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Gupta Empire

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TheGupta Empirewas an ancient Indian empire on theIndian subcontinentwhich existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of northern India.[16]This period has been considered as theGolden Age of Indiaby historians,[17]although this characterisation has been disputed by some other historians.[note 1][19][20]The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded byGupta.

Gupta Empire
c. 240–c. 579[1]
Map of the Gupta Empirec. 420 CE,according toJoseph E. Schwartzberg,with contemporary polities[2]
StatusEmpire
Capital
Common languagesSanskrit(literary and academic);Prakrit(vernacular)
Religion
Demonym(s)Indian
GovernmentMonarchy
Maharajadhiraja[a]
•c. 240– c. 280
Gupta(first)
•c. 540– c. 550
Vishnugupta(last)
Historical eraClassical India
• Established
c. 240
• Coronation of Chandragupta I
26 February 320[12]
• Disestablished
c. 579[1]
Area
400 est.[13]
(high-end estimate of peak area)		3,500,000 km2(1,400,000 sq mi)
440 est.[14]
(low-end estimate of peak area)		1,700,000 km2(660,000 sq mi)
Population
• 5th century
75,000,000[15]
CurrencyDinara(Gold Coins)
Rupaka(Silver Coins)
Karshapana(Copper Coins)
Cowries
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Western Satraps
Nagas of Padmavati
Mahameghavahana dynasty
Murunda dynasty
Later Guptas
Kingdom of Valabhi
Kingdom of Thanesar
Kingdom of Kannauj
Gurjara kingdoms

The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns ofSamudragupta,Chandragupta IIandKumaragupta I.ManyHinduepicsandliterarysources, such as theMahabharataandRamayana,were canonised during this period.[21]The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa,[22]Aryabhata,VarahamihiraandVatsyayana,who made significant advancements in many academic fields.[23][24][25]Scienceand political administration reached new heights during theGupta era.[24]The period, sometimes described asPax Gupta,gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only inIndiabut far beyond her borders ".[26]Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India andSoutheast Asia.[citation needed]ThePuranas,earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.[26][27]Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas were tolerant towards people of other faiths as well.[28]

The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by theHuna peoples(KidaritesandAlchon Huns) fromCentral Asia.[29][30]After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.

Origin

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Main article:Origin of the Gupta dynasty

The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.[31]According to one theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region ofUttar Pradesh,[32]where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta emperors have been discovered.[33][34]This theory is also supported by thePurana,as argued by the proponents, that mention the territory of the early Gupta emperors asPrayaga,Saketa,andMagadhaareas in theGangesbasin.[35][36]The recently found silver coin ofSri Guptain Uttar Pradesh further attest the origin of Guptas aroundKāśī–Kannaujregion and his rule was only limited to Kāśī (present dayVaranasi).[37]

Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-dayBengalregion in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monkYijing.According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founderShriGupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (apparently a transcription ofMriga-shikha-vana). Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40yojanaseast ofNalanda,which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.[38]Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.[39]

The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty'svarna(social class).[40]Some historians, such asA.S. Altekar,have theorised that they were ofVaishyaorigin, as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the Vaishya varna.[41][42]According to historianR. S. Sharma,the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.[43]Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period,[44]and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply derived from the name of the dynasty's first kingGupta.[45]Some scholars, such asS. R. Goyal,theorise that the Guptas wereBrahmins,because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmins, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.[46]Based on thePuneand Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princessPrabhavatigupta,some scholars believe that the name of her paternalgotra(clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was thegotraof her mother Kuberanaga.[47]

History

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For historical calendar era, seeGupta era.

Early rulers

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Gupta scriptinscriptionMaharaja Sri Gupta( "Great King, Lord Gupta" ), mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty, kingGupta.Inscription bySamudraguptaon theAllahabad Pillar,where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.[48]
Queen Kumaradevi and KingChandragupta I,depicted on a gold coin

Gupta (Gupta script:gu-pta,fl. late 3rd century CE) is the earliest known king of the Gupta dynasty. Different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE.[49][50]Gupta founded the Gupta Empirec. 240-280 CE, and was succeeded by his son,Ghatotkacha,c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha's son,Chandragupta I,c. 319-335 CE.[51]"Che-li-ki-to", the name of a king mentioned by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monkYijing,is believed to be a transcription of "Shri-Gupta "(IAST:Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix.[52]According to Yijing, this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no" (believed to be a transcription ofMṛgaśikhāvana).[53][relevant?]

In theAllahabad Pillarinscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described asMaharaja( "Great King" ), while the next king Chandragupta I is called aMaharajadhiraja( "King of Great Kings"). In the later period, the titleMaharajawas used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of theKushan Empire).[54]However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the titleMaharaja,in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.[55]

Chandragupta I married theLicchaviprincess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the prestigious titleMaharajadhiraja.[56]According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his sonSamudragupta.However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta emperor namedKachahave led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.[57]

Samudragupta

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Main article:Samudragupta

Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled untilc. 375.[58]The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtierHarisena,credits him with extensive conquests.[59]The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings ofĀryāvarta,the northern region, including theNagas.[60]It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.[61]It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers ofDakshinapatha,the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[62]but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[63]The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as thePallavakingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent ofKanchi.[64]During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-dayOdisha,and then marched south along the coast of theBay of Bengal.[65]

Evolution of Gupta territory, with neighbouring polities

The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribalaristocraciespaid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him.[66][67]These polities and tribes includedSamatata,Davaka,Kamarupa,Nepal,Karttripura,[68]Malavas,Arjunayanas,Yaudheyas,Madrakas,andAbhiras.[67]

The inscription also mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance, offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[69]), and sought the use of theGaruda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[70]However, this is likely an exaggeration, and Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described acts of diplomacy as ones of subservience. For example, the King ofSimhalais listed among these foreign rulers, but it is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala kingMeghavarnamerely sent presents to the Gupta emperor requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery; he did not express subservience.[71]

Samudragupta appears to have beenVaishnavite,as attested by hisEraninscription,[72][73]and performed severalBrahmanicalceremonies.[74]The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.[72]He performed theAshvamedharitual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings and emperors to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (seeCoinage[broken anchor]below) to mark this performance.[75]

The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.[76]It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".[77]Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing aveena.[78]

Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of theIndo-Gangetic Plainin present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[79]His empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[80][63]

Ramagupta

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StandingBuddhain red sandstone,Art of Mathura,Gupta periodc. 5th century CE.Mathura Museum[81]
Main article:Ramagupta

Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, theDevichandragupta,in which he surrenders his queen to the enemySakas,forcing his brother Chandragupta to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by threeJainstatues found atDurjanpur,with inscriptions referring to him as theMaharajadhiraja.A large number of his copper coins also have been found from theEran-Vidisharegion and classified in five distinct types, which include theGaruda,[82]Garudadhvaja,lionandborder legendtypes. TheBrahmilegends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[83]

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"

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Main article:Chandragupta II

According to the Gupta records, among his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queenDattadevi,as his successor. Chandragupta II,Vikramaditya(Brave as the Sun), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess ofKuntalaand of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughterPrabhavatiguptafrom this Naga queen was married toRudrasena II,theVakatakaking ofDeccan.[84]His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the SakaWestern KshatrapasofMalwa,GujaratandSaurashtrain a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponentRudrasimha IIIwas defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital atUjjainand was the high point of the empire.[citation needed]Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta II inKuntala countryofKarnataka.[85]Hunza inscriptionalso indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquerBalkh,although some scholars have also disputed the identity of the Gupta emperor.[86][87]ChalukyakingVikramaditya VI(r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states: "Why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer? He with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".[88]

Gold coins ofChandragupta II

Despite the creation of the empire through war, his reign is remembered for its very influential style ofHindu art,literature,cultureandscience.Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at theDashavatara TempleinDeogarhserve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art during his reign. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thrivingBuddhistandJaincultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long history of non-HinduGupta period art.In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and travellerFaxianin his diary and published afterwards.

The court of Chandragupta II was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by theNavaratna(Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Among these men wasKālidāsa,whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of theshringara(romantic) element in his verse.

Campaigns against foreign tribes

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Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.

The 4th centurySanskritpoetKalidasacredits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated theParasika,then theHunaandKambojatribes located in the west and eastOxusvalleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into theHimalayamountains to reduce the mountain tribes of theKinnaras,Kiratas,as well as India proper.[89][non-primary source needed]In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of theSakasfrom the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city ofUjjain?'.[90]

TheBrihatkathamanjariof theKashmiriwriterKshemendrastates, King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of thebarbarianslike the Sakas,Mlecchas,Kambojas,Greeks,Tusharas,Saka-Greeks,Hunas,and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely ".[91][non-primary source needed][92][93][unreliable source?]

Faxian

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Faxian,a ChineseBuddhist monk,was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperorChandragupta II.He started his journey from China in 399CEand reached India in 405CE.During his stay in India up to 411CE,he went on a pilgrimage toMathura,Kannauj,Kapilavastu,Kushinagar,Vaishali,Pataliputra,Kashi,andRajagriha,and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The penal code was mild, and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.[94]

Faxian on reachingMathuracomments––

"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[94]

Kumaragupta I

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Main article:Kumaragupta I
Silver coin of the Gupta EmperorKumaragupta I(Coin of his Western territories, design derived from theWestern Satraps).
Obv:Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[95][96]
Rev:Garudastanding facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend:Parama-bhagavatarajadhirajaSri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.[97]

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second sonKumaragupta I,born ofMahadeviDhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title,Mahendraditya.[98]He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in theNarmadavalley, thePushyamitras,rose in power to threaten the empire. TheKidaritesas well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his sonSkandaguptamentions in theBhitari pillar inscriptionhis efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the Pushyamitras and theHunas.[99]

He was the founder ofNalanda Universitywhich on 15 July 2016 was declared as aUNESCO world heritage site.[100]Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper ofKartikeya.

Skandagupta

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Main article:Skandagupta

Skandagupta,son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors. He assumed the titles ofVikramadityaandKramaditya.[101]He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invadingKidarites(sometimes described as theHephthalitesor "White Huns", known in India as theSweta Huna), from the northwest.

He repelled aHunaattack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription ofSkandagupta,the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of theKidarites.[102]The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[102]

Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brotherPurugupta.[103]

Decline of the empire

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JaintirthankarareliefParshvanathaonKahaum pillarerected by person named Madra during the reign of Skandagupta[104]

Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline,[105]and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–469.[16]Skandagupta was followed byPurugupta(467–473),Kumaragupta II(473–476),Budhagupta(476–495),Narasimhagupta(495–530),Kumaragupta III(530–540),Vishnugupta(540–550), two lesser known kings namely,VainyaguptaandBhanugupta.

In the late 490's theAlchon HunsunderToramanaandMihirakulabroke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks ofToramanaand his successorMihirakula.[106][107]It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated byBhanuguptain 510.[108][109]The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by KingYashodharmanfromMalwa,and possibly Gupta emperorNarasimhagupta.[110]

These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end toClassical Indian civilisation.[111]Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such asYashodharman,ended as well.[112]Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[113]The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade withEuropeandCentral Asia.[111]In particular,Indo-Roman trade relations,which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such assilk,leather goods, fur, iron products,ivory,pearl,and pepper from centres such asNasik,Paithan,Pataliputra,andBenares.The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.[citation needed]

Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, andBuddhism,gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti-BuddhistShaivistHuna kingMihirakula,started to collapse.[111]Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city ofTaxila,bringing cultural regression.[111]During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indiancaste system.For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of theRajputs.[111]

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Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of theAlchon Hunsto the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire,c. 600 CE[114]

The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was KingVishnugupta,reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from theVakatakasand the rise ofYashodharmaninMalwa.[115]

The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (theDamudarpurcopper-plate inscription),[116]in which he makes a land grant in the area ofKotivarsha(BangarhinWest Bengal) in 542/543 CE.[117]This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by theAulikaraKing Yashodharmanc. 532 CE.[117]

Archaeologist Shanker Sharma concluded based off a 2019 study that the cause of the Gupta Empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century inUttar PradeshandBihar.[citation needed]

Post-Gupta successor dynasties

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In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by theMaukhari dynastyand thePushyabhuti dynasty.[118]The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[119]and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[118]

In the western regions, they were succeeded byGurjaradesa,theGurjara-Pratiharas,and later theChaulukya-Paramaradynasties, who issued so-calledIndo-Sasanian coinage,on the model of thecoinage of the Sasanian Empire,which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.[118]

Military

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An 8 gm gold coin featuringChandragupta IIastride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand[120]

In contrast to theMauryan Empire,the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare. Chief among these was the use ofsiege engines,heavycavalry archersand heavy sword cavalry.Heavy cavalryformed the core of the Gupta Army and were supported by the traditional Indian Army elements ofwar elephantsandlight infantry.[121]

The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage ofChandragupta II,Kumaragupta Iand Prakasaditya (postulated to bePurugupta)[122]that depicts the kings as horse-archers.[123][124]

There is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem)Raghuvaṃśawritten by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatistKalidasa.Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign ofSkandagupta[125][126][127][128]and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.[129]In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the king's army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.[130]The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry,chariotry,elephantryandships.Gunaigharcopper plate inscription ofVainya Guptamentions ships but not chariots.[131]

Religion

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Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnathfrom the Gupta era, 5th century CE

The Guptas were traditionally aHindudynasty.[132]They were patronizers ofBrahmanism[b]and allowed followers ofBuddhismandJainismto practice their religions.[137]Sanchiremained an important centre of Buddhism.[137]Kumaragupta I(455CE) is said to have foundedNalanda.[137]Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started practising/enforcingendogamy).[138]

Some later rulers however seem to have especially promotedBuddhism.Narasimhagupta Baladitya(c. 495–?), according to contemporary writerParamartha,was brought up under the influence of theMahayanistphilosopher,Vasubandhu.[132]He built asangharamaatNalandaand also a 300 ft (91 m) highviharawith aBuddha statuewithin which, according toXuanzang,resembled the "great Vihara built under theBodhi tree".According to theManjushrimulakalpa(c. 800 CE), King Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[132]The Chinese monkXuanzangalso noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[139]: 45 [140]: 330 

Administration

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The Gupta Empire and other politiesc. 420 CE.

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta Empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were calledBhukti,DeshaorRajya.Provinces were also divided intovishayasorpradeshas(districts) and put under the control ofVishayapatis (districtlords). AVishayapatiadministered theVishayawith the help of theAdhikarana(council of representatives), which comprised four representatives:Nagarasreshesthi,Sarthavaha,PrathamakulikaandPrathama Kayastha.A part of theVishayawas calledVithi.[141]The Gupta also had trading links with theSassanidandByzantineEmpires.[citation needed]The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical professions as well. Kshatriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[142][need quotation to verify]

Urban centres

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Gupta administration proved to be highly conducive for the rapid growth of urban centres. The principal and original capital of the Gupta Empire is regarded to bePrayag.[3][4][5][6]In the fifth century, the capital was moved toAyodhyaunder eitherKumaraguptaorSkandagupta.[7][8][9][6]Chandragupta Vikramadityatook personal interest in the development ofUjjainas a major cultural center after its conquest.[143]Kāśīis sometimes considered by some scholars to have been a capital, either as the original capital,[144]the principal late 6th-century capital[7]or a minor later capital.[8]The Chinese authorFaxiandescribedMagadhaas a prosperous country with rich towns and large populations.

Legacy

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Mathematics

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Indian mathematicsflourished in the Gupta Empire.[145]TheIndian numeralswhich were the firstpositionalbase 10numeral systemsin the world originated from Gupta India. TheSurya Siddhantacontains the Sine table.[146]Aryabhata,wrote theAryabhatiya,making significant contributions to mathematics including developing aPlace value system,an approximation of π of 4 decimal places, trigonometric functions, andSquared triangular numbers.[147][148]Varāhamihirawrote thePancha Siddhantadeveloping various formulas relatingsineandcosinefunctions.[149]Yativṛṣabhamade contributions on units of measurement.[150]VirahankadescribedFibonacci numbers.[151][150]

Astronomy

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Indian astronomyalso saw progress in this era. Thenames of the seven days in a weekappeared at the start of the Gupta period based onHindu deitiesandplanetscorresponding to the Roman names.[152]Aryabhatamade several contributions such as assigning the start of each day to midnight.[153]the earth's rotation on its axis, westward motion of the stars.[153]Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.[153]In his book, Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).[154]Varāhamihiraapproximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using agnomon.[155]

Medicine

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TheSushruta Samhita,which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts ofAyurvedamedicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.[156]

Metallurgy and Engineering

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TheIron Pillar of Delhihigh resistance tocorrosion.[157][158]The corrosion resistance results from an even layer ofcrystallineiron(III)hydrogen phosphatehydrateforming on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the corrosion[157][158]The earliest evidence of thecotton ginwas found in the fifth century, in the form ofBuddhistpaintings depicting a single-roller gin in theAjanta Caves.[159]The gins consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone or wood.[159]

Education

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VariousMahaviharaoperated throughout the Gupta Empire serving as centuries of education.[160]Nalanda played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts and academics during the 5th and 6th century CE.[161]

Literature

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The highest point ofSanskrit literatureis also said to have belonged to this period.[162]Harisenawas an early writer ofKāvyapoetry.[163]his works includeApabramsa Dharmapariksa,Karpuraprakara(Suktavall), the medical treatiseJagatsundari-Yogamaladhikara,Yasodharacanta,AstahnikakathaandBrhatkathakosa.[164]Amarasimhawrote various on Sanskrit grammar.[165]Kalidasa,a playwright, wrote plays such as theAbhijnanashakuntalamandShakuntala.[166]Bhartṛharipublished major works including theTrikāṇḍīandŚatakatraya.[167]

Leisure

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Chessis said to have developed in this period.[168]Its early form in the 6th century,caturaṅga,which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" (infantry,cavalry,chariotry,andelephantry), was represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, rook, and bishop respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed surgical operations. The ancient Gupta textKama Sutraby the Indian scholarVatsyayanais widely considered to be the standard work onhuman sexual behaviourin Sanskrit literature.

Art and architecture

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Main article:Gupta art

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of NorthIndian artfor all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculptures. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure andJaintirthankarafigures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture wereMathuraandGandhara,the latter the centre ofGreco-Buddhist art.Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves atAjanta,Elephanta,andEllora(respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Gupta style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[172]The HinduUdayagiri Cavesactually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[173]and theDashavatara TempleatDeogarhis a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.[174]

Family tree and list of rulers

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Main article:List of Gupta emperors

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^The first two kings were titledMaharaja,all others were titledMaharajadhiraja.
  2. ^[133][134][135][136]
  1. ^According toD. N. Jha,caste distinctions became more entrenched and rigid during this time, as prosperity and the favour of the law accrued the top of the social scale, while the lower orders were degraded further.[18]

References

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  1. ^Goyal, SR.History of the imperial Guptas.p. 367.
  2. ^Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978).A Historical atlas of South Asia.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p.145, map XIV.1 (j);p.25.ISBN0226742210.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2021.Retrieved12 February2022.
  3. ^abSharma, R. S. (2005).India's Ancient Past.UP therefore seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag, they spread into the neighbouring regions.
  4. ^abChaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002).History of Ancient India.p. 160.The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in Uttar Pradesh. It seems that the Guptas found out in different directions from Uttar Pradesh. The centre of their power was Prayag.
  5. ^abSharma, Tej Ram (1989).A Political History of the Imperial Guptas.p. 39.Prayaga region of the modern eastern Uttar Pradesh was the centre of power of the early Guptas
  6. ^abcdGoyal, S. R. (1967).History Of The Imperial Guptas.pp. 210–213.The capital of the Guptas was located somewhere in the eastern part of U. P. The evidence of the Puranas from which we learn that Prayāga was the nucleus of the original Gupta state, the incision of the prasasti of Samudragupta on a stone pillar at Prayāga, the discovery of several other early Gupta inscriptions and numerous hoards of coins from this area, and the possibility of the performance of Asvamedha at Prayāga by Samudragupta bring out the fact that at least in the early part of their history, the Guptas had their capital at Prayāga. [...] Later on, however, Ayodhyā was made the formal residence of the emperor, for, Paramartha, a Buddhist scholar of the Gupta age refers to this city as the capital of Vikramaditya i.e. Skandagupta who appointed Vasubandhu as the teacher of his crown-prince Bālāditya.
  7. ^abcRaychaudhuri, Hemchandra (2006).Political History of Ancient India.p. 496.The importance of this identification lies in the fact that it proves that the immediate successors of Skanda Gupta had a capital at Ayodhyā probably till the rise of the Maukharis. If the spurious Gayā plate is to be believed Ayodhyā was the seat of a Gupta jaya-skandhāvāra, or 'camp of victory,' as early as the time of Samudra Gupta. The principal capital of Bālāditya and his successors appears to have been Kāśī.
  8. ^abcMookerji, Radhakumud (1989).The Gupta Empire.p. 52.the successors of Chandra Gupta II set up their capital at Ayodhyā. It also appears from the Sarnath Stone inscription of Prakațāditya (Fleet, No. 79) that they had another capital at Kāśī.
  9. ^abHans T. Bakker(1982). "The rise of Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage".Indo-Iranian Journal.24(2): 105.doi:10.1163/000000082790081267.S2CID161957449.During the reign of either the emperor Kumāragupta or, more probably, that of his successor Skandagupta (AD 455–467), the capital of the empire was moved from Pāțaliputra to Ayodhyā...
  10. ^Bakker, Hans T. (12 March 2020).The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia.Barkhuis. p. 73.ISBN978-94-93194-00-7.On the south banks of the Bina, the building of a religious complex dedicated to Vishnu, the Empire's tutelary deity, had expanded under Budhagupta.
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