TheGreeksorHellenes(/ˈhɛliːnz/;Greek:Έλληνες,Éllines[ˈelines]) are anethnic groupandnationnative toGreece,Cyprus,southern Albania,Anatolia,parts ofItalyandEgypt,and to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding theEastern MediterraneanandBlack Sea.They also form a significantdiaspora(omogenia), with many Greek communities established around the world.[46]
Έλληνες | |
---|---|
Total population | |
c. 14–17 million[1][2]
![]() | |
Regions with significant populations | |
![]() (2011 census) ![]() (2011 census) | |
![]() | 1,279,000–3,000,000a(2016 estimate)[9][10] |
![]() | 449,000b(2021 estimate)[11] |
![]() | 424,744 (2021 census)[12] |
![]() | 290,000–345,000 (2011 estimate)[13] |
![]() | 271,405c(2016 census)[14] |
![]() | 138,000 (2011 estimate)[15] |
![]() | 110,000–200,000d(2013 estimate)[16][17][18] |
![]() | 110,000[19][20] |
![]() | 100,000[21] |
![]() | 91,000 (2011 estimate)[22] |
![]() | 85,640 (2010 census)[23] |
![]() | 50,000e[24] |
![]() | 35,000 (2013 estimate)[25] |
![]() | 35,000 (2011 estimate)[26] |
![]() | 28,856 (2021)[27][28] |
![]() | 25,000–28,000 (2011 census)[29] |
![]() | 4,000–49,143f[30][31] |
![]() | 20,000–30,000 (2013 estimate)[32] |
![]() | 24,736 (2012 census)[33] |
![]() | 23,485 (2023 census)[34] |
![]() | 1,356 (2011 census)[35]up to 28,500 (estimate)[36] |
![]() | 15,000 (2011 estimate)[37] |
![]() | 12,000[38] |
![]() | 11,000 (2015 estimate)[39] |
![]() | 10,000 (2013 estimate)[40] |
![]() | 9,500 (2000 estimate)[41] |
![]() | 8,846 (2011 estimate)[42] |
![]() | est. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000[43] |
![]() | 5,261[44] |
![]() | 4,454 (2016 census)[45] |
Languages | |
Greek | |
Religion | |
MostlyGreek Orthodox | |
aIncludes those of ancestral descent. bIncludes people with "cultural roots". cThose whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin issolely"Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada. dApprox. 60,000Griko peopleand 30,000 post WW2 migrants. e"Including descendants". fIncludingGreek Muslims. |
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of theMediterranean SeaandBlack Sea,but the Greek people themselves have always been centered on theAegeanandIonianseas, where theGreek languagehas been spoken since theBronze Age.[47][48]Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between theGreek peninsula,the western coast ofAsia Minor,the Black Sea coast,Cappadociain central Anatolia,Egypt,theBalkans,Cyprus, andConstantinople.[48]Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of theByzantine Empireof the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancientGreek colonization.[49]The cultural centers of the Greeks have includedAthens,Thessalonica,Alexandria,Smyrna,andConstantinopleat various periods.
In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state or in Cyprus. TheGreek genocideandpopulation exchange between Greece and Turkeynearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southernRussiaandUkraineand in theGreek diasporacommunities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of theGreek Orthodox Church.[50]
Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture, visual arts, exploration, theatre, literature, philosophy, ethics, politics, architecture, music, mathematics,[51]medicine, science, technology, commerce, cuisine and sports. TheGreek languageis the oldest recorded living language[52]and its vocabulary has been the basis of many languages, includingEnglishas well asinternational scientific nomenclature.Greek was by far the most widely spokenlingua francain the Mediterranean world since the fourth century BC and theNew Testamentof theChristian Biblewas also originally written in Greek.[53][54][55]
History
The Greeks speak theGreek language,which forms its own unique branch within theIndo-Europeanfamily of languages, theHellenic.[48]They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described byAnthony D. Smithas an "archetypal diaspora people".[56][57]
Origins
The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of theBalkan peninsula,at the end of the 3rd millennium BC between 2200 and 1900 BC.[58][59][a]The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the2nd millennium BChas to be reconstructed on the basis of theancient Greek dialects,as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being theIoniansandAchaeans,which resulted inMycenaean Greeceby the 16th century BC,[63][64]and the second, theDorian invasion,around the 11th century BC, displacing theArcadocypriot dialects,which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to theLate Bronze Ageand the Doric at theBronze Age collapse.
Mycenaean
Inc.1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from theMinoan civilizationits syllabic writing system (Linear A) and developed their ownsyllabic scriptknown asLinear B,[65]providing the first and oldest written evidence ofGreek.[65][66]The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated theAegean Seaand, by the 15th century BC, had reachedRhodes,Crete,Cyprusand the shores ofAsia Minor.[48][67]
Around 1200 BC, theDorians,another Greek-speaking people, followed fromEpirus.[68]Older historical research often proposedDorian invasioncaused the collapse of theMycenaean civilization,but this narrative has been abandoned in all contemporary research. It is likely that one of the factors which contributed to the Mycenaean palatial collapse was linked to raids by groups known in historiography as the "Sea Peoples"who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.[69]TheDorian invasionwas followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called theGreek Dark Ages,but by 800 BC the landscape ofArchaicandClassical Greecewas discernible.[70]
The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.[71]TheHomeric Epics(i.e.IliadandOdyssey) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time ofEuhemerismthat scholars began to question Homer's historicity.[70]As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g.Zeus,PoseidonandHades) became major figures of theOlympian Pantheonof later antiquity.[72]
Classical
Theethnogenesisof the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.[73]According to some scholars, the foundational event was theOlympic Gamesin 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.[46]The works ofHomer(i.e.IliadandOdyssey) andHesiod(i.e.Theogony) were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.[74]TheOracle of Apollo at Delphiwas established in this period.[75]
Theclassical periodof Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to thedeath of Alexander the Great,in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of theGreco-Persian Warsto the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.[76]The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.
While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenicgenos,[77]their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greekcity-states.[78]ThePeloponnesian War,the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-statesAthensandSpartaandtheirallies,left both greatly weakened.[79]
Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner ofPhilip's andAlexander the Great's Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonianconquest for the sake of conquest "or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the" ideal "as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.[80]
In any case, Alexander's toppling of theAchaemenid Empire,after his victories at the battles of theGranicus,IssusandGaugamela,and his advance as far as modern-dayPakistanandTajikistan,[81]provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.[82]While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of theMiddle EastandAsiawere to prove long lived as Greek became thelingua franca,a position it retained even inRoman times.[83]Many Greeks settled inHellenisticcities likeAlexandria,AntiochandSeleucia.[84]
Hellenistic
TheHellenistic civilizationwas the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.[85]ThisHellenistic age,so called because it saw the partialHellenizationof many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India andBactria,both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.[86]The end is often placed around conquest ofEgyptby Rome in 30 BC,[85]although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.
This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still largerKingdoms of the Diadochi.[87][88]Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.[89]An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact withbarbarian(non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.[89]This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenicpaideiato the next generation.[89]Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.[90]
In theIndo-GreekandGreco-Bactriankingdoms,Greco-Buddhismwas spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it toChina.[91]Further east, the Greeks ofAlexandria Eschatebecame known to theChinese peopleas theDayuan.[92]
Roman Empire
Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and becameheavily influencedby the achievements of Greek culture, henceHorace's famous statement:Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit( "Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive" ).[93]In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a singleGreco-Romanculture.
In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.[46]The cults of deities likeIsisandMithrawere introduced into the Greek world.[88][94]Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[95]and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notablySaint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking,[96]though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[97]with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.[98]The region ofTsakoniaremained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to asHellenes,in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.[99]
While ethnic distinctions still existed in theRoman Empire,they became secondary to religious considerations, and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promote a robust Roman national identity.[100]From the early centuries of theCommon Era,the Greeks self-identified as Romans (Greek:ῬωμαῖοιRhōmaîoi).[101]By that time, the nameHellenesdenoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.[102]
Middle Ages
During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified asRhōmaîoi(Ῥωμαῖοι,"Romans", meaningcitizensof theRoman Empire), a term which in theGreek languagehad become synonymous with Christian Greeks.[103][104]The Latinizing termGraikoí(Γραικοί, "Greeks" ) was also used,[105]though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.[106]TheEastern Roman Empire(today conventionally named theByzantine Empire,a name not used during its own time[107]) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when EmperorHeraclius(r. 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.[108][109]Although theCatholic Churchrecognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, afterPope Leo IIIcrownedCharlemagne,king of theFranks,as the "Roman Emperor"on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of theHoly Roman Empire,the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as theEmpire of the Greeks(Imperium Graecorum).[110][111]While this Latin term for the ancientHellenescould be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims toancient Romanheritage rendered it a derogatoryexonymfor the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to theCouncil of Florence,to present the Western viewpoint.[112][113]Additionally, among the Germanic and the Slavic peoples, theRhōmaîoiwere just called Greeks.[114][115]
There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporaryByzantine scholarship:The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.[116]The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.[117][118]
A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of theFourth Crusadein 1204.[119]In theEmpire of Nicaea,a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.[120]For example, in a letter toPope Gregory IX,the Nicaean emperorJohn III Doukas Vatatzes(r. 1221–1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic" descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people.[121]After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261,Rhomaioibecame again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces ofHellene(Έλληνας), such as in the writings ofGeorge Gemistos Plethon,[122]who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.[119]However, it was the combination ofOrthodox Christianitywith a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.[119]In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[123][124]These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued byByzantine intellectuals who participatedin theItalian Renaissance.[125]
The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis onGreek Orthodoxidentity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in theRussian Empire.These were further strengthened following the fall of theEmpire of Trebizondin 1461, after which and until the secondRusso-Turkish War of 1828–29hundreds of thousands ofPontic Greeksfled or migrated from thePontic AlpsandArmenian Highlandsto southern Russia and the RussianSouth Caucasus(see alsoGreeks in Russia,Greeks in Armenia,Greeks in Georgia,andCaucasian Greeks).[126]
TheseByzantine Greekswere largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.[118][127][128]Byzantine grammarianswere those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving theItalian Renaissancea major boost.[129][130]TheAristotelianphilosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until theFall of Constantinoplein 1453.[131]
To theSlavicworld, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monksSaints Cyril and Methodiusfrom the port city ofThessalonica,capital of thetheme of Thessalonica,who are credited today with formalizing thefirst Slavic Alpha bet.[132]
Ottoman Empire
Following theFall of Constantinopleon 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for theWest,particularlyItaly,Central Europe,GermanyandRussia.[129]Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in theOttoman Empire,due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based onWestern ThraceandGreek Macedonia,both inNorthern Greece,and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital,Constantinople.As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especiallyAlbaniansandSerbs) into Ottoman service through thedevshirme.Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupiedYemenandAlgeria,frequently as provincial governors.
For those that remained under theOttoman Empire'smillet system,religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so theexonym"Greeks" (Rumlarfrom the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of theOrthodox Church,regardless of their language or ethnic origin.[133]TheGreekspeakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselvesRomioi,[134](as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.[135]There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottomanmilletsystem, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, theRussian Empire,or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remainingcrypto-Christian.The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined asGreek Muslims—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through thedevshirme—were to be found inCrete(Cretan Turks),Greek Macedonia(for example among theVallahadesof westernMacedonia), and amongPontic Greeksin thePontic AlpsandArmenian Highlands.Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultanSelim the Grim(r. 1517–1520), whose motherGülbahar Hatunwas aPontic Greek.[136][137]
The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in thePhanariotes.[138]It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of theGreek War of Independencein 1821.[139]Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated inChios,SmyrnaandAivali,all three major centres of Greek commerce.[139]Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of theEastern Orthodoxchurch.
Modern
The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of theAge of Enlightenment,contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from theOttomans,and the restoration of the term "Hellene".Adamantios Korais,probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place ofRomiós,that was seen negatively by him.
The relationship between ethnic Greek identity andGreek Orthodoxreligion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the firstGreek constitutionof 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of theKingdom of Greece,a clause removed by 1840.[140]A century later, when theTreaty of Lausannewas signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.[b][141]TheGreek genocide,in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed GreekAsia Minor Campaign,was part of this process ofTurkificationof the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.[142]
Identity
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.[143]Herodotusgave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating
- shareddescent(ὅμαιμον,hómaimon,'of the same blood')[144]
- sharedlanguage(ὁμόγλωσσον,homóglōsson,'speaking the same tongue')[145]
- sharedsanctuariesandsacrifices(θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι,theôn hidrúmatá te koinà kaì thusíai,'common foundations, common sacrifices to gods')[146][147]
- sharedcustoms(ἤθεα ὁμότροπα,ḗthea homótropa,'customs of like fashion').[148][149][150]
By Western standards, the termGreekshas traditionally referred to any native speakers of theGreek language,whetherMycenaean,Byzantineormodern Greek.[133][151]Byzantine Greeksself-identified asRomaioi( "Romans" ),Graikoi( "Greeks" ) andChristianoi( "Christians" ) since they were the political heirs ofimperial Rome,the descendants of theirclassical Greek forebearsand followers of theApostles;[152]during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselvesHellenesalthough for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.[102][153]On the eve of theFall of ConstantinopletheLast Emperorurged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.[154]
Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".[155]Themodern Greek statewas created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands,Peloponnese,from theOttoman Empire.[156]The largeGreek diasporaand merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of westernromantic nationalismandphilhellenism,[139]which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of theByzantine Empire,formed the basis of theDiafotismosand the current conception of Hellenism.[119][133][157]
The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of anethnos,defined by possessingGreek cultureand having a Greekmother tongue,not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.[158]In ancient and medieval times and to some extent today the Greek term wasgenos,which also indicates a common ancestry.[159][160]
Names
Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The termAchaeans(Ἀχαιοί) is one of thecollective namesfor the Greeks inHomer'sIliadandOdyssey(the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of theMycenaean civilizationthat dominated Greece fromc.1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names areDanaans(Δαναοί) andArgives(Ἀργεῖοι) whilePanhellenes(Πανέλληνες) andHellenes(Ἕλληνες) bothappear only oncein theIliad;[161]all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.[162][163]In the historical period, Herodotus identified theAchaeansof the northernPeloponneseas descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.[164]
Homerrefers to the "Hellenes" (/ˈhɛliːnz/) as a relatively small tribe settled in ThessalicPhthia,with its warriors under the command ofAchilleus.[165]TheParian Chroniclesays that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).[166]InGreek mythology,Hellen,the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son ofPyrrhaandDeucalion,the only survivors after theGreat Deluge.[167]The Greek philosopherAristotlenames ancientHellasas an area inEpirusbetweenDodonaand theAchelousriver, the location of the Great Deluge ofDeucalion,a land occupied by theSelloiand the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".[168]In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.[169]
In theHesiodicCatalogue of Women,Graecusis presented as the son of Zeus andPandora II,sister ofHellenthe patriarch of the Hellenes.[170]According to theParian Chronicle,whenDeucalionbecame king of Phthia, theGraikoi(Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.[166]Aristotlenotes in hisMeteorologicathat the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.[168]
Etymology
The English namesGreeceandGreekare derived, via the LatinGraeciaandGraecus,from the name of theGraeci(Γραικοί,Graikoí;singularΓραικός,Graikós), who were among the firstancient Greek tribesto settlesouthern Italy(the so-called "Magna Graecia"). The term is possibly derived from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*ǵerh₂-,"to grow old",[171][172]more specifically fromGraea(ancient city), said byAristotleto be the oldest in Greece, and the source of colonists for theNaplesarea.[173]
Continuity
The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during theGreek Dark Agesfrom which written records are absent (11th- 8th cent. BC, though theCypriot syllabarywas in use during this period).[174]Scholars compare its continuity of tradition toChinesealone.[174][175]Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.[46][176]Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.[177]During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such asIoniaandConstantinopleexperienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.[176]This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.[176]Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language andAlpha bet,certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the wordbarbarianwas used by 12th-century historianAnna Komneneto describe non-Greek speakers),[178]a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.[176]In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.[179][180]There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.[181][182]
Demographics
Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in theHellenic Republic,[183]where they constitute 93% of the country's population,[184]and theRepublic of Cypruswhere they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).[185]Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the1923 population exchangebetween Greece and Turkey.[186]About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.[187]
Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by theBritish Empire.Waves ofemigrationfollowed theTurkish invasion of Cyprusin 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.[188]After theethnic cleansingof a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,[189][190]there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.[188]Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.[188]
Around 1990, most Western estimates of the number of ethnic Greeks in Albania were around 200,000 but in the 1990s, a majority of them migrated to Greece.[191][192]The Greek minority ofTurkey,which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955Constantinople Pogromand other state sponsored violence and discrimination.[193]This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.[194][195]There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, theLevantand theBlack Seastates, remnants of the OldGreek Diaspora(pre-19th century).[196]
Diaspora
The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where census figures are available, they show around three million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by theSAE – World Council of Hellenes Abroadput the figure at around seven million worldwide.[197]According to George Prevelakis ofSorbonne University,the number is closer to just below five million.[196]Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Greek diaspora (omogenia). Important centres includeNew York City,Chicago,Boston,Los Angeles,Sydney,Melbourne,London,TorontoMontreal,Vancouver,Auckland,andSao Paulo.[196]In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that allowed members of the diaspora to vote in Greek elections;[198]this law was repealed in early 2014.[199]
Ancient
In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially inSouthern Italy(the so-called "Magna Graecia"), Spain, thesouth of Franceand theBlack sea coasts.[200]Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in theMiddle East,Indiaand inEgypt.[200]TheHellenistic periodis characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms inAsiaandAfrica.[201]Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became thelingua francarather thanLatin.[108]The modern-dayGriko communityof southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,[17][18]may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.
Modern
During and after theGreek War of Independence,Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.[202]Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles inFrance,Livorno inItaly,Alexandria inEgypt),Russia(OdesaandSaint Petersburg), andBritain(London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.[203]Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and theGreek Orthodox Church.[203]
As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to becomeshippers,financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of theRalliorVagliano Brothers.[204]With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across theLevant,North Africa, India and the USA.[204][205]
In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to theUnited States,Great Britain,Australia,Canada,Germany,andSouth Africa,especially after theSecond World War(1939–1945), theGreek Civil War(1946–1949), and theTurkish Invasion of Cyprusin 1974.[206]
While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of theGreek financial crisis.[207]According to data published by theFederal Statistical Office of Germanyin 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.[208][209]
Culture
Greek culturehas evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.[210]Ottoman Greekshad to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated ingenocidein the 20th century.[211][212]TheDiafotismosis credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.[119][133]
Language
Most Greeks speak theGreek language,anindependent branchof theIndo-European languages,with its closest relations possibly beingArmenian(seeGraeco-Armenian) or theIndo-Iranian languages(seeGraeco-Aryan).[174]It has the longest documented history of any living language andGreek literaturehas a continuous history of over 2,500 years.[213]The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in theLinear Bscript, dated as far back as 1450 BC.[214]Following theGreek Dark Ages,from which written records are absent, theGreek Alpha betappears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek Alpha bet derived from thePhoenician Alpha bet,and in turn became the parent Alpha bet of theLatin,Cyrillic,and several other Alpha bets. The earliest Greek literary works are theHomeric epics,variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works includeEuclid's Elements,Ptolemy'sAlmagest,and others. TheNew Testamentwas originally written inKoine Greek.[215]
Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with otherBalkan languages,such asAlbanian,BulgarianandEastern Romance languages(seeBalkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European andTurkishorigin.[216]Because of the movements ofPhilhellenismand theDiafotismosin the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation ofKatharevousa,a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, theHellenic Parliamentvoted to make the spokenDimotikithe official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.[217]
Modern Greekhas, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a widevariety of dialectsof varying levels of mutual intelligibility, includingCypriot,Pontic,Cappadocian,GrikoandTsakonian(the only surviving representative of ancientDoric Greek).[218]Yevanicis the language of theRomaniotes,and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English,Arvanitika/Albanian,Aromanian,Megleno-Romanian,Macedonian Slavic,Russianand Turkish.[174][219]
Religion
Most Greeks areChristians,belonging to theGreek Orthodox Church.[220]During the first centuries afterJesus Christ,theNew Testamentwas originally written inKoine Greek,which remains theliturgical languageof the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.[210]There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to otherChristiandenominations likeRoman Catholics,Greek Catholics,Greek Evangelicals,Pentecostals,Mormons,and groups adhering to other religions includingRomaniotandSephardic Jews,Greek MuslimsandJehovah's Witnesses.About 2,000 Greeks are members ofHellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionismcongregations.[221][222][223]
Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities inLebanonandSyria,while in thePontusregion ofTurkeythere is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from thepopulation exchangebecause of their religious affiliation.[224]
Arts
Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.[225]In the West,classical Greek artwas influential in shaping theRomanand later the modernWestern artistic heritage.Following theRenaissanceinEurope,the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.[225]Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.[226]In the East,Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek,Central AsianandIndiancultures, resulting inIndo-GreekandGreco-Buddhist art,whose influence reached as far asJapan.[227]
Byzantine Greek art,which grew from the Hellenisticclassical artand adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.[228]Its influences can be traced fromVenicein the West toKazakhstanin the East.[228][229]In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e.Egypt,Persia,etc.) during various periods of its history.[230]
Notable modern Greek artists include:
- the paintersDominikos Theotokopoulos(El Greco),Nikolaos Gyzis,Konstantinos Volanakis,Périclès Pantazis,andConstantine Andreou;sculptors such asYannoulis Chalepas;
- composers such asMikis Theodorakis,Spyridon Samaras,Iannis Xenakis,YanniandVangelis;
- singers such asMaria Callas,Giorgos Dalaras,Nana Mouskouri,Vicky LeandrosandDemis Roussos;
- poets such asDionysios Solomos,Angelos Sikelianos,Andreas Embirikos,Constantine P. CavafyandNobel laureatesGiorgos SeferisandOdysseas Elytis;
- the novelistsAlexandros Papadiamantis,Emmanuel Rhoides,Ion Dragoumis,Nikos Kazantzakis,Penelope Delta,Stratis Myrivilis,Vassilis VassilikosandPetros Markaris,
- playwrights include theCretan RenaissancepoetsGeorgios ChortatzisandVincenzos Cornaros,such asGregorios XenopoulosandIakovos Kambanellis.
Notable cinema or theatre actors includeMarika Kotopouli,Melina Mercouri,Ellie Lambeti,Academy AwardwinnerKatina Paxinou,Alexis Minotis,Dimitris Horn,Thanasis Veggos,Manos KatrakisandIrene Papas.Alekos Sakellarios,Karolos Koun,Vasilis Georgiadis,Kostas Gavras,Michael Cacoyannis,Giannis Dalianidis,Nikos KoundourosandTheo Angelopoulosare among the most important directors.
Among the most significant modern-era architects areStamatios Kleanthis,Lysandros Kaftanzoglou,Anastasios Metaxas,Panagis Kalkos,Anastasios Orlandos,the naturalized GreekErnst Ziller,Dimitris Pikionisand urban plannersStamatis VoulgarisandGeorge Candilis.
Science
The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such asastronomy,geography,historiography,mathematics,medicine,philosophyandpolitical science.The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions inConstantinople,Antioch,Alexandriaand other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.[231]Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing inpaideia(education).[89]Paideiawas one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until thecity's fallto the Ottomans in 1453.[232]TheUniversity of Constantinoplewas Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,[233]and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.[232]
As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.[187]Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.[234]Notable Greek scientists of modern times include: physicianGeorgios Papanicolaou(pioneer incytopathology,inventor of thePap test); mathematicianConstantin Carathéodory(acclaimed contributor to real and complex analysis and the calculus of variations); archaeologistsManolis Andronikos(unearthed the tomb ofPhilip II),Valerios Stais(recognised theAntikythera mechanism),Spyridon Marinatos(specialised inMycenaeansites) andIoannis Svoronos;chemistsLeonidas Zervas(ofBergmann-Zervas synthesisandZ-groupdiscovery fame),K. C. Nicolaou(first total synthesis oftaxol) andPanayotis Katsoyannis(first chemical synthesis ofinsulin); computer scientistsMichael DertouzosandNicholas Negroponte(known for their early work with theWorld Wide Web),John Argyris(co-creator of theFEM),Joseph Sifakis(2007Turing Award),Christos Papadimitriou(2002Knuth Prize) andMihalis Yannakakis(2005Knuth Prize); physicist-mathematicianDemetrios Christodoulou(renowned for work onMinkowski spacetime) and physicistsAchilles Papapetrou(known for solutions ofgeneral relativity),Dimitri Nanopoulos(extensive work on particle physics and cosmology), andJohn Iliopoulos(2007Dirac Prizefor work on thecharm quark); astronomerEugenios Antoniadis;biologistFotis Kafatos(contributor tocDNAcloning technology); botanistTheodoros Orphanides;economistXenophon Zolotas(held various senior posts in international organisations such as theIMF); IndologistDimitrios Galanos;linguistYiannis Psycharis(promoter ofDemotic Greek); historiansConstantine Paparrigopoulos(founder of modern Greek historiography) andHelene Glykatzi Ahrweiler(excelled inByzantine studies); and political scientistsNicos Poulantzas(a leadingStructural Marxist) andCornelius Castoriadis(philosopher of history and ontologist, social critic, economist, psychoanalyst).
Significant engineers and automobile designers includeNikolas Tombazis,Alec IssigonisandAndreas Zapatinas.
Symbols
The most widely used symbol is theflag of Greece,which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national mottoEleftheria i Thanatos(Freedom or Death), which was the motto of theGreek War of Independence.[235]The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which representsGreek Orthodoxy.The Greek flag is widely used by theGreek Cypriots,althoughCyprushas officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with theTurkish Cypriotminority (seeflag of Cyprus).[236]
The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features aGreek cross(crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. Thenational emblem of Greecefeatures a blueescutcheonwith a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.[237]
Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is thedouble-headed eagle,the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol inAsia Minorand, later,Eastern Europe.[238]It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of theGreek Armyand the flag of theChurch of Greece.It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.[239]
Politics
Classical Athensis considered the birthplace ofDemocracy.The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing inGreek city-states,notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast toaristocracy(ἀριστοκρατία,aristokratía), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and tooligarchy.While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.[240]Led byCleisthenes,Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,[241]which took gradually the form of adirect democracy.The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during theearly modern period.
The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of theFrench Revolutionwas a crucial factor to the outbreak of theGreek War of Independenceand the establishment of the modern Greek state.[242][243]
Notable modern Greek politicians includeIoannis Kapodistrias,founder of theFirst Hellenic Republic,reformistCharilaos Trikoupis,Eleftherios Venizelos,who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democratsGeorgios PapandreouandAlexandros Papanastasiou,Konstantinos Karamanlis,founder of theThird Hellenic Republic,and socialistAndreas Papandreou.
Surnames and personal names
Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.[244][245]Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,[244]such those ending in the suffix-opoulosor-ides,while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.[245]Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculineproper nounsin thenominative case.Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in-ou,indicating thegenitive caseof a patronymic name.[246]Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as-akis(Crete),-easor-akos(Mani Peninsula),-atos(island ofCephalonia),-ellis(island ofLesbos) and so forth.[245]In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks fromAsia Minorand theIonian Islands,respectively.[247]Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.
With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.[245]As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.[248]Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as-akisfor male names and-itsaor-oulafor female names.[245]Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to theRussiansand otherEast Slavs(otchestvo).
Sea: exploring and commerce
The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea,Southern Italy(the so called "Magna Graecia"), theBlack Sea,theIonian coastsofAsia Minorand the islands ofCyprusandSicily.In Plato'sPhaidon,Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.[249][250]This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. Theseaand trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.[46]
Notable Greek seafarers include people such asPytheas of Massaliawho sailed to Great Britain,Euthymeneswho sailed to Africa,Scylax of Caryandawho sailed to India, thenavarchof Alexander the GreatNearchus,Megasthenes,explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monkCosmas Indicopleustes(Cosmas who sailed to India), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known asJuan de Fuca.[251]In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by theByzantine emperoron trade with theCaliphateopened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.[252]Panayotis Potagoswas another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu andUele Riverfrom the north.
The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarcaand during theNapoleonic Wars), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.[119]Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership flyflags of convenience.[187]The most notable shippingmagnateof the 20th century wasAristotle Onassis,others beingYiannis Latsis,Stavros G. Livanos,andStavros Niarchos.[253][254]
Genetics
In theirarchaeogeneticstudy, Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical; modern Greeks resembled the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the early Neolithic ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks, but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations. Furthermore, proposed migrations byEgyptianorPhoeniciancolonists was not discernible in their data, thus "rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions." TheFSTbetween the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.[181][182]In a subsequent study, Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that around ~58.4–65.8% of the ancestry of the Mycenaeans came fromAnatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF),while the remainder mainly came from ancient populations related to theCaucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHG)(~20.1–22.7%) and thePre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN)culture in the Levant (~7–14%). The Mycenaeans had also inherited ~3.3–5.5% ancestry from a source related to theEastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHG),introduced via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of the Eurasian steppe who are hypothesized to be theProto-Indo-Europeans,and ~0.9–2.3% from theIron Gates Hunter-Gatherersin the Balkans. Mycenaean elites were genetically the same as Mycenaean commoners in terms of their steppe ancestry, while some Mycenaeans lacked it altogether.[255][256]
A genetic study by Clemente et al. (2021) found that in the Early Bronze Age, the populations of the Minoan,Helladic,andCycladiccivilizations in the Aegean, were genetically homogeneous. In contrast, the Aegean population during the Middle Bronze Age was more differentiated; probably due to gene flow from a Yamnaya-related population from thePontic–Caspian steppe.This is corroborated by sequenced genomes of Middle Bronze Age individuals from northern Greece, who had a much higher proportion of steppe-related ancestry; the timing of this gene flow was estimated at ~2,300 BCE, and is consistent with the dominant linguistic theories explaining the emergence of the Proto-Greek language. Present-day Greeks share ~90% of their ancestry with them, suggesting continuity between the two time periods. In the case of Mycenaean Greeks however, their steppe-related ancestry was diluted. The ancestry of the Mycenaeans could be explained via a 2-way admixture model of such MBA individuals in northern Greece, and either an EBA Aegean or MBA Minoan population; the difference between the two time periods could be explained by the general decline of the Mycenaean civilization.[257]
Genetic studies using multipleautosomal,Y-DNA,andmtDNAmarkers, show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans (Italiansand Balkan populations such asAlbanians,Slavic MacedoniansandRomanians). A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to Italians and Romanians[258]and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, Albanians, Romanians andsouthern Balkan Slavssuch asSlavic MacedoniansandBulgarians.[259]A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to theBasques,[260]and FSTdistances showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,[261][262]especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).[263]A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians whileCretanGreeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.[264]Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations[265][266][267]andprincipal component analysis(PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians[268]and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, whichCavalli-Sforza(1993) associates with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".[269]Greeks also have a degree of Eastern-European-related ancestry which is observed in all Balkan peoples; it was acquired after 700 CE, coinciding with the arrival of Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans, but the proportion of this ancestry varies considerably between different studies and subregions.[270][271]A 2022 study discovered common genetic sources shared between South Italy and Peloponnese, which can be modeled as a mixture of Anatolian Neolithic and Iranian Chalcolithic ancestries.[272]
Physical appearance
A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11blond,45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 withblue,15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.[273]
Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from theUniversity of Athens,and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.[274]
A 2017 study found that Bronze Age Aegean populations had mostly dark hair (brown to black) and eyes. The genetic phenotype predictions matched the visual representations made by the Greeks of themselves, suggesting that art of this period reproduced phenotypes naturalistically.[182]
Timeline
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Southern Italy, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overallGreek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.
|
|
See also
Notes
- ^There is a range of interpretations:Carl Blegendates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants andRobert Drewsplaces the event as late as 1600 BC.[60][61]Numerous other theories have also been supported,[62]but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC.
- ^While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence ofMustafa Kemal Atatürkand after a million Greeks had already been expelled fromAsia Minor(Gilbar 1997,p. 8).
Citations
- ^Maratou-Alipranti 2013,p. 196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally."
- ^Clogg 2013,p. 228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."
- ^"2011 Population and Housing Census".Hellenic Statistical Authority.12 September 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 16 July 2016.Retrieved18 May2016.
The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%)... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]
- ^"Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards"(PDF).Archive of European Integration (AEI).University of Pittsburgh. 15 November 2004.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved18 May2016.
[p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.
- ^"Population - Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, Religion, Ethnic/Religious Group, 2011".Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2018.Retrieved12 May2018.
- ^Cole 2011,Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95
- ^"Where are the Greek communities of the world?".themanews.Protothemanews. 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2016.Retrieved14 August2015.
- ^"Statistical Service – Population and Social Conditions – Population Census – Announcements – Preliminary Results of the Census of Population, 2011".Cystat.gov.cy.Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2013.Retrieved6 August2023.
- ^"Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates".American FactFinder.U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau. 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 14 February 2020.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^"U.S. Relations with Greece".United States Department of State.10 March 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2017.Retrieved18 May2016.
Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece.
- ^"Population in private households 2021 by migration background".Archivedfrom the original on 20 April 2019.Retrieved6 August2023.
- ^"2021 Census of Population and Housing General Community Profile".Australian Bureau of Statistics.Archivedfrom the original on 28 June 2022.Retrieved30 December2022.
- ^"United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.4 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 11 September 2018.Retrieved19 April2016.
- ^"Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca.
- ^"South Africa: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.4 February 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 19 June 2006.
- ^"Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.9 July 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2016.Retrieved4 May2016.
The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by theGriko dialect,which is still spoken in theMagna Graeciaregion. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.
- ^ab"Grecia Salentina"(in Italian). Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina. 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 19 August 2014.Retrieved4 May2016.
La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278).
- ^abBellinello 1998,p. 53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa 233 km (145 mi)q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità."
- ^"English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reportsa few thousandand Greek version 3.800 ".MFA.gr.Archivedfrom the original on 4 January 2015.Retrieved21 August2019.
- ^Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77.ISBN978-0415456531.
- ^Parvex R. (2014).Le Chili et les mouvements migratoiresArchived1 August 2020 at theWayback Machine,Hommes & migrations, Nº 1305, 2014.doi:10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720Archived27 September 2023 at theWayback Machine.
- ^"Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.4 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2016.Retrieved19 April2016.
There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol.
- ^"Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей".Archivedfrom the original on 13 May 2020.Retrieved4 February2016.
- ^"The Greek Community".Archived fromthe originalon 13 June 2007.
- ^"France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.9 July 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2016.Retrieved19 April2016.
Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000.
- ^"Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.28 January 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 11 September 2018.Retrieved19 April2016.
Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises.
- ^"CBS Statline".Archivedfrom the original on 28 May 2019.Retrieved18 January2020.
- ^"Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, generatie en migratieachtergrond, 1 januari"(in Dutch). Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 22 July 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 28 May 2019.Retrieved16 January2022.
- ^"Immigration to Uruguay"(PDF)(in Spanish). INE. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 16 August 2013.Retrieved6 March2013.
- ^"World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Rum Orthodox Christians".Minority Rights Group (MRG). 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 29 March 2014.Retrieved1 March2014.
- ^"Pontic".Ethnologue: Languages of the World.SIL International. 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 6 June 2019.Retrieved13 May2016.
- ^"Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.9 July 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 11 September 2018.Retrieved15 April2016.
It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires.
- ^"Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.4 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 5 April 2013.Retrieved5 October2019.
The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics.
- ^"Population and Housing Census 2023"(PDF).Instituti i Statistikës(INSTAT).
- ^"Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група".censusresults.nsi.bg.Archivedfrom the original on 19 May 2023.Retrieved15 October2020.
- ^"Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.28 January 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 11 September 2018.Retrieved19 April2016.
There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families.
- ^"Georgia: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.31 January 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2016.Retrieved15 April2016.
The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15,000 people, mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area.
- ^"Migranti z Řecka v Česku"[Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic](PDF).Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs(in Czech). 9 March 2011.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved25 April2019.
- ^"Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.10 December 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2016.Retrieved19 April2016.
The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country.
- ^"Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.6 December 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 8 August 2016.Retrieved19 April2016.
The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania.
- ^"Greeks in Uzbekistan".Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst.The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute. 21 June 2000.Archivedfrom the original on 13 June 2010.Retrieved24 December2008.
Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent.
- ^"Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community".Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.3 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 23 April 2016.Retrieved15 April2016.
There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities.
- ^"Greeks Around the Globe".AusGreekNet.Archived fromthe originalon 19 June 2006.
- ^"Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland".Archivedfrom the original on 13 November 2019.Retrieved31 July2015.
- ^Vukovich, Gabriella (2018).Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok[2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data](PDF)(in Hungarian). Budapest.ISBN978-963-235-542-9.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved9 January2019.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^abcdeRoberts 2007,pp. 171–172, 222.
- ^Latacz 2004,pp. 159, 165–166.
- ^abcdSutton 1996.
- ^Beaton 1996,pp. 1–25.
- ^CIA World Factbookon Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%,Greek Muslim1.3%, other 0.7%.
- ^Thomas Heath (1981).A History of Greek Mathematics.Courier Dover Publications. p. 1.ISBN978-0-486-24073-2.Archivedfrom the original on 16 February 2023.Retrieved19 August2013.
- ^Tulloch, A. (2017).Understanding English Homonyms: Their Origins and Usage.Hong Kong University Press. p. 153.ISBN978-988-8390-64-9.Retrieved30 November2023.
Greek is the world's oldest recorded living language.
- ^Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p. 52
- ^Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p. 9
- ^Bubenik, V. (2007). "The rise of Koiné". In A. F. Christidis (ed.).A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity.Cambridge: University Press. pp. 342–345.
- ^Guibernau & Hutchinson 2004,p. 23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)."
- ^Smith 1999,p. 21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples."
- ^Bryce 2006,p. 91
- ^Cadogan 1986,p. 125
- ^Bryce 2006,p. 92
- ^Drews 1994,p. 21
- ^Mallory & Adams 1997,p. 243
- ^"The Greeks".Encyclopædia Britannica.US: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
- ^Chadwick 1976,p. 2
- ^ab"Linear A and Linear B".Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2019.Retrieved3 March2016.
- ^Castleden 2005,p. 228.
- ^Tartaron 2013,p. 28;Schofield 2006,pp. 71–72;Panayotou 2007,pp. 417–426.
- ^Hall 2014,p. 43.
- ^Chadwick 1976,p. 176.
- ^abCastleden 2005,p. 2.
- ^Hansen 2004,p. 7;Podzuweit 1982,pp. 65–88.
- ^Castleden 2005,p. 235;Dietrich 1974,p. 156.
- ^Burckhardt 1999,p. 168: "The establishment of these Panhellenic sites, which yet remained exclusively Hellenic, was a very important element in the growth and self-consciousness of Hellenic nationalism; it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes, and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostilepoleis."
- ^Zuwiyya 2011,pp. 142–143;Budin 2009,pp. 66–67.
- ^Morgan 1990,pp. 1–25, 148–190.
- ^"Ancient Greek Civilization".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 18 February 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 17 November 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Konstan 2001,pp. 29–50.
- ^Steinberger 2000,p. 17;Burger 2008,pp. 57–58.
- ^Burger 2008,pp. 57–58: "Poleiscontinued to go to war with each other. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) made this painfully clear. The war (really two wars punctuated by a peace) was a duel between Greece's two leading cities, Athens and Sparta. Most otherpoleis,however, got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other... The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis. "
- ^Fox, Robin Lane (2004)."Riding with Alexander".Archaeology.The Archaeological Institute of America.Archivedfrom the original on 2 November 2012.Retrieved27 December2008.
Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance-force was already out in Asia in 336 BC. Philips campaign had the slogan of "freeing the Greeks" in Asia and "punishing the Persians" for their past sacrileges during their own invasion (a century and a half earlier) of Greece. No doubt, Philip wanted glory and plunder.
- ^Brice 2012,pp. 281–286.
- ^"Alexander the Great".Columbia Encyclopedia.United States: Columbia University Press. 2008. Online Edition.
- ^Green 2008,p. xiii.
- ^Morris, Ian (December 2005)."Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC"(PDF).Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics.Princeton/Stanford University.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^abBoardman, Griffin & Murray 1991,p. 364
- ^Arun, Neil (7 August 2007)."Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2016.Retrieved15 June2009.
- ^Grant 1990,Introduction.
- ^ab"Hellenistic age".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 27 May 2015. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 14 April 2020.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^abcdHarris 1991,pp. 137–138.
- ^Lucore 2009,p. 51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy."
- ^Foltz 2010,pp. 43–46.
- ^Burton 1993,pp. 244–245.
- ^Zoch 2000,p. 136.
- ^"Hellenistic religion".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 13 May 2015. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 27 June 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Ferguson 2003,pp. 617–618.
- ^Dunstan 2011,p. 500.
- ^Milburn 1988,p. 158.
- ^Makrides 2009,p. 206.
- ^Nicholas, Nick. (2019)."A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian".Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography.1(1): 19.doi:10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68.
- ^Kaldellis 2007,pp. 35–40.
- ^Howatson 1989,p. 264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans')..."
- ^abCameron 2009,p. 7.
- ^Harrison 2002,p. 268: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']."
- ^Earl 1968,p. 148.
- ^Paul the Silentiary.Descriptio S. Sophiae et Ambonis,425, Line 12 ( "χῶρος ὅδε Γραικοῖσι" );Theodore the Studite.Epistulae,419, Line 30 ( "ἐν Γραικοῖς" ).
- ^Angelov 2007,p. 96;Makrides 2009,Chapter 2: "Christian Monotheism, Orthodox Christianity, Greek Orthodoxy", p. 74;Magdalino 1991,Chapter XIV: "Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium", p. 10.
- ^"Byzantine Empire".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 23 December 2015. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 4 September 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^abHaldon 1997,p. 50.
- ^Shahid 1972,pp. 295–296, 305.
- ^Klein 2004,p. 290 (Note #39);Annales Fuldenses,389: "Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt...".
- ^Fouracre & Gerberding 1996,p. 345: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."
- ^Page 2008,pp. 66, 87, 256
- ^Kaplanis 2014,pp. 86–7
- ^Jakobsson, Sverrir (1 January 2016)."The Varangian legend: testimony from the Old Norse sources".Academia.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2022.Retrieved1 December2021.
- ^Herrin, Judith; Saint-Guillain, Guillaume (2011).Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111.ISBN9781409410980.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved1 December2021.
- ^Stouraitis 2014,pp. 176, 177.
- ^Finkelberg 2012,p. 20.
- ^abBurstein 1988,pp. 47–49.
- ^abcdef"Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
- ^Angold 1975,p. 65,Page 2008,p. 127.
- ^"Byzantium 1220 To 1330 - PDF - Byzantine Empire - Constantinople".Scribd.5 August 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 11 August 2016.Retrieved1 December2021.
- ^Kaplanis 2014,p. 92.
- ^Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1964).History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453.University of Wisconsin Press. p. 582.ISBN9780299809256.
- ^Jane Perry Clark Carey; Andrew Galbraith Carey (1968).The Web of Modern Greek Politics.Columbia University Press. p. 33.ISBN9780231031707.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved11 September2018.
By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called "Emperor of the Hellenes"
- ^Mango 1965,p. 33.
- ^See for example Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), and his 'Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia' (Variourum, 1988), and other works listed inCaucasian GreeksandPontic Greeks.
- ^Norwich 1998,p. xxi.
- ^Harris 1999,Part II Medieval Libraries: Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries, pp. 71–88
- ^ab"Renaissance".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 30 March 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2015.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Robins 1993,p. 8.
- ^"Aristotelianism".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 21 October 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^"Cyril and Methodius, Saints".The Columbia Encyclopedia.United States: Columbia University Press. 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 5 June 2016.Retrieved10 May2016.
- ^abcdMazower 2000,pp. 105–107.
- ^"History of Europe, The Romans".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
- ^Mavrocordatos, Nicholaos (1800).Philotheou Parerga.Grēgorios Kōnstantas (Original from Harvard University Library).
Γένος μεν ημίν των άγαν Ελλήνων
- ^"Manastırlar".macka.gov.tr(in Turkish).Archivedfrom the original on 9 June 2023.Retrieved24 June2021.
- ^Bahadıroğlu, Yavuz (2007).Resimli Osmanlı tarihi([10.baskı: Eylül 2007] ed.). İstanbul: Nesil yayınları. p. 157.ISBN978-975-269-299-2.OCLC235010971.
- ^"Phanariote".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^abc"History of Greece, Ottoman Empire, The merchant middle class".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
- ^"Greek Constitution of 1822 (Epidaurus)"(PDF)(in Greek). 1822.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^Barutciski 2003,p. 28;Clark 2006,pp. xi–xv;Hershlag 1980,p. 177;Özkırımlı & Sofos 2008,pp. 116–117.
- ^Üngör 2008,pp. 15–39.
- ^Broome 1996,"Greek Identity", pp. 22–27
- ^ὅμαιμοςArchived25 February 2021 at theWayback Machine,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,on Perseus
- ^ὁμόγλωσσοςArchived25 February 2021 at theWayback Machine,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,on Perseus
- ^I. Polinskaya, "Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144", in: R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.),Valuing others in Classical Antiquity(LEiden: Brill, 2010), 43–70.
- ^Macan, Reginald Walter(1908). "8. 144".Herodotus, The Seventh, Eighth, & Ninth Books with Introduction and Commentary.Macmillan & Co. Ltd. Archived fromthe originalon 13 September 2023.Retrieved7 October2023– via Perseus.
- ^ὁμότροποςArchived25 February 2021 at theWayback Machine,Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon,on Perseus)
- ^Herodotus, 8.144.2:"The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."
- ^Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby,Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations,Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115
- ^Adrados 2005,p. xii.
- ^Finkelberg 2012,p. 20;Harrison 2002,p. 268;Kazhdan & Constable 1982,p. 12;Runciman 1970,p. 14.
- ^Ševčenko 2002,p. 284.
- ^Sphrantzes, George(1477).The Chronicle of the Fall.
- ^Feraios, Rigas.New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.
- ^Koliopoulos & Veremis 2002,p. 277.
- ^Smith 2003,p. 98: "After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, recognition by the Turks of the Greekmilletunder its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity, which, even if it did notproducea "precocious nationalism" among the Greeks, provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory. "
- ^Tonkin, Chapman & McDonald 1989.
- ^Patterson 1998,pp. 18–19.
- ^Psellos, Michael (1994).Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae.Stuttgart/Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter. p. 33.ISBN978-0-297-82057-4.
- ^SeeIliad,II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" andIliadII.2.653 for "Hellenes".
- ^Cartledge 2011,Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."
- ^Nagy 2014,Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization... The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. In the Iliad, the names" Achaeans "and" Danaans "and" Argives "are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes =" all Hellenes "=" all Greeks. ""
- ^Herodotus.Histories,7.94 and 8.73.
- ^Homer.Iliad,2.681–685
- ^abThe Parian Marble, Entry #6Archived23 August 2017 at theWayback Machine:"From when Hellen [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes."
- ^Pseudo-Apollodorus.Bibliotheca.
- ^abAristotle.Meteorologica,1.14Archived29 June 2011 at theWayback Machine:"The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous."
- ^Homer.Iliad,16.233–16.235: "King Zeus, lord of Dodona... you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you."
- ^Hesiod.Catalogue of Women,Fragment 5.
- ^Starostin, Sergei (1998).The Tower of Babel: An Etymological Database Project.
- ^Watkins, Calvert (2000).The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots.Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.ISBN0618082506.
- ^Aristotle,MeteorologicaI.xiv
- ^abcdAdrados 2005,pp. xii, 3–5.
- ^Browning 1983,p. vii: "The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B.C. Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day. Change there has certainly been. But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages. Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo-Saxon is to the modern Englishman. The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese."
- ^abcdSmith 1991,pp. 29–32.
- ^Isaac 2004,p. 504: "Autochthony, being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts, is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers, wherever Greek literature was read."
- ^Anna Comnena.Alexiad,Books 1–15.
- ^Papagrigorakis, Kousoulis & Synodinos 2014,p. 237: "Interpreted with caution, the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures."
- ^Argyropoulos, Sassouni & Xeniotou 1989,p. 200: "An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4,000 years."
- ^abGibbons, Ann (2 August 2017). "The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient DNA reveals".Science.doi:10.1126/science.aan7200.
- ^abcLazaridis et al. 2017
- ^Πίνακας 9. Πληθυσμός κατά υπηκοότητα και φύλο(PDF)(in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 2001. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 February 2009.Retrieved7 January2009.
- ^"CIA Factbook".Central Intelligence Agency.United States Government. 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2021.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^"Census of Population 2001".Γραφείο Τύπου και Πληροφοριών, Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία. Archived fromthe originalon 3 February 2017.Retrieved11 June2016.
- ^"Greece: Demographic trends".Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 17 July 2019.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^abc"Merchant Marine, Tertiary enrollment by age group".Pocket World in Figures (Economist).London: Economist Books. 2006. p. 150.ISBN978-1-86197-825-7.
- ^abc"Cyprus: Demographic trends".Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2008.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Papadakis, Peristianis & Welz 2006,pp. 2–3;Borowiec 2000,p. 2;Rezun 2001,p. 6;Brown 2004,p. 48.
- ^Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos 2001,p. 24: "In occupied Cyprus on the other hand, where heavy ethnic cleansing took place, only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200,000!"
- ^Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007).The Balkans: a post-communist history.London: Routledge. p. 49.ISBN978-0-203-96911-3.OCLC85373407.Archivedfrom the original on 29 May 2020.Retrieved17 December2022.
It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there were in Albania before the exodus of refugees during the early to mid-1990s. The Albanian government claimed there were only 60,000, based on the biased 1989 census, whereas the Greek government claimed there were upwards of 300,000. Most Western estimates were around the 200,000 mark
- ^Georgiou, Myria (2004).Mapping Minorities and their Media: The National Context – Greece(PDF).London School of Economics.Archived(PDF)from the original on 14 December 2022.Retrieved17 December2022.
"The long and adventurous 20th century history of migration in Greece can be drawn by period:.... 1990's: The vast majority of the 200,000 ethnic Greeks from Albania".
- ^Gilson, George (24 June 2005)."Destroying a minority: Turkey's attack on the Greeks".Athens News.Archived fromthe originalon 17 June 2008.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^Vryonis 2005,pp. 1–10.
- ^Birand, Mehm; et al. (7 September 2005)."The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us".Hürriyet Daily News.Archived fromthe originalon 9 December 2012.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^abcPrevelakis, George (2003)."Finis Greciaeor the Return of the Greeks? State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation "(PDF).Oxford: Transnational Communities Programme (Working Paper Series).Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved16 May2016.
- ^"Speech by Vasilis Magdalinos".SAE. 29 December 2006. Archived fromthe originalon 21 July 2011.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^"Meeting on the exercise of voting rights by foreigners of Greek origin".Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs.15 July 2008. Archived fromthe originalon 16 February 2012.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^"Non-Greeks and diaspora lose out on voting rights".Ekathimerini. 8 February 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 13 January 2015.Retrieved13 January2015.
- ^abBoardman 1984,pp. 199–289.
- ^Horden & Purcell 2000,pp. 111, 128.
- ^Calotychos 2003,p. 16.
- ^abMcCabe & Harlaftis 2005,pp. 147–149.
- ^abKardasis 2001,pp. xvii–xxi.
- ^Clogg 2000,"The Greeks in America"
- ^Laliotou 2004,pp. 85–92.
- ^Seiradaki, Emmanouela (11 April 2012)."As Crisis Deepens, Astoria Finds Its Greek Essence Again".Greek Reporter.GreekReporter.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2019.Retrieved21 May2016.
- ^Papachristou, Harry; Elgood, Giles (20 May 2012)."Greece Already Close to Breaking Point".The Fiscal Times.Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 30 July 2013.Retrieved22 May2012.
- ^Hannon, Paul (27 June 2012)."OECD Says Euro-Zone Crisis Has Led to Some Emigration".The Wall Street Journal.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved21 May2016.
- ^abvan der Horst 1998,pp. 9–11;Voegelin & Moulakis 1997,pp. 175–179
- ^"Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides"(PDF)(Press release).International Association of Genocide Scholars.16 December 2007. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 February 2008.
- ^Bjørnlund 2008,pp. 41–58;Schaller & Zimmerer 2008,pp. 7–14;Levene 1998,p. 393;Tatz 2003,pp. xiii, 178.
- ^"Greek literature".Encyclopædia Britannica.United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 27 August 2014. Online Edition.Archivedfrom the original on 21 June 2020.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^"New Linear B tablet found at Iklaina".Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes, UNESCO. Archived fromthe originalon 15 October 2013.Retrieved29 April2012.
- ^Aland, K.; Aland, B. (1995).The Text of the New Testament.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.ISBN978-0-8028-4098-1.
- ^Winford 2003,p. 71.
- ^Mackridge 1990,p. 25.
- ^Tomić 2006,p. 703.
- ^Fasold 1984,p. 160.
- ^"Greece".PewForum. 4 April 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2018.Retrieved4 April2014.
- ^Head, James (20 March 2007)."The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct".New Statesman.p. The Faith Column.Archivedfrom the original on 12 June 2018.Retrieved12 May2016.
- ^de Quetteville, Harry (8 May 2004)."Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods".The Telegraph.Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2022.Retrieved12 May2016.
- ^"Freedom of Religion in Greece".International Religious Freedom Report.United States Department of State. 2006.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2020.Retrieved12 May2016.
- ^Tsokalidou, Roula (2002)."Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria"(PDF).Actas/Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo.Roula Tsokalidou (Primary School Education Department, University of Thessaly, Greece). pp. 1245–1255.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^abOsborne 1998,pp. 1–3.
- ^Pollitt 1972,pp. xii–xv.
- ^Puri 1987,pp. 28–29.
- ^abMango 1986,pp. ix–xiv, 183.
- ^"The Byzantine empire, The lasting glory of its art".The Economist.4 October 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2010.Retrieved10 May2016.
- ^Stansbury-O'Donnell 2015;Tarbell 1907.
- ^"Byzantine Medicine — Vienna Dioscurides".Antiqua Medicina.University of Virginia. 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 10 October 2018.Retrieved10 May2016.
- ^abBump, Jerome."The Origin of Universities (University of Magnaura in Constantinople)".The Origin of Universities.University of Texas at Austin. Archived fromthe originalon 20 February 2009.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^Tatakes & Moutafakis 2003,p. 189.
- ^"University reforms in Greece face student protests".The Economist.6 July 2006.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2008.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^Papadakis 1995,p. 55.
- ^"The Flag".Law 851, Gov. Gazette 233, issue A, dated 21/22.12.1978.Presidency of the Hellenic Republic. Archived fromthe originalon 15 October 2008.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^"Older Flags: 19 December 2008".Flags of the Greeks.Skafidas Zacharias.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2010.Retrieved23 December2008.[Note: Website contains image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag.]
- ^Grierson & Bellinger 1999,"Eagles", pp. 85–86
- ^"Byzantine Flags".Byzantine Heraldry.François Velde. 1997.Archivedfrom the original on 6 January 2014.Retrieved13 May2016.
- ^Wilson, N.G. (2006).Encyclopedia of ancient Greece.New York: Routledge. p. 511.ISBN0-415-97334-1.
- ^R. Po-chia Hsia, Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith,The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, A Concise History, Volume I: To 1740(Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007), 44.
- ^Clogg,A Concise History of Greece,pp. 25–26
- ^Goldstein,Wars and Peace Treaties,p. 20
- ^abWickham 2005,p. 237.
- ^abcde"The Transition of Modern Greek Names".Lexicon of Greek Personal Names.Oxford University. Archived fromthe originalon 22 July 2018.Retrieved10 May2016.
- ^Fong 2004,p. 39.
- ^Koliopoulos 1987,p. xii.
- ^"Naming practices".Lexicon of Greek Personal Names.Oxford University. Archived fromthe originalon 16 August 2018.Retrieved16 October2016.
- ^Plato.Phaidon,109c: "ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας."
- ^Harl 1996,p. 260: "Cities employed the coins of an empire that formed a community of cities encircling the Mediterranean Sea, which Romans audaciously called" Our Sea "(mare nostrum). "We live around a sea like frogs around a pond" was how Socrates, so Plato tells us, described to his friends the Hellenic cities of the Aegean in the late fifth century B.C. "
- ^Pletcher 2013;Casson 1991,p. 124;Winstedt 1909,pp. 1–3;Withey 1989,p. 42.
- ^Brown 2001,pp. 30–32;Postan, Miller & Postan 1987,pp. 132–166
- ^Blyth, Myrna (12 August 2004)."Greek Tragedy: The life of Aristotle Onassis".National Review.Archived fromthe originalon 7 December 2008.Retrieved19 December2008.
- ^Smith, Helena (6 October 2006)."Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis's life".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved13 May2016.
- ^Lazaridis et al. 2022,pp. 1–13, Supplementary Materials:pp. 233–241Archived27 September 2023 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Lecture by Prof. David Reich -" The Genetic History of the Southern Arc: A Bridge between West Asia & Europe "".iias.huji.ac.il.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2023.Retrieved21 June2022.
- ^Clemente et al. 2021
- ^Lao, Oscar; et al. (2008)."Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe".Current Biology.18(16): 1241–1248.Bibcode:2008CBio...18.1241L.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049.PMID18691889.S2CID16945780.
- ^Novembre, John; et al. (2008)."Genes mirror geography within Europe".Nature.456(7218): 98–101.Bibcode:2008Natur.456...98N.doi:10.1038/nature07331.PMC2735096.PMID18758442.
- ^Ayub, Q (2003). "Reconstruction of human evolutionary tree using polymorphic autosomal microsatellites".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.122(3): 259–268.doi:10.1002/ajpa.10234.PMID14533184.S2CID467540.
- ^Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1996).The History and Geography of Human Genes.Princeton University Press. pp.255–301.ISBN978-0691029054.
- ^Bauchet, M; et al. (2007)."Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data".Am. J. Hum. Genet.80(5): 948–956.doi:10.1086/513477.PMC1852743.PMID17436249.
- ^Tian, Chao; et al. (2009)."European Population Genetic Substructure: Further Definition of Ancestry Informative Markers for Distinguishing Among Diverse European Ethnic Groups".Molecular Medicine.15(11–12): 371–383.doi:10.2119/molmed.2009.00094.PMC2730349.PMID19707526.
- ^King, Roy J.; et al. (2008). "Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic".Annals of Human Genetics.72(Pt 2): 205–214.doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x.PMID18269686.S2CID22406638.
- ^Richards, Martin; et al. (2002)."In search of geographical patterns in European mitochondrial DNA".Am. J. Hum. Genet.71(5): 1168–1174.doi:10.1086/342930.PMC385092.PMID12355353.
- ^Richards, Martin; et al. (2000)."Tracing European founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool".Am. J. Hum. Genet.67(5): 1251–1276.doi:10.1016/S0002-9297(07)62954-1.PMC1288566.PMID11032788.
- ^Achilli, Alessandro; et al. (2007)."Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans".Am. J. Hum. Genet.80(4): 759–768.doi:10.1086/512822.PMC1852723.PMID17357081.
- ^Tian, Chao; et al. (2008)."Analysis and Application of European Genetic Substructure Using 300 K SNP Information".PLOS Genetics.4(1): e4.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0040004.PMC2211544.PMID18208329.
- ^Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Piazza, Alberto (1993). "Human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of recent research and prospects for the future".Eur J Hum Genet.1(1): 3–18.doi:10.1159/000472383.PMID7520820.S2CID25475102.
- ^Olalde, Iñigo; Carrión, Pablo; Mikić, Ilija; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Lazaridis, Iosif; Mah, Matthew; Korać, Miomir; Golubović, Snežana; Petković, Sofija; Miladinović-Radmilović, Nataša; Vulović, Dragana; Alihodžić, Timka; Ash, Abigail; Baeta, Miriam; et al. (7 December 2023)."A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations"(PDF).Cell.186(25). p. 5480;Figure 4B;Data S2, Table 8.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.018.PMC10752003.PMID38065079.
- ^Stamatoyannopoulos, George; Bose, Aritra; Teodosiadis, Athanasios; Tsetsos, Fotis; Plantinga, Anna; Psatha, Nikoletta; Zogas, Nikos; Yannaki, Evangelia; Zalloua, Pierre; Kidd, Kenneth K.; Browning, Brian L.; Stamatoyannopoulos, John; Paschou, Peristera; Drineas, Petros (2017)."Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks".European Journal of Human Genetics.25(5): 637–645.doi:10.1038/ejhg.2017.18.ISSN1018-4813.PMC5437898.PMID28272534.
- ^Raveane, Alessandro; Molinaro, Ludovica; Aneli, Serena; Capodiferro, Marco Rosario; Ongaro, Linda; Migliore, Nicola Rambaldi; Soffiati, Sara; Scarano, Teodoro; Torroni, Antonio; Achilli, Alessandro; Ventura, Mario; Pagani, Luca; Capelli, Cristian; Olivieri, Anna; Bertolini, Francesco (1 March 2022)."Assessing temporal and geographic contacts across the Adriatic Sea through the analysis of genome-wide data from Southern Italy":2022.02.26.482072.doi:10.1101/2022.02.26.482072.S2CID247231413.
{{cite journal}}
:Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^Walsh 2013,pp. 98–115.
- ^Lagouvardos et al. 2012
- ^McEnroe, John C. (2010).Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age.Web: University of Texas Press. pp. 117–120, 122, 126–130.
- ^Beckman, Gary; Bryce, Trevor; Cline, Eric (2012).The Ahhiyawa Texts.Brill. pp. 268–270.ISBN978-1589832688.
The archaeological and textual evidence clearly demonstrates that there were well-established connections between the Aegean and western Anatolia during the late-fifteenth through the thirteenth centuries B.C.E
- ^R. J. Rummel."Statistics of Democide".Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources.Archivedfrom the original on 25 August 2012.Retrieved4 October2006.
- ^Smith, Helena (19 January 2015)."Young, gifted and Greek: Generation G – the world's biggest brain drain".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2019.Retrieved17 December2016.
- ^Lowen, Mark (29 May 2013)."Greece's young: Dreams on hold as fight for jobs looms".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2019.Retrieved25 July2013.
The brain drain is quickening. A recent study by the University of Thessaloniki found that more than 120,000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and scientists, have left Greece since the start of the crisis in 2010.
- ^Melander, Ingrid (28 October 2011)."Greeks seek to escape debt crisis abroad".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 2 January 2016.Retrieved25 July2013.
References
- Adrados, Francisco Rodriguez (2005).A History of the Greek Language: From its Origins to the Present.Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-90-04-12835-4.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
- Angelov, Dimiter (2007).Imperial Ideology and Political Thought in Byzantium (1204–1330).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-85703-1.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Angold, Michael (1975). "Byzantine 'Nationalism' and the Nicaean Empire".Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies.1(1): 49–70.doi:10.1179/030701375790158257.S2CID161584160.
- Argyropoulos, Evangelos; Sassouni, Viken; Xeniotou, Anna (1 September 1989)."A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4,000 years".The Angle Orthodontist.59(3): 195–204.PMID2672905.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2020.Retrieved17 May2020.
- Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006). "Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?". In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.).Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages.Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91–109.ISBN978-1-902937-33-5.
- Barutciski, Michael (2003)."3 Lausanne Revisited: Population Exchanges in International Law and Policy".In Hirschon, Renée (ed.).Crossing the Aegean: The Consequences of the 1923 Greek-Turkish Population Exchange (Studies in Forced Migration).New York: Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1-57181-562-0.
- Beaton, Roderick (1996).The Medieval Greek Romance(2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-12032-6.
- Bellinello, Pier Francesco (1998).Minoranze Etniche e Linguistiche(in Italian). Cosenza: Editoriale Bios.ISBN978-88-7740-121-2.
- Bjørnlund, Matthias (February 2008). "The 1914 Cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a Case of Violent Turkification".Journal of Genocide Research.10(1): 41–58.doi:10.1080/14623520701850286.S2CID72975930.
- Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn, eds. (1991) [1986].The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-285247-2.
- Boardman, John (1984). "13. The Greek World". In Boardman, John (ed.).The Cambridge Ancient History: Plates to Volume III, the Middle East, the Greek World and the Balkans to the Sixth Century B.C.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 199–289.ISBN978-0-521-24289-9.
- Borowiec, Andrew (2000).Cyprus: A Troubled Island.London and Westport, CT: Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-96533-4.
- Brice, Lee L. (2012).Greek Warfare: From the Battle of Marathon to the Conquests of Alexander the Great.Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC.ISBN978-1-61069-069-0.
- Broome, Benjamin J. (1996).Exploring the Greek Mosaic: A Guide to Intercultural Communication in Greece.Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.ISBN978-1-931930-39-0.
- Brown, Neville (2004).Global Instability and Strategic Defence.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-30413-9.
- Bryce, Trevor (2006).The Trojans and Their Neighbours.Routledge.ISBN978-0415349550.
- Budin, Stephanie Lynn (2009) [2004].The Ancient Greeks: An Introduction.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-537984-6.
- Burckhardt, Jacob (1999) [1872].The Greeks and Greek Civilization.New York: St. Martin's Press.ISBN978-0-312-24447-7.
- Burger, Michael (2008).The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment.Ontario: Broadview Press.ISBN978-1-55111-432-3.
- Burstein, Stanley M. (1988)."The Greek Tradition from Alexander to the End of Antiquity".In Thomas, Carol G. (ed.).Paths from Ancient Greece.Leiden: BRILL. pp. 27–50.ISBN978-90-04-08846-7.
- Brown, Thomas (2001)."The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean, 400–900".In Holmes, George (ed.).The Oxford History of Medieval Europe.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–58.ISBN978-0-19-280133-3.
- Browning, Robert (1983) [1969].Medieval and Modern Greek.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-23488-7.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved7 May2016.
- Burton, Watson (1993).Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, Han Dynasty II(Revised ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-08166-5.
- Cadogan, Gerald, ed. (1986).The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean.Leiden: E. J. Brill.ISBN90-04-07309-4.
- Calotychos, Vangelis (2003).Modern Greece: A Cultural Poetics.Oxford and New York: Berg.ISBN978-1-85973-716-3.
- Cameron, Averil (2009).The Byzantines.Oxford: John Wiley and Sons.ISBN978-1-4051-9833-2.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Cartledge, Paul(2011).Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-960134-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
- Castleden, Rodney (2005).The Mycenaeans.London and New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-36336-5.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved22 April2016.
- Casson, Lionel (1991).The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-01477-7.
- Chadwick, John(1976).The Mycenaean World.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-29037-1.
- Clark, Bruce (2006).Twice A Stranger: How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey.London: Granta Books.ISBN978-1-86207-752-2.
- Clemente, Florian; Unterländer, Martina; Dolgova, Olga; Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G.; et al. (13 May 2021)."The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations".Cell.184(10): 2565–2586.e21.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.039.ISSN0092-8674.PMC8127963.PMID33930288.
- Clogg, Richard (2013) [1992].A Concise History of Greece.Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-65644-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved16 May2016.
- Clogg, Richard (2000).The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century.Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-333-60047-4.
- Cole, Jeffrey,ed. (2011).Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia.Ethnic Groups of the World Series. Santa Barbara and Oxford: ABC-CLIO Incorporated.ISBN978-1-59884-302-6.Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2023.Retrieved13 May2016.
- Dietrich, Bernard Clive (1974).The Origins of Greek Religion.Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-003982-5.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved22 April2016.
- Drews, Robert(1994).The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-02951-1.
- Dunstan, William (2011).Ancient Rome.Lanham and New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.ISBN978-0-7425-6834-1.
- Earl, Donald C. (1968).The Age of Augustus.New York: Exeter Books (Paul Elek Productions Incorporated).Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved21 June2020.
- Fasold, Ralph W. (1984).The Sociolinguistics of Society.Oxford and New York: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-631-13462-6.
- Ferguson, Everett (2003).Backgrounds of Early Christianity.Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.ISBN978-0-8028-2221-5.
- Finkelberg, Margalit (2012)."Canonising and Decanonising Homer: Reception of the Homeric Poems in Antiquity and Modernity".In Niehoff, Maren R. (ed.).Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters.Leiden: BRILL. pp. 15–28.ISBN978-90-04-22134-5.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Foltz, Richard(2010) [1999].Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization(2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-62125-1.
- Fong, Mary (2004)."3. Ethnic and Cultural Identity: Distinguishing Features".In Fong, Mary; Chuang, Rueyling (eds.).Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity.Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 35–50.ISBN978-0-7425-1739-4.
- Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996).Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720.Manchester: Manchester University Press.ISBN978-0-7190-4791-6.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981).Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages.Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.ISBN9789535172611.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved15 April2016.
- Gilbar, Gad G. (1997).Population Dilemmas in the Middle East: Essays in Political Demography and Economy.London and Portland: Frank Cass.ISBN978-0-7146-4706-7.
- Grant, Michael (1990).The Hellenistic Greeks: From Alexander to Cleopatra.London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.ISBN978-0-297-82057-4.
- Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003)."Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin".Nature.426(6965): 435–439.Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G.doi:10.1038/nature02029.PMID14647380.S2CID42340.Archivedfrom the original on 18 June 2021.Retrieved1 September2020.
- Green, Peter (2008).Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age: A Short History.London: Phoenix.ISBN978-0-7538-2413-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Grierson, Philip; Bellinger, Alfred Raymond (1999).Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection (Volume Five: Michael VIII to Constantine XI 1258–1453).Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.ISBN978-0-88402-261-9.
- Guibernau, Montserrat;Hutchinson, John,eds. (2004).History and National Destiny: Ethnosymbolism and its Critics.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-1-4051-2391-4.
- Haldon, John F. (1997).Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-31917-1.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.
- Hall, Jonathan M. (2014) [2007].A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE.Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-0-631-22667-3.
- Hansen, William F. (2004).Handbook of Classical Mythology.Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-226-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
- Harl, Kenneth W. (1996).Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, Part 700.Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-0-8018-5291-6.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved10 May2016.
- Harris, William Vernon (1991) [1989].Ancient Literacy.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-03837-0.
- Harris, Michael H. (1999) [1995].History of Libraries in the Western World(4th ed.). Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press Incorporated.ISBN978-0-8108-7715-3.
- Harrison, Thomas (2002).Greeks and Barbarians.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-93958-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved7 May2016.
- Hershlag, Zvi Yehuda (1980).Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East.Leiden: E.J. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-06061-6.
- Horden, Peregrine; Purcell, Nicholas (2000).The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History.Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-631-21890-6.
- Howatson, M.C. (1989).The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-866121-4.
- Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004).The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-12598-5.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved4 May2016.
- Jeffries, Ian (2002).Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition.London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis).ISBN978-0-415-23671-3.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved19 April2016.
- Kaldellis, Anthony (2007).Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-87688-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved28 April2016.
- Kaplanis, Tassos (2014)."Antique Names and Self-Identification: Hellenes, Graikoi, and Romaioi from Late Byzantium to the Greek Nation-State".In Tziovas, Dimitris (ed.).Re-imagining the Past: Antiquity and Modern Greek Culture.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 81–97.Archivedfrom the original on 12 March 2022.Retrieved28 December2017.
- Kardasis, Vassilis (2001).Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775–1861.Lanham and Oxford: Le xing ton Books.ISBN978-0-7391-0245-9.
- Kazhdan, Alexander Petrovich; Constable, Giles (1982).People and Power in Byzantium: An Introduction to Modern Byzantine Studies.Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.ISBN978-0-88402-103-2.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2023.Retrieved7 May2016.
- Klein, Holgen A. (2004). "Eastern Objects and Western Desires: Relics and Reliquaries between Byzantium and the West".Dumbarton Oaks Papers.58:283–314.doi:10.2307/3591389.JSTOR3591389.S2CID12649697.
- Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2002).Greece: The Modern Sequel: From 1831 to the Present.New York, NY: New York University Press.ISBN978-0-8147-4767-4.
- Koliopoulos, Giannes (1987).Brigands with a Cause: Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece, 1821–1912.Oxford: Clarendon.ISBN9780198228639.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved12 May2016.
- Konstan, David (2001)."To Hellenikon Ethnos: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity".In Malkin, Irad (ed.).Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity.Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University. pp. 29–50.ISBN978-0-674-00662-1.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved30 April2016.
- Lagouvardos, Panagiotis E.; Tsamali, Ioana; Papadopoulou, Christine; Polyzois, Gregory (2012)."Tooth, Skin, Hair and Eye Colour Interrelationships in Greek Young Adults".Odontology.101(1): 75–83.doi:10.1007/s10266-012-0058-1.PMID22349932.S2CID11606304.
- Laliotou, Ioanna (2004)."Greek Diaspora".In Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (eds.).Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume II: Diaspora Communities.New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media.ISBN978-0-306-48321-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved14 May2016.
- Latacz, Joachim (2004).Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-926308-0.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
- Lazaridis, Iosif; Mittnik, Alissa; Patterson, Nick; Mallick, Swapan; et al. (2017)."Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans".Nature.548(7666): 214–218.Bibcode:2017Natur.548..214L.doi:10.1038/nature23310.ISSN0028-0836.PMC5565772.PMID28783727.
- Lazaridis, Iosif; Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Songül; Acar, Ayşe; Açıkkol, Ayşen; et al. (26 August 2022)."The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe".Science.377(6609): eabm4247.doi:10.1126/science.abm4247.ISSN0036-8075.PMC10064553.PMID36007055.S2CID251843620.
- Levene, Mark (1998). "Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923".Holocaust and Genocide Studies.12(3): 393–433.doi:10.1093/hgs/12.3.393.
- Lucore, Sandra K. (2009)."Archimedes, the North Baths at Morgantina, and Early Developments in Vaulted Construction".In Kosso, Cynthia; Scott, Anne (eds.).The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance.Leiden and Boston: BRILL. pp. 43–60.ISBN978-90-04-17357-6.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.
- Mackridge, Peter (1990)."Katharevousa (c. 1800–1974): An Obituary for an Official Language".In Sarafis, Marion; Eve, Marion (eds.).Background to Contemporary Greece (Volume 1).London: The Merlin Press. pp. 25–52.ISBN978-0-85036-393-7.
- Magdalino, Paul(1991).Tradition and Transformation in Medieval Byzantium.Aldershot: Variorum.ISBN978-0-86078-295-7.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Makrides, Vasilios (2009).Hellenic Temples and Christian Churches: A Concise History of the Religious Cultures of Greece from Antiquity to the Present.New York: New York University Press.ISBN978-0-8147-9568-2.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved2 May2016.
- Mallory, James; Adams, Douglas (1997).Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-1-884964-98-5.Archivedfrom the original on 19 February 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.
- Mango, Cyril A. (1986).The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453: Sources and Documents.Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-0-8020-6627-5.
- Mango, Cyril (1965). "Byzantinism and Romantic Hellenism".Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes.28:29–43.doi:10.2307/750662.JSTOR750662.S2CID195042286.
- Maratou-Alipranti, Laura (2013)."5 Greece: From Emigration to Immigration and the Problems of Inter-Ethnic Relations".In Roberts, Lance W.; Ferguson, Barry; Bös, Mathias; Von Below, Susanne (eds.).Multicultural Variations: Social Incorporation in Europe and North America.Montreal & Kingston, London, Ithaca: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 196–232.ISBN978-0-7735-8905-6.
- Mazower, Mark (2000).The Balkans: A Short History.New York: Modern Library.ISBN978-0-8129-6621-3.
- McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz; Harlaftis, Gelina (2005).Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History.Oxford and New York: Berg.ISBN978-1-85973-875-7.
- Milburn, Robert (1988).Early Christian Art and Architecture.Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-07412-5.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.
- Morgan, Catherine (1990).Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-37451-4.
- Nagy, Gregory (2014)."The Heroic and the Anti-Heroic in Classical Greek Civilization".Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Harvard College. Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2016.Retrieved20 May2016.
- Norwich, John Julius (1998).A Short History of Byzantium.Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin.ISBN978-0-14-025960-5.
- Osborne, Robin (1998).Archaic and Classical Greek Art.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-284202-2.
- Özkırımlı, Umut; Sofos, Spyros A. (2008).Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-70052-8.
- Page, Gill (2008).Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans, 1200–1420.Cambridge University Press.
- Panayotou, A. (2007)."4 Arcado-Cypriot".In Christidis, A.-F.; Arapopoulou, Maria; Chritē, Maria (eds.).A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 786–791.ISBN9780521833073.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
- Papadakis, Yiannis (1995)."4. Nationalist Imaginings of War in Cyprus".In Hinde, Robert A.; Watson, Helen (eds.).War, a Cruel Necessity?: The Bases of Institutionalized Violence.London and New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 54–67.ISBN978-1-85043-824-3.
- Papadakis, Yiannis; Peristianis, Nicos; Welz, Gisela (2006)."Introduction – Modernity, History, and Conflict in Divided Cyprus: An Overview".In Papadakis, Nicos; Peristianis, Yiannis; Welz, Gisela (eds.).Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History, and an Island in Conflict.Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 1–29.ISBN978-0-253-21851-3.
- Papagrigorakis, M.J.; Kousoulis, A.A.; Synodinos, P.N. (2014). "Craniofacial Morphology in Ancient and Modern Greeks through 4,000 Years".Anthropologischer Anzeiger.71(3): 237–257.doi:10.1127/0003-5548/2014/0277.PMID25065118.S2CID45284840.
- Patterson, Cynthia (1998).The Family in Greek History.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-00568-6.
- Pletcher, Kenneth, ed. (2013).Explorers of Antiquity: From Alexander the Great to Marco Polo.New York, NY: Britannica Educational Publishing.ISBN978-1-62275-027-6.
- Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische Welt und Troja". In Hänsel, B. (ed.).Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v. Chr(in German). Berlin: Prahistorische Archäologie in Sudosteuropa. pp. 65–88.
- Pollitt, Jerome Jordan (1972).Art and Experience in Classical Greece.New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-09662-1.
- Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward; Postan, Cynthia (1987).The Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Volume 2).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-08709-4.
- Puri, Baij Nath (1987).Buddhism in Central Asia.Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.ISBN978-81-208-0372-5.
- Rezun, Miron (2001).Europe's Nightmare: The Struggle for Kosovo.London and Westport, CT: Praeger.ISBN978-0-275-97072-7.
- Roberts, J.M. (2007).The New Penguin History of the World.London and New York: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-103042-5.
- Robins, Robert Henry (1993).The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History.Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-013574-9.
- Runciman, Steven (1970).The Last Byzantine Renaissance.London and New York: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521077873.
- Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman Genocides: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish Population and Extermination Policies – Introduction".Journal of Genocide Research.10(1): 7–14.doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.S2CID71515470.
- Schofield, Louise (2006).The Mycenaeans.Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum.ISBN978-0-89236-867-9.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
- Ševčenko, Ihor (2002)."11 Palaiologan Learning".In Mango, Cyril (ed.).The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 284–293.ISBN978-0-19-814098-6.
- Shahid, Irfan (1972). "The Iranian Factor in Byzantium during the Reign of Heraclius".Dumbarton Oaks Papers.26:293–320.doi:10.2307/1291324.JSTOR1291324.
- Skourtanioti, Eirini; Ringbauer, Harald; Gnecchi Ruscone, Guido Alberto; Bianco, Raffaela Angelina; et al. (16 January 2023)."Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean".Nature Ecology and Evolution.7(2): 290–303.doi:10.1038/s41559-022-01952-3.ISSN2397-334X.PMC9911347.PMID36646948.
- Smith, Anthony D. (1991).National Identity.Reno: University of Nevada Press.ISBN978-0-87417-204-1.[permanent dead link]
- Smith, Anthony D. (2003).Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-210017-7.
- Smith, Anthony D.(1999).Myths and Memories of the Nation.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-829534-1.
- Sutton, Susan (1996)."Greeks".Encyclopedia of World Cultures.The Gale Group.Archivedfrom the original on 7 April 2016.Retrieved22 April2016.
- Stansbury-O'Donnell, Mark D. (2015).A History of Greek Art.Malden and Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-4443-5014-2.
- Steinberger, Peter J. (2000).Readings in Classical Political Thought.Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company.ISBN978-0-87220-512-3.
- Stouraitis, Ioannis (2014)."Roman Identity in Byzantium: A Critical Approach".Byzantinische Zeitschrift.107(1): 175–220.doi:10.1515/bz-2014-0009.
- Tarbell, Frank Bigelow (1907) [1896].A History of Greek Art.London: MacMillan and Company.ISBN9781404789791.
- Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003).Byzantine Philosophy.Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.ISBN978-0-87220-563-5.
- Tatz, Colin (2003).With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide.London and New York: Verso.ISBN978-1-85984-550-9.
- Tartaron, Thomas F. (2013).Maritime Networks in the Mycenaean World.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-06713-4.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2023.Retrieved31 August2017.
- Tomić, Olga Mišeska (2006).Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features.Dordrecht: Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-4487-8.
- Tonkin, Elizabeth; Chapman, Malcolm Kenneth; McDonald, Maryon (1989).History and Ethnicity.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-00056-7.
- Üngör, Uğur Ümit(March 2008). "On Young Turk Social Engineering in Eastern Turkey from 1913 to 1950".Journal of Genocide Research.10(1): 15–39.doi:10.1080/14623520701850278.S2CID71551858.
- van der Horst, Pieter Willem(1998).Hellenism-Judaism-Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction.Leuven: Peeters Publishers.ISBN978-90-429-0578-8.
- Voegelin, Eric; Moulakis, Athanasios (1997).History of Political Ideas: Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity.Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press.ISBN978-0-8262-1126-2.
- Vryonis, Speros (2005).The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul.New York: Greekworks.ISBN978-0-9747660-3-4.
- Walsh, Susan; et al. (January 2013)."The HIrisPlex System for Simultaneous Prediction of Hair and Eye Colour from DNA".Forensic Science International: Genetics.7(1): 98–115.doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.07.005.PMID22917817.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2017.Retrieved17 May2016.
- Wickham, Chris (2005).Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-926449-0.
- Withey, Lynne (1989) [1987].Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific.Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-06564-2.
- Winford, Donald (2003).An Introduction to Contact Linguistics.Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-631-21251-5.
- Winstedt, Eric Otto (1909).The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Wood, Michael (2001) [1997].In the Footsteps of Alexander The Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-23192-4.
- Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos, Alice (2001)."Non-governmental Organizations and Human Rights in Today's World".In Sicilianos, Linos-Alexandre (ed.).The Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights: Twenty Years of Activity.Athens and Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. pp. 21–38.ISBN978-90-411-1672-7.
- Zoch, Paul (2000).Ancient Rome: An Introductory History.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-3287-7.
- Zuwiyya, David (2011).A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages.Leiden and Boston: BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-18345-2.
Further reading
- Asatryan, G.S.; Arakelova, Viktoriia (2002).The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia.Yerevan: Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies.ISBN978-99930-69-21-8.
- Beaton, Roderick (2021).The Greeks: a global history.New York: Basic Books.ISBN978-1-5416-1829-9.OCLC1237348138.
- Clackson, James (1995).The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek.Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-0-631-19197-1.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved21 May2016.
- Kenyon, Sherrilyn (2005).The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook.Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books.ISBN978-1-58297-295-4.
- Malatras, Christos (2011)."The Making of an Ethnic Group: The Romaioi in 12th–13th Century".In K. A. Dimadis (ed.).Ταυτότητες στον ελληνικό κόσμο (από το 1204 έως σήμερα. Δ΄ Ευρωπαϊκό Συνέδριο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Γρανάδα, 9–12 Σεπτεμβρίου 2010. Πρακτικά.Vol. 3. Athens: European Association of Modern Greek Studies. pp. 419–430.Archivedfrom the original on 27 September 2021.Retrieved28 December2017.
- Mango, Cyril A.(2002).The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-814098-6.
- Renfrew, Colin (2003)."Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area".In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.).Languages in Prehistoric Europe.Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17–48.ISBN978-3-8253-1449-1.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved17 May2020.
|
|
External links
Diaspora
- World Council of Hellenes Abroad (SAE),Umbrella Diaspora Organization
Religious
- Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
- Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria
- Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch
- Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem
- Church of Cyprus
- Church of Greece
Academic
- Transnational Communities Programme at the University of OxfordArchived16 June 2009 at theWayback Machine,includes papers on theGreek Diaspora
- Greeks on Greekness:The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire.
- TheModern Greek Studies Associationis a scholarly organization for modern Greek studies inNorth America,which publishes theJournal of Modern Greek Studies.
- Got Greek? Next Generation National Research Study
- Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies
Trade organizations
- Hellenic Canadian Board of Trade
- Hellenic Canadian Lawyers Association
- Hellenic Canadian Congress of British Columbia
- Hellenic-American Chamber of Commerce
- Hellenic-Argentine Chamber of Industry and Commerce (C.I.C.H.A.)
Charitable organizations