in Cypriot syllabic script

Another similar system used to write the Greek language was theCypriot syllabary(also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediateCypro-Minoan syllabary), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek Alpha bet.

Greek Alpha bet

Main articles:Greek Alpha betandGreek orthography

Ancient epichoric variants of the Greek Alpha bet fromEuboea,Ionia,Athens, andCorinthcomparing to modern Greek

Greek has been written in the Greek Alpha bet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying thePhoenician Alpha bet,with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the Alpha bet in use today is essentially the lateIonicvariant, introduced for writing classicalAtticin 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use ofinkandquill.

The Greek Alpha bet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (majuscule) and lowercase (minuscule) form. The lettersigmahas an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word:

upper case
Α	Β	Γ	Δ	Ε	Ζ	Η	Θ	Ι	Κ	Λ	Μ	Ν	Ξ	Ο	Π	Ρ	Σ	Τ	Υ	Φ	Χ	Ψ	Ω
lower case
α	β	γ	δ	ε	ζ	η	θ	ι	κ	λ	μ	ν	ξ	ο	π	ρ	σ ς	τ	υ	φ	χ	ψ	ω

Diacritics

Main article:Greek diacritics

In addition to the letters, the Greek Alpha bet features a number ofdiacritical signs:three different accent marks (acute,grave,andcircumflex), originally denoting different shapes ofpitch accenton the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (roughandsmooth breathing), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and thediaeresis,used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave inhandwritingsaw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained intypography.

After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplifiedmonotonic orthography(or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing ofAncient Greek.

Punctuation

In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as theano teleia(άνω τελεία). In Greek thecommaalso functions as asilent letterin a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishingό,τι(ó,ti,'whatever') fromότι(óti,'that').

Ancient Greek texts often usedscriptio continua('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.Boustrophedon,or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek.

Latin Alpha bet

Greek has occasionally been written in theLatin script,especially in areas underVenetian ruleor byGreek Catholics.The termFrankolevantinika/Φραγκολεβαντίνικαapplies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (becauseFrankos/Φράγκοςis an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of theFrankish Empire).Frankochiotika/Φραγκοχιώτικα(meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island ofChios.Additionally, the termGreeklishis often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.

The Latin script is nowadays used by theGreek-speakingcommunities ofSouthern Italy.

Hebrew Alpha bet

TheYevanicdialect was written byRomanioteand Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using theHebrew Alphabet.

Arabic Alpha bet

SomeGreek Muslimsfrom Cretewrote theirCretan Greekin theArabic Alpha bet.The same happened among Epirote Muslims inIoannina.This usage is sometimes calledaljamiado,as whenRomance languagesare written in the Arabic Alpha bet.

Example text

Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin Greek:

Όλοι οι άνθρωποι γεννιούνται ελεύθεροι και ίσοι στην αξιοπρέπεια και τα δικαιώματα. Είναι προικισμένοι με λογική και συνείδηση, και οφείλουν να συμπεριφέρονται μεταξύ τους με πνεύμα αδελφοσύνης.

Transcriptionof the example text intoLatin Alpha bet:

Óloi oi ánthropoi gennioúntai eléftheroi kai ísoi stin axioprépeia kai ta dikaiómata. Eínai proikisménoi me logikí kai syneídisi, kai ofeíloun na symperiférontai metaxý tous me pnévma adelfosýnis.

Article 1 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin English:

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

See also

• List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes

References

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Further reading

• Allen, W. Sidney (1968).Vox Graeca – A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek.Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-20626-6.
• Crosby, Henry Lamar;Schaeffer, John Nevin(1928).An Introduction to Greek.Boston, MA; New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
• Dionysius of Thrace.Bibliotheca AugustanaΤέχνη Γραμματική[Art of Grammar] (in Greek).
• Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997).Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language.London and New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-10002-1.
• Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997).Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers.London and New York: Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited).ISBN978-0-582-30709-4.
• Krill, Richard M. (1990).Greek and Latin in English Today.Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.ISBN978-0-86516-241-9.
• Mallory, James P. (1997)."Greek Language".In Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240–246.ISBN9781884964985.
• Newton, Brian (1972).The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology.Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-08497-0.
• Sihler, Andrew L.(1995).New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin.New York, NY: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-508345-3.
• Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920].Greek Grammar.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-36250-5.

External links

General background

• Greek Language,Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
• The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway,useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
• Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,The Greek Language Portal,a portal for Greek language and linguistic education.
• The Perseus Projecthas many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
• Ancient Greek Tutorials,Berkeley Language Center of the University of California, Berkeley

Language learning

• Hellenistic Greek LessonsGreek-Language provides a free online grammar of Hellenistic Greek.
• komvos.edu.gr,a website for the support of people who are being taught the Greek language.
• New Testament GreekArchived6 February 2009 at theWayback MachineThree graduated courses designed to help students learn to read the Greek New Testament
• Books on Greek language that are taught at schools in Greece(in Greek)
• Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words(from Wiktionary'sSwadesh list appendix)
• USA Foreign Service Institute Modern Greek basic course
• Aversa, Alan."Greek Inflector".Identifies the grammatical functions of all the words in sentences entered, using Perseus.

Dictionaries

• Greek Lexical Aids,descriptions of both online lexicons (with appropriate links) and Greek Lexicons in Print.
• The Greek Language Portal,dictionaries of all forms of Greek (Ancient, Hellenistic, Medieval, Modern)
• scanned images fromS. C. Woodhouse's English–Greek dictionary,1910

Literature

• Center for Neo-Hellenic Studies,a non-profit organization that promotes modern Greek literature and culture
• Research lab of modern Greek philosophy,a large e-library of modern Greek texts/books