Hargeisa(/hɑːrˈɡeɪsə/har-GAY-sə;Somali:Hargeysa;Arabic:هرجيسا,romanized:Harjīsā)[4][5]is the capital and largest city of theRepublic of Somaliland,ade factosovereign statein theHorn of Africa,still considered internationally to be part ofSomalia.It is also the regional capital of theMaroodi Jeexregion of Somaliland.[6][7]
Hargeisa
| |
|---|---|
Drone view of Hargeisa, Hargeisa downtown, Hargeisa, Jama Mosque,Naasa Hablood | |
 Flag  Local council seal of Hargeisa | |
 Interactive map outlining Hargeisa | |
| Coordinates:9°33′47″N44°4′3″E/ 9.56306°N 44.06750°E | |
| Country |  Somaliland |
| Region | Maroodi Jeh |
| District | Hargeisa District |
| Government | |
| •Mayor | Abdikarim Ahmed Mooge[1][2] |
| Area | |
• Total | 140 km2(50 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 1,334 m (4,377 ft) |
| Population (2019)[3] | |
• Total | 1,200,000 |
| • Rank | 1st |
| • Density | 1,600/km2(3,000/sq mi) |
| Demonym(s) | Hargeysaawi هرجيساوي |
| Time zone | UTC+3(EAT) |
| Area code | +252 |
| Website | dhhgov.org |
Hargeisa was founded as a watering and trading stop between the coast and the interior by theIsaaq Sultanate.Initially it served as a watering well for the vast livestock of theIsaaqclan that inhabited that specific region and later were joined by other Isaaq clans that currently inhabit Hargeisa. In 1960, theSomaliland Protectorategained independence from theUnited Kingdomand as scheduled united days later with theTrust Territory of Somaliland(formerItalian Somaliland) to form theSomali Republicon 1 July.[8]Up to 90% of the city was destroyed during theIsaaq genocide,a state-sponsored campaign of violence during theSomaliland War of Independence.
Hargeisa is situated in a valley in theGalgodon(Ogo) highlands, and sits at an elevation of 1,334 m (4,377 ft). Home torock artfrom theNeolithicperiod, the city is also a commercial hub for precious stone-cutting, construction, retail services and trading, among other activities.[4]
Etymology
The town evolved in the latter half of the 1800s as aQadiriyyasettlement established bySheikh Madar,near a water-stop used by nomadic stock-herders on the way to the town of Harar. It proposes a possible derivation of the name "Hargeisa" from the sobriquetHarar as-sagir,meaning "Hararthe little "[9][10]According to historian Norman Bennett, Madar named the settlement Hargeisa orLittle Hararsince he aspired for it to emulate the city of Harar as a center for Islamic teachings.[11]Another etymological root for Hargeisa's name derives from the towns connection to the skins trade. Hargeisa has been a watering and trading stop between the coast and the interior, and chief amongst the goods traded were the hide skins procured from the interior to be processed in the settlement. In this etymological version, 'Hargeisa' is derived fromhargageys,which means "place to sell hides and skins" inSomali.[12][13][14]
History
Prehistory
Numerouscave paintingsfrom theNeolithicperiod are found in theLaas Geelcomplex, on the outskirts of Hargeisa. During November and December 2002, an archaeological survey was carried out in the area by a French team of researchers. The expedition's objective was to search for rock shelters and caves containing stratified archaeological infills capable of documenting the period when production economy appeared in this part of Somaliland (c. 5thand 2nd millennium BCE). During the course of the survey, the French archaeological team discovered the Laas Geelrock art,encompassing an area of ten rock alcoves (caves). In an excellent state of preservation, the paintings show human figures with their hands raised and facing long-horned, humplesscattle.[15]
The rock art had been known to the area's inhabitants for centuries before the French discovery. However, the existence of the site had not been broadcast to the international community. In November 2003, a mission returned to Laas Geel and a team of experts undertook a detailed study of the paintings and their prehistoric context.
Somaliland generally is home to numerous sucharchaeological sites,with similar rock art and/or ancient edifices such as theDhambalinrock art. However, many of these old structures have yet to be properly explored, a process which would help shed further light on local history and facilitate their preservation for posterity.[16]
The Big Commune & Sheikh Madar
According to traditional poetic (gabay) oral accounts, Hargeisa was founded by theArapas a watering and trading stop for passing nomads and caravans. It is believed that and theHabar Yoonisand theEidagalesubtribes were amongst the early settlers of Hargeisa.[17]Hargeisa continued to grow with the arrival ofSheikh MadarShirwa, widely considered to be the founder of Hargeisa religious commune and the modern iteration of the settlement.[18][19]
Madar Shirwa was born inBerberaand belonged to the Nuh Ismail subdivision of the Sa'ad MusaHabr Awal.Madar arrived inHararto study the Islamic Sciences under the top ulema of Harar, which consisted ofHarariandSomalischolars.[20][21]Sheikh Khalil, one of the ulema of Harar, advisedSheikh Madarto establish aQadiriyyatariqacommune in present-day Hargeisa and spread the teachings he was taught, which lead Sheikh Madar and his companions to found the Big Commune (Jama'a weyne) of Little Harar (Hargeisa) inc. 1860.Somali pastoralists heavily follow rain and pastures this would change with the agricultural and stationary lifestyle Madar would introduce on the back of largesorghumplantations. This was to maintain self-sufficiency and Sheikh Madar and the other Mullahs would take care of the sick and elderly inhabitants of the growing settlement. Lastly, Sheikh Madar pushed towards a common religious identity rather than identifying solely by tribe. Stone houses and other structures would be built and Hargeisa would develop into a large permanent settlement irrespective of the caravan trade that defined it in decades prior.[22][23][24]Sheikh Madarmet with the 4th Isaaq Grand SultanDeria Hassanoutside Hargeisa in a famous 1870shir(meeting) to discuss issues regarding the new town of Hargeisa and agreed that poaching and tree cutting in the vicinity should be banned.[25]
H. Swayne, a British soldier and explorer who traversed the Somali peninsula between the 1880-1890s wrote about Hargeisa in his journals:
This town is built some five hundred yards from the right bank of the Aleyadera nala, and at an elevation of thirty or forty feet above it. Round the place is a patch of jowari (sorghum) cultivation, two and a half miles long and a quarter of a mile broad. Quantities of livestock of all kinds graze on the low undulating hills for half a mile from the Aleyadera nala on either bank. Hargeisa is situated on two important caravan routes, one from Ogaden and the other from Harar. There are good direct camel-roads toBerberaandBulhar.Supplies of rice, tobacco, and dates can sometimes be bought here in the trading season. Some four hundred people are employed looking after the jowari fields, and may be seen sitting on platforms, shouting and throwing stones to scare birds from the crops. There is abundance of good water in the bed of the river, and a masonry well has been built, and is kept in order by an Arab from Aden. The town is full of blind and lame people, who are under the protection of Sheikh Mattar and his mullahs.[26]
British Somaliland
In 1888, after signing successive treaties with the then rulingSomaliSultansand chiefs, the British established aprotectoratein the region referred to asBritish SomalilandwithBerberabecoming the capital.[27]The British garrisoned the protectorate fromAdenin present-dayYemen,and administered it from theirBritish Indiauntil 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by theForeign Officeuntil 1905 and afterwards by theColonial Office.
The capital was moved from Berbera to Hargeisa, and the city was granted capital status in 1941. During theEast African Campaign,the protectorate wasinvaded by Italyin August 1940, but recaptured by the British in March 1941. In 1945 the British administration had grown weary of the influencewadaadshad wielded in the protectorate and moved to arrest several in Hargeisa. They had been deemed nuisances to implementing 'modern education' and agricultural reforms in Somaliland. Following their arrests on June 4, a mob formed and temporarily freed the imprisonedwadaadswho were recaptured the next day. Religious leaders motivated the city's inhabitants and a crowd of several thousand rioters marched on the Hargeisa District Headquarters determined to free the imprisonedwadaads.They were fired upon by the District Commissioner's troops with one dying and dozens imprisoned for trying to free the Sheikhs.[28]
The protectorate gained its independence on 26 June 1960 as theState of Somaliland,[29][30]before uniting as planned days later with theTrust Territory of Somaliland(the formerItalian Somaliland) to form theSomali Republic.[8]
1960–1991
In the post-independence period, Hargeisa was administered as the capital of theWoqooyi Galbeedprovince of Somalia. Numerous new development projects were subsequently launched in the city by the Somali government. Among these initiatives was the creation of theHargeisa Provincial Museum.It was the first museum to be established in Somalia since independence in 1960.[32]TheHargeisa International Airportwas also renovated and modernized, with the ultimate aim of equipping the facility to accommodate larger aircraft and offer more flight destinations.[33]
SNM offensive
On 31 May 1988, at 2:15 a.m, theSomali National Movement(shortened SNM) attacked Hargeisa. With two Habar yunis leaders, one in Burco and the other in the capital city Hargeisa.[34]The SNM force attacking Hargeisa was estimated at 500 men equipped with 84 vehicles, of whom only 14 were left due to vehicles being sent to the front in Adadley.[35]The SNM captured the headquarters of the26th Division,as well as capturing the Birjeex arms depot where the SNM collected ammunition.[35]An SNM fighter who partook in the Hargeisa offensive described Somali troops dropping their uniforms on the ground and fleeing.[35]The SNM encountered stiff resistance from theSomali Armyas they surrounded Radio Hargeisa's headquarters.[35]Due to heavy bombardment from Somali heavy artillery and tanks, the SNM force tasked with capturing Hargeisa airport fell back and retreated to Adadley.[35]
By 1 June, with the exception ofHargeisa Airport,the SNM overran the city.[36]During the Somali army counterattack the SNM line of defense in the city was behind Hargeisa's radio station.[34]
Hargeisa campaign
DictatorSiad Barre's response to the SNM attacks was of unparalleled brutality; with explicit aims of handling the "Isaaq problem", he ordered "the shelling and aerial bombardment of the major cities in the northwest and the systematic destruction of Isaaq dwellings, settlements and water points. In one of the most brutal episodes of theIsaaq genocide,the regime targeted civilian members of the Isaaq group specifically,[37]especially in the cities of Hargeisa andBurcoand to that end employed the use of indiscriminateartillery shellingandaerial bombardmentagainst civilian populations belonging to the Isaaq ethnic group.[38][39]Up to 90% of the city was destroyed.
Reconstruction
After the collapse of the Somali central government and the unilateral declaration of independence of the Republic of Somaliland, a slow process of infrastructural reconstruction subsequently began in Hargeisa and other towns in the country.
Since 1991, Hargeisa has undergone a large-scale facelift. The renovations have been largely financed by local entrepreneurs, as well as Somali expatriates sendingremittancefunds to relatives in the region through some of the various Somali-owned money transfer operators.[40]Most of the destroyed residential and commercial buildings have since been reconstructed, with many newer structures erected. Single-storey buildings downtown are also progressively giving way to multi-storeyhigh-rises.
Climate
Hargeisa has ahot semi-arid climate(Köppen:BSh). The city generally features very warm winters and hot summers. However, despite its location in the tropics, due to the high altitude Hargeisa seldom experiences either very hot or very cold weather, a trait rarely seen in semi-arid climates. The city receives the bulk of its rain between the months of April and September, averaging just over 400 millimetres (16 in) of rainfall annually. Average monthly temperatures in Hargeisa range from 18 °C or 64.4 °F in the months of December and January to 24 °C or 75.2 °F in the month of June.
| Climate data for Hargeisa | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 31.1 (88.0) |
31.7 (89.1) |
32.8 (91.0) |
32.8 (91.0) |
35.0 (95.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.3 (91.9) |
32.8 (91.0) |
31.7 (89.1) |
30.6 (87.1) |
28.9 (84.0) |
35.0 (95.0) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 24.2 (75.6) |
26.6 (79.9) |
28.7 (83.7) |
29.2 (84.6) |
30.5 (86.9) |
31.0 (87.8) |
29.2 (84.6) |
29.2 (84.6) |
30.5 (86.9) |
28.2 (82.8) |
26.0 (78.8) |
23.7 (74.7) |
28.1 (82.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 17.7 (63.9) |
18.7 (65.7) |
21.6 (70.9) |
23.0 (73.4) |
24.1 (75.4) |
24.3 (75.7) |
23.6 (74.5) |
23.6 (74.5) |
23.6 (74.5) |
24.1 (75.4) |
18.7 (65.7) |
18.0 (64.4) |
21.7 (71.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 11.6 (52.9) |
12.6 (54.7) |
15.0 (59.0) |
16.6 (61.9) |
17.7 (63.9) |
17.7 (63.9) |
17.1 (62.8) |
17.1 (62.8) |
17.1 (62.8) |
15.0 (59.0) |
13.1 (55.6) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.2 (59.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 2.8 (37.0) |
2.8 (37.0) |
3.9 (39.0) |
9.4 (48.9) |
11.7 (53.1) |
11.7 (53.1) |
10.5 (50.9) |
11.1 (52.0) |
11.1 (52.0) |
7.2 (45.0) |
4.4 (39.9) |
4.4 (39.9) |
2.8 (37.0) |
| Average rainfall mm (inches) | 2 (0.1) |
2 (0.1) |
36 (1.4) |
53 (2.1) |
49 (1.9) |
61 (2.4) |
38 (1.5) |
81 (3.2) |
61 (2.4) |
20 (0.8) |
8 (0.3) |
1 (0.0) |
412 (16.2) |
| Average rainy days(≥ 0.1 mm) | 1 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 10 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 61 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 65 | 65 | 58 | 57 | 56 | 55 | 53 | 53 | 55 | 56 | 61 | 64 | 58 |
| Averagedew point°C (°F) | 11 (52) |
12 (54) |
12 (54) |
15 (59) |
15 (59) |
14 (57) |
15 (59) |
16 (61) |
15 (59) |
12 (54) |
12 (54) |
11 (52) |
13 (56) |
| Mean dailysunshine hours | 8.9 | 9.8 | 9.7 | 11.2 | 11.9 | 12.1 | 11.8 | 12.2 | 11.4 | 9.6 | 8.7 | 7.6 | 10.4 |
| Percentpossible sunshine | 80 | 73 | 80 | 73 | 64 | 73 | 64 | 64 | 73 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 74 |
| Source 1: Food and Agriculture Organization: Somalia Water and Land Management (temperatures, humidity and percent sunshine)[41][42] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2:Deutscher Wetterdienst(extremes and precipitation)[43]
Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005-2015)[44] Weather Atlas (daily sun hours)[45] | |||||||||||||
Administration
Situated in the Maroodi Jeh region of Somaliland, Hargeisa is the seat of the Somaliland'sParliament,the presidential palace, and government ministries.[46]
The first mayor of Hargeisa in 1960 was Aadan Cumar fure, who held the position from 1950-1959. The current municipal administration is led byAbdikarim Ahmed Mooge.A member of theWaddaniparty, he was elected theMayorduring the2021 Somaliland municipal elections.[47][48]
Districts
According to a more recent December 2017 report from theSocial Research and Development Institute(SORADI) based in Hargeisa, the city divided into eight sub-districts; being the31 May,26 June,Ahmed Dhagah,Ahmed Moallim Haruun,Gacan Libaax,Ibrahim Kodbuur,Mohamoud Haibe,andMohamed Moge Districts.[49]This information is contradictory to an April 2003 report by theFamine Early Warning Systems Network(FEWS NET), which states only five sub-districts exist: being the 26 June, Ahmed Dhagah, Gacan Libaax, Ibrahim Kodbuur, and Mohamoud Haibe sub-districts, each having between four and six sub-sections of their own.[50]Presumably a redistricting occurred sometime between 2004 and 2017.[49]
Each sub-district has their own elected council members, whose responsibility is to represent their district and fulfil their populations needs.[49]To increase the effectiveness of these sub-districts, especially underrepresented ones such as Gacan Libaax, a so-called "accountabilityforum"has been established to discuss and create policy to better represent marginalized communities.[49]
Demographics
Hargeisa has grown rapidly since the middle of the 20th century. According toI. M. Lewis,Hargeisa's population was estimated to be 30,000 in 1958.[51]
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1901 | 1,000 | — |
| 1920 | 2,000 | +100.0% |
| 1932 | 20,000 | +900.0% |
| 1955 | 40,000 | +100.0% |
| 1960 | 45,000 | +12.5% |
| 1970 | 50,000 | +11.1% |
| 1980 | 100,000 | +100.0% |
| 1990 | 90,000 | −10.0% |
| 1999 | 250,000 | +177.8% |
| 2005 | 300,000 | +20.0% |
| 2007 | 450,000 | +50.0% |
| 2012 | 850,000 | +88.9% |
| 2019 | 1,200,000 | +41.2% |
| Various[52][53][54][55] | ||
In 2005, the UNDP said that the city had a population of 560,028.[56]According to CIA factbook, Hargeisa had an estimated population of around 760,000 as of 2015. The main residents of Hargeisa are theSa'ad MusaandIsamusasubclans of theHabr Awal,theEidagaleandHabar Yoonissubclans of theHabr Garhajis,theArap,and theAyub,all of which are subdivisions of the largerIsaaqclan.[57]As of 2019, it is estimated that Hargeisa has a population of 1.2 million[58]The urban area occupies 75 square kilometres (29 sq mi), with a population density of 12,600 inhabitants per square kilometre (33,000/sq mi).[57]
Economy
Hargeisa is thefinancialhub to many entrepreneurial industries ranging from finance, retail, imports/export warehouses to gem cutters, construction, food processing, textiles and livestock trading.
In June 2012, the Partnership Fund for the private sector in Somaliland was launched at Hargeisa's Ambassador Hotel. Part of the larger Partnership for Economic Growth program, the initiative will see $900,000USDallocated to 13 private local businesses, as well as the creation of 250 new full-time jobs, half of which are to be earmarked for youth and one third for women. The fund is expected to improve job opportunities for 1,300 entrepreneurs through ameliorated product distribution and investment in new technologies and processing facilities. Eligibility is determined through a competitive and transparent selection process overseen by the Partnership program, theSomaliland Chamber of Commerce,and government officials.[59]
Transportation
Buses are the most commonly used form of public transportation in Hargeisa. They travel on a number of routes serving nearly all of the city's districts. Intercity bus services are also available, which connect Hargeisa to other major cities and towns across Somaliland, includingBurao,BerberaandBorama.
With the growth of urban development, several newtaxicompanies have sprung up in Hargeisa.[60]
Hargeisa Taxiis another of the recent taxi firms based in Hargeisa. It has a fleet of four small compact cars and seven passenger minivans, in addition to around 19 other vehicles. GPS devices installed by the Sahal Technology firm allow the cab company's dispatch office to monitor its taxis to ensure that they travel within the speed limit. The office can also disable the vehicles online in the event of theft. Other new taxi firms serving Hargeisa include Dalhis Taxi and Marodi Jeh Taxi. Fares are inexpensive, costing between 15,000 and 18,000Somaliland shillings($2–$3 USD) per ride,[60]the US dollar is also widely accepted alongside the local currency.[61]
International Airport
For air transportation, the city is served by theHargeisa International Airport.The Somali-owned private carriersDaallo AirlinesandJubba Airwaysoffer flights to various other towns in neighbouring Somalia, such asMogadishu,BosasoandGalkayo.Trips to international destinations are also available, including toDjiboutiandDubai.It has recently[when?]gained more airlines such asEthiopian Airlinesandflydubai.[62]However, both airlines have listed the city as being in Somalia since August 2024, following an ultimatum from the Somali government, which would have otherwise seen them prohibited from using Somali airspace.[63]
Education
Various primary schools andnurseriesare located in Hargeisa. There are several state-run and privately ownedsecondaryand high schools in the city. Among these are theSOS Sheikh Secondary School,Abaarso School of Science and Technology,Hargeisa Technical School,Salaama Secondary School,andSmart Secondary School,the latter of which is the pre-eminent secondary institution in the area, about 13 km (8 mi) west of Hargeisa.
The city is home to a number of colleges and universities including theUniversity of Hargeisa,Admas University College,Somaliland University of Technology,Gollis University,New Generation University,Hope UniversityandMarodijeh International University.TheEdna Adan Maternity Hospitaloffers nursing programmes to students. TheInstitute for Practical Research and Trainingspecializes in (applied) research and training.
See also
References
- ^"Duqa cusub ee magaalada Hargeysa oo la doortay".17 June 2021.
- ^"Somaliland: AbdiKarim Ahmed Mooge Sworn in as the New Mayor of Hargeisa".17 June 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 29 June 2021.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^https:// thebrenthurstfoundation.org/downloads/hargeisa_discussion-paper-04-2019-hargeisa-somaliland-invisible-city.pdf[bare URL PDF]
- ^ab"Hargeisa".Jubba Airways. Archived fromthe originalon January 22, 2013.Retrieved18 July2013.
- ^"Somalia: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population".world-gazetteer.Archived fromthe originalon December 4, 2012.RetrievedOctober 19,2012.
- ^Einashe, Ismail; Kennard, Matt (22 October 2018)."In the Valley of Death: Somaliland's Forgotten Genocide".The Nation.Retrieved20 October2023.
- ^Tekle, Amare (1994).Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation.The Red Sea Press.ISBN9780932415974.
- ^abEncyclopædia Britannica,The New Encyclopædia Britannica,(Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.835
- ^Encyclopaedia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge.Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1957. p. 967.
- ^Ficadorey, Gianfranco (2008)."Ha".Basic Reference.3.NY, USA: Thomson/Gale: 1032.ISBN9783447052382.
- ^Bennett, Norman (1968).Leadership in Eastern Africa.Boston University Press. p. 70.Retrieved14 July2016.
- ^Haji Mukhtar., M (2003).Historical Dictionary of Somalia.Scarecrow Press. p. 98.
- ^Gabriel Schnitzer., J (1927).Hides and Skins: World Production and International Trade.U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 145.
- ^Taḥaḍḍur fī al-waṭan al-ʻArabī (Institute of Arab Research and Studies).1978.ISBN9789777287289.
- ^The Journal of African Archeology Volume 1.2 (2003) Chapter 3
- ^Michael Hodd,East African Handbook,(Trade & Travel Publications: 1994), p.640.
- ^"The history of Hargeisa City as per documentary from U- Tube taken live frtom Hagi Abdi Hussen (Abdi Waraabe) commented by Dr. Mohamed Rashid sheik Hassan (An Ex-BBC Somali broadcaster)".Salaan Media.2015-02-18.Retrieved2020-03-14.
- ^Briggs, Philip (2012).Somaliland with Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia.Bradt Travel Guides.ISBN9781841623719.
- ^"South Asia Bulletin".University of California, Los Angeles.16(2): 88. 1996.Retrieved20 October2023.
- ^Abubaker, Abdulmalik.The relevance of Harari values(PDF).University of Alabama. p. 151.
- ^Burton, Richard.First footsteps in East Africa(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-05-18.Retrieved2020-04-07."The chief Ulema are theKabir Khalil,the Kabir Yunis, and the Shaykh Jami: the two former scarcely ever quit their houses, devoting all their time to study and tuition: the latter is a Somali who takes an active part in politics. These professors teach Moslem literature through the medium of Harari, a peculiar dialect confined within the walls "
- ^Burton. F., Richard (1856).First Footsteps in East Africa.p. 360.
- ^Abdurahman., A (2017).Making Sense of Somali History.Adonis and Abbey. p. 80.
- ^"Leadership in Eastern Africa".African Research Studies(9): 70. 1968.
- ^WSP Transition Programme, War-torn Societies Project (2005).Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities, Volume 1.Red Sea Press. p. 214.
- ^Carlos-Swayne, Harald (1900).Seventeen Trips Through Somaliland and a Visit to Abyssinia.p. 96.
- ^Hugh Chisholm (ed.),The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information,Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.
- ^Milman, Brock (2014).British Somaliland An Administrative History, 1920-1960.Routledge. pp. 138–139.ISBN9780367868840.
- ^"Somaliland Marks Independence After 73 Years of British Rule"(fee required).The New York Times.1960-06-26. p. 6.Archivedfrom the original on 2011-07-17.Retrieved2008-06-20.
- ^"How Britain said farewell to its Empire".BBC News.2010-07-23.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-04-25.
- ^"Close Residents of Somaliland sit under a war memorial of a MiG fighter jet in the centre of town in Hargeisa".Reuters.19 May 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 23 February 2014.Retrieved11 February2014.
- ^Cobelj, Stefanja (April 24, 2009). "The Provincial Museum of Hargeisa".Museum International.38(3): 150–154.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0033.1986.tb00633.x.
- ^Economist Intelligence Unit (Great Britain),Country report: Uganda, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti,(The Unit: 1986), p.43.
- ^abSomalia: A Government at War With Its Own People(PDF).Human Rights Watch. 1990. pp. 137, 145.
- ^abcdePrunier, Gérard(2021).The Country That Does Not Exist: A History of Somaliland.London:C. Hurst & Co.pp. 95–99.ISBN9781787382039.OCLC1242464786.OL33740503M.Archivedfrom the original on 6 March 2023.Retrieved20 October2023.
- ^Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001).Culture and Customs of Somalia.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 37.ISBN978-0-313-31333-2.
- ^Reinl, James."Investigating genocide in Somaliland".Al Jazeera.Archivedfrom the original on 7 May 2017.Retrieved25 April2017.
- ^Fitzgerald, Nina J. (1 January 2002).Somalia: Issues, History, and Bibliography.Nova Publishers.ISBN978-1-59033-265-8.
- ^Geldenhuys, p.131
- ^"UK Somali Remittances Survey"(PDF).diaspora-centre.org.Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 June 2017.Retrieved30 April2018.
- ^ "Climate of Somalia"(PDF).Food and Agriculture Organization. pp. 69–73. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 November 2016.Retrieved4 November2016.
- ^"Long term mean monthly sunshine fraction in Somalia".Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived fromthe originalon 5 October 2016.Retrieved4 November2016.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Hargeisa / Somalia"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world(in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.Retrieved4 November2016.
- ^"Climate & Weather Averages in Hargeisa, Somalia".Time and Date.Retrieved11 January2022.
- ^"Monthly weather forecast and climate in Hargeisa, Somalia".Weather Atlas.Retrieved11 January2022.
- ^Hargeisa City HallArchived2013-01-16 atarchive.today.Retrieved on 2012-10-17. (2000 est.)
- ^"Duqa cusub ee magaalada Hargeysa oo la doortay".VOA(in Somali). 17 June 2021.Retrieved2021-12-10.
- ^"History made in Somaliland as minority candidate, son of former singer scoop more votes".Garowe Online.30 June 2020.Retrieved2021-12-10.
- ^abcdUnderstanding the Hargeisa Local Council System 'Phase 2'(PDF)(Report). Social Research and Development Institute. December 2017. p. 18.Retrieved27 October2023.
- ^King, Alexandra; Mohamed, Abdi Musa; Addou, Sidow Ibrahim (24 April 2003).Hargeisa Urban Household Economy Assessment | February – March 2003(PDF)(Report).Famine Early Warning Systems Network.p. 14.Retrieved27 October2023.
- ^Lewis, I. M. (1958)."Modern Political Movements in Somaliland, I".Africa: Journal of the International African Institute.28(3): 244–261.doi:10.2307/1157981.ISSN0001-9720.JSTOR1157981.S2CID245909931.
- ^Epstein, M. (2016-12-23).The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1932.Springer.ISBN978-0-230-27061-9.
- ^Lindley, Anna (2010-08-01).The Early Morning is Phonecall: Somali Refugees' Remittances.Berghahn Books.ISBN978-1-84545-832-4.
- ^Mines, International Campaign to Ban Land (1999).Landmine Monitor Report 1999: Toward a Mine-free World.Human Rights Watch.ISBN978-1-56432-231-9.
- ^Lansford, Tom (2015-03-24).Political Handbook of the World 2015.CQ Press.ISBN978-1-4833-7155-9.
- ^"OCHA"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2013-09-25.Retrieved2013-09-21.
- ^ab"Somalia".The World Factbook.Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency.Retrieved6 December2013.
- ^Kilcullen, David (2019).Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City.The Brenthurst Foundation.
- ^"USAID launches the first grants program for the private sector in Somaliland".USAID. Archived fromthe originalon February 18, 2013.Retrieved18 July2013.
- ^abDahir, Barkhad (20 December 2012)."Taxi companies in Hargeisa create jobs, ease travel".Sabahi.Archivedfrom the original on 15 May 2013.Retrieved18 July2013.
- ^"Following Mobile Money in Somaliland | Rift Valley Institute".riftvalley.net.Retrieved2020-11-01.
- ^"Discover the City of Hargeisa - flydubai".flydubai.Archivedfrom the original on 20 December 2017.Retrieved30 April2018.
- ^Sipinksi, Dominik (2024-08-27)."Ethiopian Airlines, flydubai comply with Somali ultimatum".ch-aviation.Retrieved2024-08-28.
