Greek mythology

Greek mythologyis the body ofmythsoriginally told by theancient Greeks,and agenreofancient Greek folklore,today absorbed alongsideRoman mythologyinto the broader designation ofclassical mythology.These stories concern theancient Greek religion's view of theoriginandnature of the world;the lives and activities ofdeities,heroes,andmythological creatures;and the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks'cultandritualpractices. Modernscholarsstudy the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece, and to better understand the nature of myth-making itself.

Scenes from Greek mythology depicted in ancient art. Left-to-right, top-to-bottom: the birth ofAphrodite,a revel withDionysusandSilenus,Adonisplaying thekitharafor Aphrodite,Heraclesslaying theLernaean Hydra,theColchian dragonregurgitatingJasonin the presence ofAthena,Hermeswith his motherMaia,theTrojan Horse,andOdysseus's ship sailing past the island of thesirens

The Greek myths were initially propagated in anoral-poetic traditionmost likely byMinoanandMycenaeansingers starting in the 18th century BC;eventually the myths of the heroes of theTrojan Warand its aftermath became part of the oral tradition ofHomer'sepic poems,theIliadand theOdyssey.Two poems by Homer's near contemporaryHesiod,theTheogonyand theWorks and Days,contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in theHomeric Hymns,in fragments of epic poems of theEpic Cycle,inlyric poems,in the works of thetragediansandcomediansof the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of theHellenistic Age,and in texts from the time of theRoman Empireby writers such asPlutarchandPausanias.

Aside from this narrative deposit inancient Greek literature,pictorial representations of gods, heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancientvase paintingsand the decoration ofvotive giftsand many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Epic Cycle as well as the adventures ofHeracles.In the succeedingArchaic,Classical,andHellenisticperiods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.

Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature ofWestern civilizationand remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.

AchillesandPenthesileiaby Exekias,c. 540 BC,British Museum,London

Sources

Greek mythology is known today primarily fromGreek literatureand representations on visual media dating from theGeometric periodfromc. 900 BCtoc. 800 BConward.In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots.

Literary sources

Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was theLibraryof Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends.Apollodorus of Athenslived fromc. 180 BCtoc. 125 BCand wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however, the "Library" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.

Prometheus(1868 byGustave Moreau). The myth of Prometheus first was attested byHesiodand then constituted the basis for a tragic trilogy of plays, possibly by Aeschylus, consisting ofPrometheus Bound,Prometheus Unbound,andPrometheus Pyrphoros.

Among the earliest literary sources areHomer's two epic poems, theIliadand theOdyssey.Other poets completed theEpic Cycle,but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, theHomeric Hymnshave no direct connection with Homer. The oldest are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-calledLyric age.Hesiod,a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in hisTheogony(Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world, the origin of the gods,Titans,andGiants,as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and aetiological myths. Hesiod'sWorks and Days,a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths ofPrometheus,Pandora,and theFive Ages.The poet advises on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.

Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, includingPindar,BacchylidesandSimonides,and bucolic poets such asTheocritusandBion,relate individual mythological incidents.Additionally, myth was central to classicalAthenian drama.ThetragicplaywrightsAeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripidestook most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g.Agamemnonand his children,Oedipus,Jason,Medea,etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwrightAristophanesalso used myths, inThe BirdsandThe Frogs.

HistoriansHerodotusandDiodorus Siculus,and geographersPausaniasandStrabo,who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions.Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions he encountered and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East.Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts.

The poetry of theHellenisticandRomanages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:

1. The Roman poetsOvid,Statius,Valerius Flaccus,SenecaandVirgilwithServius's commentary.
2. The Greek poets of theLate Antiqueperiod:Nonnus,Antoninus Liberalis,andQuintus Smyrnaeus.
3. The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period:Apollonius of Rhodes,Callimachus,Pseudo-Eratosthenes,andParthenius.

Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths includeApuleius,Petronius,Lollianus,andHeliodorus.Two other important non-poetical sources are theFabulaeandAstronomicaof the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus,theImaginesofPhilostratus the ElderandPhilostratus the Younger,and theDescriptionsofCallistratus.

Finally, severalByzantineGreek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth includeArnobius,Hesychius,the author of theSuda,John Tzetzes,andEustathius.They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective.

Archaeological sources

The Roman poetVirgil,here depicted in the fifth-century manuscript, theVergilius Romanus,preserved details of Greek mythology in many of his writings.

The discovery of theMycenaean civilizationby the German amateurarchaeologistHeinrich Schliemannin the nineteenth century, and the discovery of theMinoan civilizationinCreteby the British archaeologistArthur Evansin the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. The evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as theLinear Bscript (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.

Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth-century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles.These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only theCerberusadventure occurs in a contemporary literary text.Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries.In the Archaic (c. 750– c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.

Survey of mythic history

Phaedrawith an attendant, probably her nurse, a fresco fromPompeii,c. 60– c. 20 BC

Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson (1975) has argued.

The earlier inhabitants of theBalkan Peninsulawere an agricultural people who, usinganimism,assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods.When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a newpantheonof gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.

After the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development ofpedagogic pederasty(παιδικὸς ἔρως,eros paidikos), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth-century BC, poets had assigned at least oneeromenos,an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every importantgodexceptAresand many legendary figures.Previously existing myths, such as those ofAchillesandPatroclus,also then were cast in apederastic light.Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often re-adapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion.

The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans.While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological "history of the world" may be divided into three or four broader periods:

1. The myths of originorage of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods" ):myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.
2. The age when gods and mortals mingled freely:stories of the early interactions between gods,demigods,and mortals.
3. The age of heroes (heroic age),where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story ofthe Trojan War and after(which is regarded by some researchers as a separate, fourth period).

While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroicIliadandOdysseydwarfed the divine-focusedTheogonyand Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of theChthonicfrom the Olympian.In theWorks and Days,Hesiod makes use of a scheme of FourAges of Man(or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, theGolden Agebelonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races to the creation ofZeus.The presence of evil was explained by the myth ofPandora,when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar.InMetamorphoses,Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.

Origins of the world and the gods

Further information:Greek primordial godsandFamily tree of the Greek gods

Amor Vincit Omnia(Love Conquers All), a depiction of the god of love, Eros. ByMichelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,circa 1601–1602.

"Myths of origin" or "creation myths"represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language.The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported byHesiod,in hisTheogony.He begins withChaos,a yawning nothingness. Next comesGaia(Earth), "the ever-sure foundation of all", and thenTartarus,"in the depth of the wide-pathed Earth", andEros(Love), "fairest among the deathless gods".Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth toUranus(the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first theTitans—six males:Coeus,Crius,Cronus,Hyperion,Iapetus,andOceanus;and six females:Mnemosyne,Phoebe,Rhea,Theia,Themis,andTethys.After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyedCyclopesand theHecatonchiresor Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus ( "the wily, youngest and most terrible ofGaia's children ")was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife, Rhea, as his consort, and the other Titans became his court.

A motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son,Zeus.Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full-grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children, includingPoseidon,Hades,Hestia,Demeter,andHera,and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all this time. Zeus then challenged Cronus towarfor the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment inTartarus.

Attic black-figuredamphoradepicting Athena being "reborn" from the head of Zeus, who had swallowed her motherMetis,on the right, Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, assists, circa 550–525 BC (Musée du Louvre,Paris)

Zeus was plagued by the same concern, and after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife,Metis,would give birth to a god "greater than he", Zeus swallowed her.She was alreadypregnantwithAthena,however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war.

The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypicalmythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it.Orpheus,thearchetypalpoet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius'Argonautica,and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent toHades.WhenHermesinvents thelyrein theHomeric Hymn to Hermes,the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods.Hesiod'sTheogonyis not only the fullest surviving account of the gods but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to theMuses.Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus,Musaeus,Epimenides,Abaris,and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications andmystery-rites.There are indications thatPlatowas familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony.A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held. After they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public.

Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations byNeoplatonistphilosophers and recently unearthedpapyrusscraps. One of these scraps, theDerveni Papyrusnow proves that at least in the fifth-century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.

The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river ofOceanusand overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.

Greek pantheon

Further information:Ancient Greek religion,Twelve Olympians,Family Tree of the Greek Gods,andList of Mycenaean gods

Zeus, disguised as aswan,seducesLeda,the Queen ofSparta.A sixteenth-centurycopy of the lost original by Michelangelo.

According to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the newpantheonofgodsandgoddesseswas confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing onMount Olympusunder the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.)Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-godPan,Nymphs(spirits of rivers),Naiads(who dwelled in springs),Dryads(who were spirits of the trees),Nereids(who inhabited the sea), river gods,Satyrs,and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as theErinyes(or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs).Gregory Nagy(1992) regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared withTheogony), each of which invokes one god. "

The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According toWalter Burkert,the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts."Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use ofnectarandambrosia,by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.

Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer, or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name andepithets,that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g.,Apollo Musagetesis "Apollo,[as] leader of theMuses"). Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.

Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example,Aphroditewas the goddess of love and beauty,Areswas the god of war,Hadesthe ruler of the underworld, andAthenathe goddess of wisdom and courage.Some gods, such asApolloandDionysus,revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such asHestia(literally "hearth" ) andHelios(literally "sun" ), were little more than personifications. The most impressivetemplestended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demigods) supplemented that of the gods.

Age of gods and mortals

"The origins of humanity [were] ascribed to various figures, including Zeus andPrometheus."

Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid'sMetamorphosesand they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.

Dionysuswithsatyrs.Interior of a cup painted by theBrygos Painter,Cabinet des Médailles.

Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings.In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in theHomeric Hymn to Aphrodite,where the goddess lies withAnchisesto produceAeneas.

The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as whenPrometheussteals fire from the gods, whenTantalussteals nectar andambrosiafrom Zeus' table and gives it to his subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, whenPrometheusorLycaoninvents sacrifice, whenDemeterteaches agriculture and theMysteriestoTriptolemus,or whenMarsyasinvents theaulosand enters into a musical contest withApollo.Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as "a place between the history of the gods and that of man."An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portraysDionysus' punishment of the king ofThrace,Lycurgus,whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife.The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy.In another tragedy, Euripides'The Bacchae,the king ofThebes,Pentheus,is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on hisMaenads,the femaleworshippersof the god.

DemeterandMetanirain a detail on an Apulian red-figure hydria, circa 340 BC (Altes Museum,Berlin)

In another story, based on an old folktale-motif,and echoing a similar theme,Demeterwas searching for her daughter,Persephone,having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome fromCeleus,the King ofEleusisinAttica.As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his sonDemophona god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his motherMetanirawalked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.

Heroic age

The age in which the heroes lived is known as theHeroic age.The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According toKen Dowden(1992), "there is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations."

After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them.Burkert (2002) notes that "the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead." Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.

The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: theArgonauticexpedition, theTheban Cycle,and theTrojan War.

Heracles and the Heracleidae

Further information:Heracles,Heracleidae,andHercules

Heracleswith his babyTelephus(Louvre Museum,Paris)

Some scholars believethat behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom ofArgos.Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac.Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus andAlcmene,granddaughter ofPerseus.His fantastic solitary exploits, with their manyfolk-talethemes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert (2002), "He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy.

While his tragic end provided much material for tragedy—Heraclesis regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas."In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.

Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romansas "Herakleis" was to the Greeks.In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.

Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of theDoriankings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into thePeloponnese.Hyllus,the eponymous hero of one Dorianphyle,became the son of Heracles and one of theHeracleidaeorHeraclids(the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants ofHyllus—other Heracleidae includedMacaria,Lamos,Manto,Bianor,Tlepolemus,andTelephus). These Heraclids conquered thePeloponnesiankingdoms ofMycenae,SpartaandArgos,claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion".The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.

BellerophonridingPegasusand slaying theChimera,central medallion of aRoman mosaicfromAutun,Musée Rolin,2nd to 3rd century AD

Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus,Deucalion,TheseusandBellerophon,have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border onfairy tale,as they slay monsters such as theChimeraandMedusa.Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.

Argonauts

Further information:Argonauts

The only surviving Hellenistic epic, theArgonauticaof Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of theLibrary of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage ofJasonand the Argonauts to retrieve theGolden Fleecefrom the mythical land ofColchis.In theArgonautica,Jason is impelled on his quest by kingPelias,who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be hisnemesis.Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the shipArgoto fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also includedTheseus,who went toCreteto slay theMinotaur;Atalanta,the female heroine, andMeleager,who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival theIliadandOdyssey.Pindar,Apolloniusand theBibliothecaendeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.

Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier thanOdyssey,which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it).In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of theBlack Seato Greek commerce and colonization.It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story ofMedea,in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.

House of Atreus and Theban Cycle

Further information:Theban CycleandSeven against Thebes

In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings ofAtreusandThyestesat Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house ofLabdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.

The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially withCadmus,the city's founder, and later with the doings ofLaiusandOedipusat Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the war of theSeven against Thebesand the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of theEpigoni.(It is not known whether the Seven figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation thatIokastewas his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children—markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles'Oedipus Rex) and later mythological accounts.

Trojan War and aftermath

Further information:Trojan WarandEpic Cycle

El Juicio de ParisbyEnrique Simonet,1904. Paris is holding the golden apple on his right hand while surveying the goddesses in a calculative manner.

InThe Rage of AchillesbyGiovanni Battista Tiepolo(1757, Fresco, 300 x 300 cm, Villa Valmarana,Vicenza)Achillesis outraged thatAgamemnonwould threaten to seize his warprize,Briseis,and he draws his sword to kill Agamemnon. The sudden appearance of the goddess Athena, who, in this fresco, has grabbed Achilles by the hair, prevents the act of violence.

Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece andTroy,and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as theIliad,the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in theRoman culturebecause of the story ofAeneas,a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil'sAeneid(Book II of Virgil'sAeneidcontains the best-known account of the sack of Troy).Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names ofDictys CretensisandDares Phrygius.

TheTrojan War cycle,a collection ofepic poems,starts with the events leading up to the war:Erisand thegolden appleofKallisti,theJudgement of Paris,the abduction ofHelen,the sacrifice ofIphigeniaatAulis.To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command ofMenelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos, orMycenae,but the Trojans refused to return Helen. TheIliad,which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comradePatroclusandPriam's eldest son,Hector.After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies,Penthesilea,queen of theAmazons,andMemnon,king of theEthiopiansand son of the dawn-goddessEos.Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (thePalladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built theTrojan Horse.Despite the warnings of Priam's daughterCassandra,the Trojans were persuaded bySinon,a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings ofOdysseusand Aeneas (theAeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lostNostoi) and Homer'sOdyssey.The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g.,OrestesandTelemachus).

The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g.metopeson theParthenondepicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization.The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such asBenoît de Sainte-Maure(Roman de Troie[Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) andJoseph of Exeter(De Bello Troiano[On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found inDictysandDares.They thus followHorace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.

Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were:

On the Trojan side:

• Aeneas
• Hector
• Paris

On the Greek side:

• Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)
• Achilles
• King Agamemnon
• Menelaus
• Odysseus
• Diomedes

Greek and Roman conceptions of myth

Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece.Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in theIliadandOdyssey.According toVictor Davis Hanson,a military historian, columnist, political essayist, and formerclassicsprofessor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homericeposwas deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the "education of Greece" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry "the Book".

Philosophy and myth

Plato inRaphael'sThe School of Athens

After the rise of philosophy, history, prose andrationalismin the late 5th century BC, the role of myth became less certain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as theThucydideanhistory).While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.

By the sixth century BC, a few radical philosophers were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies:Xenophanes of Colophoncomplained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another."This line of thought found its most sweeping expression inPlato'sRepublicandLaws.Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision ofErin theRepublic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts, and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature.Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition;he referred to the myths as "old wives' chatter."For his part,Aristotlecriticized thepre-Socraticquasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them."

Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization ofSocratesis based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:

But perhaps someone might say: "Are you then not ashamed, Socrates, of having followed such a pursuit, that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result?" But I should make to him a just reply: "You do not speak well, Sir, if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death, and not rather regard this only, when he does things, whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy, includingthe son of Thetis,who so despised danger, in comparison with enduring any disgrace, that whenhis mother(and she was a goddess) said to him, as he was eager to slayHector,something like this, I believe,

My son, if you avenge the death of your friendPatroclusand kill Hector, you yourself shall die; for straightway, after Hector, is death appointed unto you. (Hom. Il. 18.96)

he, when he heard this, made light of death and danger, and feared much more to live as a coward and not to avenge his friends, and said,

Straightway may I die, after doing vengeance upon the wrongdoer, that I may not stay here, jeered at beside the curved ships, a burden of the earth.

Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization.The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to provide the main subjects of painting and sculpture.

More sportingly, the 5th century BCtragedianEuripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed byXenocrates:the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crasslyanthropomorphic.

Hellenistic and Roman rationalism

Cicerosaw himself as the defender of the established order, despite his personal skepticism concerning myth and his inclination towards more philosophical conceptions of divinity.

During theHellenistic period,mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced.Greek mythographerEuhemerusestablished the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events.Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus andLactantius.

Rationalizinghermeneuticsof myth became even more popular under theRoman Empire,thanks to the physicalist theories ofStoicandEpicureanphilosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and theNeoplatonistspromoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies.Through his Epicurean message,Lucretiushad sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens.Livy,too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae).The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense ofreligious traditionwas to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarianVarro,who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In hisAntiquitates Rerum Divinarum(which has not survived, butAugustine'sCity of Godindicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents.According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers.The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.

Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy.Cicerois also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended.Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence ofScyllas,centaursor other composite creatures,but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people.De Natura Deorumis the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought.

Syncretizing trends

See also:Roman mythology

Apollo (early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth-century Greek original,LouvreMuseum)

Ancient Greek myths took inspiration fromfolkloricportrayals of theOlympian gods,as well asDorianandIoniandeities and their associated folk tales.

InAncient Romantimes, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had littlemythologyof their own, and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents.The godsZeusandJupiterare an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations.For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome afterAurelian's successful campaigns inSyria.The Asiatic divinitiesMithras(that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into oneSol Invictus,with conglomerated rites and compound attributes.Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.

The surviving 2nd-century collection ofOrphic Hymns(second century AD) and theSaturnaliaofMacrobius Ambrosius Theodosius(fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology.The stated purpose of theSaturnaliais to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.

Modern interpretations

Further information:Modern understanding of Greek mythology

The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" orfablehad been retained.In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. InGöttingen,Johann Matthias Gesnerbegan to revive Greek studies, while his successor,Christian Gottlob Heyne,worked withJohann Joachim Winckelmann,and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.About 100 years later the interest for Greek mythology was still alive when Hermann Steuding published his bookGriechische und römische Götter- und Heldensagein 1897.

Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches

See also:Comparative mythology

Max Mülleris regarded as one of the founders of comparative mythology. In hisComparative Mythology(1867) Müller analysed the "disturbing" similarity between the mythologies of "savage races" with those of the early Europeans.

The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative.Wilhelm Mannhardt,James Frazer,andStith Thompsonemployed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology.In 1871Edward Burnett Tylorpublished hisPrimitive Culture,in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion.Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced bothCarl JungandJoseph Campbell.Max Müllerapplied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains ofAryannature worship.Bronisław Malinowskiemphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions.Claude Lévi-Straussand otherstructuralistshave compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.

Sigmund Freudintroduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochement between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought.Carl Jungextended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it.According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche."Comparing Jung's methodology withJoseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal (1990) concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of theOdyssey,for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth. "Karl Kerényi,one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.

Origin theories

See also:Mycenaean religion;Mycenaean deities;andSimilarities between Roman, Greek and Etruscan mythologies

Max Müllerattempted to understand anIndo-Europeanreligious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, "Aryan")" original "manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that" the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century concerning the ancient history of mankind... was this sample equation:SanskritDyaus-pitar= Greek Zeus = LatinJupiter= Old NorseTyr".The question of Greek mythology's place inIndo-European studieshas generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologistGeorges Dumézildraws a comparison between the GreekUranusand the SanskritVaruna,although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected.In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the GreekMoiraiand theNornsofNorse mythology.

It appears that theMycenaean religionwas the mother of theGreek religionand its pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in classical Greece.However, Greek mythology is generally seen as having heavy influence ofPre-Greekand Near Eastern cultures, and as such contains few important elements for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European religion.Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention in the context of Indo-Europeancomparative mythologyuntil the mid 2000s.

Archaeology and mythography have revealed influence from Asia Minor and the Near East.Adonisseems to be the Greek counterpart—more clearly in cult than in myth—of a Near Eastern "dying god".Cybeleis rooted inAnatolianculture while much of Aphrodite'siconographymay spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) andTiamatin theEnuma Elish.According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way…into Greek mythology."

In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the indigenous pre-Greek societies:Crete,Mycenae,Pylos,ThebesandOrchomenus.Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus andEuropa,Pasiphaëwho yields to the bull and gives birth to theMinotaur,etc.). Martin P. Nilsson asserts, based on the representations and general function of the gods, that a lot ofMinoan gods and religious conceptionswere fused in the Mycenaean religion.and concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaean centres and anchored in prehistoric times.Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.

Motifs in Western art and literature

Further information:Greek mythology in western art and literature

See also:List of films based on Greco-Roman mythologyandGreek mythology in popular culture

Botticelli'sThe Birth of Venusc. 1485–1486, oil on canvas,Uffizi,Florence)—a revivedVenus Pudicafor a new view of paganAntiquity—is often said to epitomize for modern viewers the spirit of the Renaissance.

The widespread adoption ofChristianitydid not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in theRenaissance,the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists.From the early years of Renaissance, artists such asLeonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo,andRaphael,portrayed thePagansubjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes.Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such asPetrarch,BoccaccioandDantein Italy.

The Lament for Icarus(1898) byHerbert James Draper

In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature.The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting withChaucerandJohn Miltonand continuing throughShakespearetoRobert Bridgesin the 20th century.Racinein France andGoethein Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths.Although during theEnlightenmentof the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote thelibrettifor many ofHandel's andMozart's operas.

By the end of the 18th century,Romanticisminitiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such asAlfred Tennyson,Keats,ByronandShelley) and painters (such asLord LeightonandLawrence Alma-Tadema).Christoph Gluck,Richard Strauss,Jacques Offenbachand many others set Greek mythological themes to music.American authors of the 19th century, such asThomas BulfinchandNathaniel Hawthorne,held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature.In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatistsJean Anouilh,Jean Cocteau,andJean Giraudouxin France,Eugene O'Neillin America, andT. S. Eliotin Britain and by novelists such asJames JoyceandAndré Gide.

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• Segal, Robert A. (4 April 1990)."The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell".Christian Century.Archived fromthe originalon 7 January 2007.
• Segal, Robert A. (1999). "Jung on Mythology".Theorizing about Myth.Univ of Massachusetts Press.ISBN978-1-55849-191-5.
• Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul) (1852).Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks.Francis and John Rivington.
• Trobe, Kala (2001). "Dionysus".Invoke the Gods.Llewellyn Worldwide.ISBN978-0-7387-0096-0.
• "Trojan War".Encyclopaedia The Helios.1952.
• "Troy".Encyclopædia Britannica.2002.
• "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology".Encyclopaedia The Helios.1952.
• Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). "Liberating Appearance in Mythic Content".The Nature of the Gods.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-282511-7.
• Weaver, John B. (1998). "Introduction".The Plots of Epiphany.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-018266-8.
• Winterbourne, Anthony (2004). "Spinning and Weaving Fate".When the Norns Have Spoken.Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.ISBN978-0-8386-4048-7.
• Wood, Michael (1998). "The Coming of the Greeks".In Search of the Trojan War.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-21599-3.

Further reading

• Gantz, Timothy(1993).Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources.Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-8018-4410-2.Archivedfrom the original on 30 May 2023.Retrieved6 November2021.
• Graves, Robert(1993) [1955].The Greek Myths(Cmb/Rep ed.). Penguin (Non-Classics).ISBN978-0-14-017199-0.
• Hamilton, Edith(1998) [1942].Mythology(New ed.). Back Bay Books.ISBN978-0-316-34151-6.
• Kerenyi, Karl (1980) [1951].The Gods of the Greeks(Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-27048-6.
• Kerenyi, Karl (1978) [1959].The Heroes of the Greeks(Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-27049-3.
• Luchte, James (2011).Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn.Bloomsbury.ISBN978-0-567-35331-3.
• Morford M.P.O., Lenardon L.J. (2006).Classical Mythology.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-530805-1.
• Pinsent, John(1972).Greek Mythology.Bantam.ISBN978-0-448-00848-6.
• Pinsent, John (1991).Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece.Library of the World's Myths and Legends. Peter Bedrick Books.ISBN978-0-87226-250-8.
• Powell, Barry(2008).Classical Myth(6th ed.). Prentice-Hall.ISBN978-0-13-606171-7.
• Powell, Barry (2001).A Short Introduction to Classical Myth.Prentice-Hall.ISBN978-0-13-025839-7.
• Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994).The World of Classical Myth.Carolina Academic Press.ISBN978-0-89089-575-7.
• Smith, William(1870),Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
• Veyne, Paul(1988).Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on Constitutive Imagination.(translated by Paula Wissing). University of Chicago.ISBN978-0-226-85434-2.
• Woodward, Roger D., ed. (2007).The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology.Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-84520-5.

External links

• Media related toGreek mythologyat Wikimedia Commons
• Greek MythsonIn Our Timeat theBBC
• Library of Classical Mythology Textstranslations of works of classical literature
• LIMC-Franceprovides databases dedicated to Graeco-Roman mythology and its iconography.
• Martin P. Nilsson,The Mycenaean Origin of Greek Mythology,on Google books
• Greek mythology, the age of gods, myths and heroes,Hellenism.Net