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Himalayas

(Redirected fromHimalayan Mountains)
This article is about a mountain range. For other uses, seeHimalaya (disambiguation).

TheHimalayas,orHimalaya(/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə,hɪˈmɑːləjə/HIM-ə-LAY-ə, hih-MAH-lə-yə)[b]is amountain rangein Asia, separating theplainsof theIndian subcontinentfrom theTibetan Plateau.The range hasseveral peaksexceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) includingMount Everest,thehighest mountainon Earth. The mountain range runs for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) as an arc from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent.

The Himalayas
The arc of the Himalayas showing theeight-thousanders(in red);Indo-Gangetic Plain;Tibetan plateau;riversIndus,Ganges,andYarlung Tsangpo-Brahmaputra;and the two anchors of the range (in yellow)
Highest point
PeakMount Everest,Nepal/China
Elevation8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft)
Coordinates27°59′N86°55′E/ 27.983°N 86.917°E/27.983; 86.917
Dimensions
Length2,400 km (1,500 mi)
Area595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi)
Geography
Map of the Himalayan-Hindu Kushregion
Countries
[a]
ContinentAsia
Geology
OrogenyAlpine orogeny
Rock ageCretaceoustoCenozoic
Rock types

The Himalayas occupy an area of 595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi) acrosssix countries–Afghanistan,Bhutan,China,India,Nepal,andPakistan.The sovereignty of the range in theKashmirregion is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. It is bordered by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the northwest, Tibetan Plateau in the north, and by theIndo-Gangetic Plainin the south. Its western anchorNanga Parbatlies south of the northernmost bend of theIndus riverand its eastern anchorNamcha Barwalies to the west of the great bend of theYarlung Tsangpo River.The Himalayas consists of four parallel mountain ranges: theSivalik Hillson the south; theLower Himalayas;theGreat Himalayas,which is the highest and central range; and theTibetan Himalayason the north. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east.

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges onEarthand is made up of upliftedsedimentaryandmetamorphicrocks. It was formedmore than 10myadue to thesubductionof theIndian tectonic platewith theEurasian Platealong theconvergent boundary.Due to the continuous movement of the Indian plate, the Himalayas keep rising every year, making them geologically andseismicallyactive. The mountains consist of largeglaciers,which are remnants of the lastice age,and give rise to some of theworld's major riverssuch as theIndus,Ganges,andTsangpo–Brahmaputra.Their combineddrainage basinis home to nearly 600 million people including 52.8 million living in the vicinity of the Himalayas. The region is also home to manyendorheiclakes.

The Himalayas have a major impact on the climate of the Indian subcontinent. It blocks the cold winds fromCentral Asia,and plays a significant roles in influencing themonsoons.The vast size, varying altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas result in a wide range of climates, fromhumidandsubtropicaltocold and dry desertconditions. The mountains have profoundly shaped the cultures ofSouth AsiaandTibet.Many Himalayan peaks are considered sacred across variousIndianandTibetanreligions such asHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism,andBon.Hence, the summits of several peaks in the region such asGangkhar Puensum,Machapuchare,andKailashhave been off-limits to climbers.

Etymology

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The name of the range is derived from theSanskritwordHimālay(हिमालय) meaning 'abode of snow'.[4][5][6]It is a combination of the wordshim(हिम) meaning 'frost/cold' andālay(आलय) meaning 'dwelling/house'.[7][8]The name of the range is mentioned asHimavat(Sanskrit:हिमवत्) in older literature such as theIndian epicMahabharata,which is the personification of the Hindu deityHimavan.[9]The mountain range is known asHimālayainHindiandNepali(both writtenहिमालय),[10]Himalaya(ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་) inTibetan,[11]Himāliya(سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ) inUrdu,[12]Himaloy(হিমালয়) inBengali,[13]andXimalaya(simplified Chinese:Himalayas;traditional Chinese:Himalayas;pinyin:Xǐmǎlāyǎ) inChinese.[14]It was mentioned asHimmalehin western literature such asEmily Dickinson's poetry andHenry David Thoreau's essays.[15][16]

Geography and topography

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Political map of the Himalayan region.
See also:List of Himalayan peaks and passesandHimalayan Rim

The Himalayas run as an arc for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of theIndian subcontinent,separating theIndo-Gangetic Plainsfrom theTibetan Plateau.It is bordered by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the northwest, which extend intoCentral Asia.[1][17]Its western anchorNanga Parbatlies south of the northernmost bend of theIndus riverinPakistan-administered Kashmirand its eastern anchorNamcha Barwalies to the west of the great eastern bend of theYarlung Tsangpo RiverinTibet Autonomous RegionofChina.The Himalayas occupies an area of 595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi) acrosssix countries–Afghanistan,Bhutan,China,India,Nepal,andPakistan.The sovereignty of the range in the Kashmir region is disputed amongst India, Pakistan, and China. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east.[1][18]The range hasseveral peaksexceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) includingMount Everest,thehighest mountainon Earth at 8,848 m (29,029 ft).[19]

Sub-ranges

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Geologic map showing the regions and major features of the Himalayas.

The Himalayas consist of four parallel mountain ranges from south to north: theSivalik Hillson the south; theLower Himalayas;theGreat Himalayas,which is the highest and central range; and theTibetan Himalayason the north.[20][21]

TheSivalik Hillsform the lowest sub-Himalayan range and extends for about 1,600 km (990 mi) from theTeesta Riverin the Indian state ofSikkimto northern Pakistan. The name derives fromSanskritmeaning "Belonging toShiva",which was originally used to denote the 320 km (200 mi) stretch fromHaridwarto theBeas River.The range is about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide on average and the elevation ranges from 900–1,200 m (3,000–3,900 ft). It rises along theIndo-Gangetic Plainand is often separated from the higher northern sub-ranges by valleys. The eastern portion of the range is calledChuria Rangein Nepal.[22][23]

TheLower or Lesser Himalaya(also known asHimachal) is the lower middle sub-section of the Himalayas. It extends almost along the entire length of the Himalayas and is about 75 km (47 mi) wide. It is mostly composed of rocky surfaces and has an average elevation of 3,700–4,500 m (12,100–14,800 ft).[22][24]TheGreater Himalayas(also known asHimadri) form the highest section of the Himalayas and extend for about 2,300 km (1,400 mi) from northern Pakistan to northernArunachal Pradeshin India. The sub-range has an average elevation of more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and contains many of the world’s tallest peaks, including Everest. It is mainly composed ofgraniterocks.[22][25]TheTibetan Himalayas(also known asTethys) form the northern most sub-range of the Himalayas inTibet.[21][26]

Divisions

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A view of theWestern Himalayas.

Longitudinally, the range is broadly divided into three regions–western,central,andeastern.[27]TheWestern Himalayasform the westernmost section of the range and extend for about 560 km (350 mi) from the bend of theIndus Riveralong the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region in the north-west to theSatlejriver basin in India in the south-east. Most of the region lies in the Kashmir territory disputed between India and Pakistan with certain portions of the Indian state ofHimachal Pradesh.The Indus forms the division between the Western Himalayas and the Karakoram range to the north. The Western Himalayas include theZanskar,Pir Panjal Ranges,and parts of the Sivalik and Great Himalayas. The western anchorNanga Parbatis the highest point in the region at 8,126 m (26,660 ft).[28]It is also referred Punjab, Kashmir or Himachal Himalyas from west to east locally.[27][29]

The central Himalayas orKumaonextend for about 320 km (200 mi) along the state ofUttarakhandinnorthern Indiafrom the Sutlej River in the east to theKali Riverin the west. The region comprises parts of Sivalik and Great Himalayas. At lower elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft), the region has atemperate climateand consists of permanent settlements. At elevations higher than 4,300 m (14,100 ft), permanent snow caps cover the Great Himalayas with the highest peaks beingNanda Deviat 7,817 m (25,646 ft) andKametat 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is also the source of major streams of theGangesriver system.[30]

Part of theEastern Himalayasshowing theeight-thousanders.

TheEastern Himalayasform the eastern most stretch of the range and consist of the states of parts of Tibet in China,Sikkim,Assam,Arunachal Pradesh,parts of otherNorth East Indianstates and northWest Bengalin India, entirety of Bhutan, mountain regions of central and eastern Nepal, and most of the western lowlands in Nepal.[31]The eastern Himalayas broadly consists of two regions–the western Nepal Himalayas and the eastern Assam Himalayas.[1][29]The Nepal Himalayas forms the centre of the Himalayan curve and extend for 800 km (500 mi) between the Kali andTeesta Rivers.The Great Himalayas in the region form the highest part of the entire Himalayas and consist of many of theeight-thousandersincluding Everest,Kanchenjungaat 8,586 m (28,169 ft), andMakaluat 8,463 m (27,766 ft). These mountains host large glaciers that form the source of various rivers of theGanges-Brahmaputrariver system. The high altitude regions are uninhabitable with few mountain passes inbetween that serve as crossovers with the human settlements in the lower valleys.[32]

TheAssam Himalayaforms the eastern most sub-section that extends eastward for 720 km (450 mi) from the Indian state of Sikkim through Bhutan and north-east India past theDihang Riverto the India-Tibet border. The highest peak is the eastern anchorNamcha Barwaat 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is the source of many of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and consists of major mountain passes such asNathu La,andJelep La.[33]Beyond the Dihang valley, the mountains extend as Purvanchal mountain range across the eastern boundary of India.[29]

Geology

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Main article:Geology of the Himalayas
The 6,000 km-plus journey of theIndia landmassbefore its collision with theEurasian Platemore than 10mya.

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists of upliftedsedimentaryandmetamorphic rock.According to the modern theory ofplate tectonics,it was formed as a result of acontinental collisionandorogenyalong theconvergent boundarybetween theIndiaandEurasian Plates.During theJurassic period(201 to 145mya), theTethys Oceanformed the southern border of then existent Eurasian landmass. When the super-continentGondwanabroke up nearly 180 mya, theIndo-Australian plateslowly drifted northwards towards Eurasia for 130-140 million years.[34]The Indian Plate broke up with theAustralian Plateabout 100 mya.[35]The Tethys ocean constricted as the Indian plate moved gradually upward. As both the plates were made ofcontinental crusts,which were less denser thanoceanic crusts,the increased compressive forces resulted infoldingof the underlying rock bed.[36]Thethrust faultscreated between the folds resulted ingraniteandbasaltrocks from theEarth's mantleprotruding through thecrust.During thepaleogeneperiod (about 50 mya), the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate after it completely closed the Tethys ocean gap.[34][37]

The Indian plate continued tosubductunder the Eurasian plate over the next 30 million years that resulted in the formation of theTibetan plateau.Duringmiocene(20 mya), the increasing collision between the plates resulted in the top layer of metamorphic rocks getting peeled, which moved southwards to formnappeswith trenches in between. As the mountains received rainfall, the waters flowing down the mountains eroded and steepened the southern slopes. The silt deposited by these rivers and streams in the trough between the Himalayas and theDeccan plateauformed theIndo-Gangetic Plain.About 0.6 mya in thepleistoceneperiod, the Himalayas rose higher and became the highest mountains on Earth. In the northernGreat Himalayas,newgneissand granite formations emerged on crystalline rocks that gave rise to the higher peaks.[34][38]

The summit ofMount Everestis made of unmetamorphosed marineordovicianlimestonewith fossiltrilobites,crinoids,andostracodsfrom the Tethys ocean.[39]The upliftment of the Himalayas occurred gradually and as the Great Himalayas became higher, they became a climatic barrier and blocked the winds, which resulted in lesser precipitation on the upper slopes. The lower slopes continued to be eroded by the rivers, which flowed in the gaps between the mountains and the folded lowerShivalik Hillsand theLesser Himalayaswere formed due to the downwarping of the intermediate lands. Minor streams ran between the faults within the mountains until they joined the major river systems in the plains. Intermediate valleys such asKashmirandKathmanduwere formed from temporary lakes that were formed duringpleistocene,which dried up later.[34][40]

the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the regionseismicallyactive.Earthquakesin the Himalayan region (1900-2016).

The Himalayan region is made up of five geological zones– the Sub-Himalayan Zone bound by theMain Frontal Thrustand theMain Boundary Thrust(MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and theMain Central Thrust(MCT); the Higher Himalayan Zone beyond the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate.[41]TheArakan Yomahighlands inMyanmarand theAndaman and Nicobar Islandsin theBay of Bengalwere also formed as a result of the same tectonic processes that formed the Himalayas.[42]The Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau at about 67 mm (2.6 in) per year, forcing it to continue to move upwards. About 20 mm (0.79 in) per year is absorbed bythrustingalong theHimalaya southern front,which leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm (0.20 in) per year.[43]This makes the Himalayan region geologically active and the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the regionseismicallyactive, leading to earthquakes from time to time.[44][45]

The northern slopes of the Himalayas have a thicker soil cover than the southern slopes due to presence of lesser number of rivers and streams. These soils areloamyand are dark brown in colour, and are covered with forests in the lowlands and grassland meadows in the mid altitudes. The composition and texture of the soils in the Himalayas also vary across regions. In theEastern Himalayas,the wet soils has a highhumuscontent conducive for growingtea.Podzolicsoils occur in the eastern range of theIndus basinbetween theIndusandShyok Rivers.TheLadakhregion is generally dry withsaline soilwhile fertilealluvial soilsoccur in select river valleys such as theKashmir valley.The higher elevations consist of rock fragements andlithosolswith very low humus content.[34]

Hydrology

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Glaciers

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IcefallonKhumbu Glacier

The Himalayas and the Central Asian mountain ranges consist of the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after theAntarcticandArcticregions.[46]It is often referred to as the "Third Pole" as it encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3(2,900 cu mi) of fresh water.[47][48]TheSouth ColandKhumbu Glacierin theMount Everestregion are amongst the world's highest glaciers.[49]TheGangotriwhich is 32 km (20 mi) long and is one of the largest glaciers, is one of the sources of theGanges.The Himalayan glaciers show considerable variation in the rate of descent. The Khumbu moves about 1 ft (0.30 m) daily compared to certain other glaciers which move about 6 ft (1.8 m) per day.[50]

During thelast ice age,there was a connected ice stream ofglaciersbetweenKangchenjungain the east andNanga Parbatin the west.[51]The glaciers joined with the ice stream network in theKarakoramin the west, the Tibetan inland ice in the north, and came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) in the south. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20–32 km (12–20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60–112 km (37–70 mi) long during the ice age.[52][53]The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation andablationof a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 m (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate would have been at least 7.0–8.3 °C (12.6–14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[54]

Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate ofglacier retreatacross the region as a result of climate change.[55][56]The rate of retreat varies across regions depending on the local conditions. Since 1975, a marked increase in the loss of glacial mass from 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr has been observed with an estimated 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas.[47][57][58][59]The resulting climate variations and changes in hydrology could affect the livelihoods of the people in the Himalayas and the plains below.[60]

Rivers

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Confluence of theIndusandZanskar Riversin the Himalayas.

Despite its greater size, the Himalayas does not form awater divideacross its span because of the multiple river systems that cut across the range. While the mountains were formed gradually, the rivers concurrently cut across deeper gorges ranging from 1,500–5,000 m (4,900–16,400 ft) in depth and 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) in width. The actual water divide lies to the north of the Himalayas with rivers flowing down both the sides of the mountains. Some of the major river systems and their drainage system outdate the formation of the mountains itself. The water divide is formed by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the west and theLadakh Rangeon the east, separating the Indus system from Central Asia. On the east,KailasandNyenchen Tanglha Mountainsseparate the Brahmaputra river system from the Tibetan rivers to the north. There are 19 major rivers in the Himalayas which form part of the two major river systems ofGanges-Brahmaputra,which follow an easterly course andIndus,which follows a north-westerly course.[50]

  • TheIndus Basinextends from the western section of the range and has a catchment area of nearly 450,000 km2(170,000 sq mi). The river rises nearLake Manasarovarin Tibet and flows westward joining theZanskarandShyok Rivers.The five major tributaries of Indus–Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas,andSutlejjoin the Indus in the Punjab region spread across India and Pakistan. These five rivers constitute a watershed area of about 132,000 km2(51,000 sq mi). The river system drains across the Himalayan region inKashmir,before spreading through thePunjab Plainsand later forms theIndus Deltanear the India-Pakistan border before joining theArabian sea.[61][62]
Bhagirathi,one of the head streams ofGangesatGangotri.
  • TheGanges-Brahmaputra Basinextends from the north-eastern part of the Himalayas till its eastern edge. The system has an average discharge of 30,770 m2(331,200 sq ft), which is the third greatest of the world’s river systems and forms the largest alluvial deposits in the world with nearly 1.84 billion tonnes of silt deposited every year. The Ganges is formed by five head streams of which the major ones are theAlaknandaandBhagirathiarising atGangotriinUttarakhand.[63]Other Himalayan rivers that form the major tributaries of the Ganges includeYamuna,Ramganga,Ghaghara,Rapti,Gandaki,Bagmati,andKosi,which together drain about 218,000 km2(84,000 sq mi) of area. The Brahmaputra arises in the Tibetan region flowing eastwards before making a turn towards south into India. TheTeesta,Raidak,Manasform the major tributaries of the Brahmaputra and together drain 184,000 km2(71,000 sq mi) of catchment area.[50][64]The Ganges and Brahmaputra join together before forming theGanges-Brahmaputra Deltaspread across India and Bangladesh for nearly 60,000 km2(23,000 sq mi) is the largest in the world.[65]

The northern slopes ofGyala Periand the peaks beyond theTsangpodrain into theIrrawaddy River,which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south throughMyanmarto drain into theAndaman Sea.TheSalween,Mekong,Yangtze,andYellow Riversall originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau, north of the great water divide. These are considered distinct from the Himalayan watershed and are known as circum-Himalayan rivers.[66]

Lakes

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See also:List of Alpine lakes in India
Gurudongmar Lakein Sikkim

The Himalayan region has multiple lakes across various elevations includingendorheicfreshwaterandsaline lakes.The geology of the lakes vary across geographies depending on various factors such as altitude, climate, water source, andlithology.Tarnsare high altitude mountain lakes situated above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and are formed primarily by the snow-melt of the glaciers. The lower altitude lakes are replenished by a combination of rains, underground springs, and streams. Large lakes in the Himalayan basin were formed in theholoceneperiod, when water pooled in the faults and the water supply was subsequently cut off.[67][68]

There are more than 4500 high altitude lakes of which about 12 large lakes contribute to more than 75% of the total lake area in the Indian Himalayas.[67]Pangong Lakespread across India and China is the highest saline lake in the world at an altitude of 4,350 m (14,270 ft) and amongst the largest in the region with a surface area of 700 km2(270 sq mi).[69]Spread across 189 km2(73 sq mi),Wular Lakeis amongst the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.[70]Other large lakes includeTso Moriri,andTso KarinLadakh,Nilnag,andTarsar Lake,inJammu and Kashmir,Gurudongmar,Chholhamu,andTsomgo LakesinSikkim,Tilicho,Rara,Phoksundo,andGokyo Lakesin Nepal.[67][71][72]Some of the Himalayan lakes present the danger of aglacial lake outburst floodas they have grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.[73]While these lakes support a range of ecosystems and local communities, many of them remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity.[67][74]

Climate

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Main article:Ecology of the Himalayas

Due to its location and size, the Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier which affects the weather conditions of theIndian subcontinentand the regions north of the range.[75]The mountains are spread across more than eight degrees oflatitudeand hence includes a wide range of climatic zones includingsub-tropical,temperate,andsemi-arid.The climate in a region is determined by factors such as altitude, latitude, and the impact on monsoon.[76]There are generally five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn or post-monsoon, winter, and spring.[77]The summer in April-May is followed by monsoon rains from June to September. The post monsoon season is largely devoid of rain and snow before beginning of cold winters in December-January with intermediate spring before the summer.[75]There are localised wind pressure systems at high altitudes resulting in heavy winds.[78]

Temperature

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Map showing various climatic zones in the Indian subcontinent.

Due to its high altitude, the range blocks the flow ofcold windsfrom the north into the Indian subcontinent.[75][79]This causes the tropical zone to extend farther north inSouth Asiathan anywhere else in the world. The temperatures are more pronounced in theBrahmaputra valleyin the eastern section as it lies at a lower latitude and due to thelatent heatof the forced air from theBay of Bengalwhichcondensesbefore moving past theNamcha Barwa,the eastern anchor of the Himalayas.[80][76]Due to this, the permanentsnow lineis among the highest in the world, at typically around 5,500 m (18,000 ft) while severalequatorialmountains such as inNew Guinea,theRwenzoris,andColombia,have a snow line at 900 m (3,000 ft) lower.[81][82]

As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. The temperature at a location is dependent on the season, orientation and bearing with respect to theSun,and themassof the mountain. As the Sun is the major contributor to the temperature, it is often directly proportional to the received radiation from the Sun with faces receiving more sunlight having a higher heat buildup. In narrow valleys between steep mountain faces, the weather conditions may differ significantly on both the margins. The mountains act asheat islandsand heavier mountains absorb and retain more heat than the surroundings, and therefore influences theamount of heatneeded to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum.[83]However, soil temperatures mostly remain the same on both the sides of a mountain at altitudes higher than 4,500 m (14,800 ft).[84]

Temperatures in the Himalayas reduce by 2 °C (36 °F) for every 300 m (980 ft) increase of altitude.[76][85]Higher altitudes invariably experience low temperatures. In the Eastern Himalayas,Darjeelingat an altitude of 1,945 m (6,381 ft) has an average minimum temperature of 11 °C (52 °F) during the month of May, while the same has been recorded as −22 °C (−8 °F) at an altitude of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on theEverest.At lower altitudes, the temperature is pleasantly warm during the summers. During winters, the low-pressure weather systems from the west cause heavysnowfall.[75]

Precipitation

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Map of India showing the onset of summer and winter monsoon.

There are two periods of precipitation with most of the rainfall occurring during the post summer season and moderate amount during the winter storms.[75]The Himalayan range obstructs the path of thesouth west monsoonwinds, causing heavy precipitation on the slopes and the plains below.[79]The effect of Himalayas on the hydroclimate impacts millions in the plains as the variability in monsoon rainfall is the main factor behind wet and dry years.[86][87]As the Himalayas force the monsoon winds to give up most of the moisture before ascending up, the winds became dry once its reaches the north of the mountains. This results in the dry and windycold desert climatein the Tibetan Himalayas and the plateau beyond.[75]It also played a role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as theTaklamakanandGobi.[88]

The monsoon is triggered by the different rates of heating and cooling between theIndian Oceanand Central Asia, which create large differences in theatmospheric pressureprevailing above each. As the Central Asian landmass heats up during the summer compared to the ocean below, the difference in pressure creates athermal low.The moist air from the ocean is pushed inwards towards the low pressure system causing the monsoon winds. It results in precipitation along the slopes due to theorographic effectas the air rises along the mountains and condenses.[78][89]The monsoon begins at the end of May in the eastern fringes of the range and moves upwards towards the west in June and July. There is heavy precipitation in the east which reduces progressively towards the west as the air becomes drier.Cherrapunjiin Eastern Himalayas is one of the wettest places on Earth with an annual precipitation of 428 in (10,900 mm).[90]

The average annual rainfall varies from 120 in (3,000 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas to about 120 in (3,000 mm) in theKumaonregion. The northern extremes of the Great Himalayas inKashmirandLadakhreceive only 3–6 in (76–152 mm) of rainfall per year.[75]During the winter season, a high pressure system develops over Central Asia, which results in winds flowing towards the Himalayas. However, due to the presence of less water bodies in the Central Asian region, the moisture content is low.[78]As the condensation occurs at higher altitudes in the north, there is more precipitation in the Great Himalayas in the west during the winter rains and the precipitation reduces towards the east. In January, the Kumaon region receives about 3 in (76 mm) of rainfall compared to about 1 in (25 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas.[75]

Climate change

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Loss of glacier mass in the Himalayas since the 20th century.

The Himalayan region has a highly sensitive ecosystem and is amongst the most affected regions due toclimate change.Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate ofglacier retreatand changes occurring at a far rapid rate.[55][56][91]As per a 2019 assessment, the Himalayan region, which had experienced a temperature rise of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade was warming at an increased rate of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade over the past half a century. The average warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade while the average cold days and nights had declined by 0.5 and 1 respectively. This has also prolonged the length of thegrowing seasonby 4.25 days per decade.[92]

The climate change might results in erratic rainfall, varying temperatures, and natural disasters likelandslides,andfloods.[93][94]The increasing glacier melt had been followed by an increase in the number ofglacial lakes,some of which may be prone to dangerous floods. The region is expected to encounter continued increase in average annual temperature and 81% of the region'spermafrostis projected to be lost by the end of the century.[95]The increased warming and melting of snow is projected to accelerate the regional river flows until 2060 after which it would decline due to reduction in ice caps and glacier mass. As the precipitation is projected to increase concurrently, the annual river flows would be largely unaffected for the Eastern Himalayan rivers fed by monsoons, but would reduce the flows in the Western Himalayan rivers.[96][97][98]

Glacial lakesinBhutanformed by increasing glacier melt, some of which may be prone to dangerous floods.

Almost a billion people live on either side of the mountain and are prone to impact of the climate change. This includes the people who live in the mountains, who are more vulnerable due to temperature variations and other biota.[91]Countries in the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan are amongst the most vulnerable countries in theGlobal Southdue to climate change.[99][100][101]The temperature rise increases the incidence oftropical diseasessuch asmalaria,anddenguefurther north. The extreme weather events might cause physical harm directly and indirectly due to lack of access and contamination ofdrinking water,pollution,exposure to chemicals, and destruction of crops, anddrought.[102][103][104]The climate change also impact the flora and fauna of the region. Changes might decrease the territory available for local wildlife and reduction inpreyfor thepredators.This puts the animals inconflict with humansas humans might encroach animal territories and the animals might venture into human habitats for search of food, which might exacerbate the economic loss of the local population.[105]

The Himalayan nations are signatories of theParis agreement,aimed atclimate change mitigationandadaptation.[106][107]The actions are aimed at reducingemissions,increase the usage ofrenewable energy,and sustainable environmental practices.[108]As the local population increasingly experience the impact of the changes in climate such as variations in temperature and precipitation, and change in vegetation, they are forced to adapt for the same. This has led to increased awareness on the impact of climate change, and adaptations such as change incrop cycles,introduction ofdrought resistantcrops, and plantation of new trees.[109]This has also led to the construction of moredams,canals,and other water structures, to prevent flooding and aid in agriculture. New plantations on barren lands to prevent landslides, and construction of fire lines made of litter and mud to preventforest fireshave been undertaken.[110][111]However, lack of funding, awareness, access to technology, and government policy are barriers for the same.[110]

Flora and fauna

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The Himalayan region belongs to theIndomalayan realm.[112]The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary broadly across regions depending on the climate and geology.[72]The Himalayas are home to multiplebiodiversityhotspots, and is home to an estimated 35,000+ species of plants and 200+ species of animals. An average of 35 new species have been found every year since 1998.[113]

Flora

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Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forestsinBhutan.
Himalayan shrub and meadowsinNepal.

There arefour typesof vegetation found in the regiontropical and subtropical,temperate,coniferous,andgrasslands.Tropical and subtropical broadleaf forestsare mostly constricted to the high temperature and humid regions inEastern and Central Himalayas,and pockets ofKashmirin the west. There are about 4,000 species ofAngiospermswith major vegetation includeDipterocarpus,andCeylon ironwoodon porous soils at elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft) andoak,andIndian horse chestnutonlithosolbetween 1,100–1,700 m (3,600–5,600 ft).Himalayan subtropical pine forestswithHimalayan screw pinetrees occur above 4,000 m (13,000 ft) andAlder,andbambooare found on terrains with higher gradient. Temperate forest occur at altitudes between 1,400–3,400 m (4,600–11,200 ft) while moving from south-east to north-west towards higher latitude.EasternandWestern Himalayan broadleaf forestsconsisting ofsal treesdominate the ecosystem.[114]

At higher altitudes,EasternandWestern Himalayan subalpine conifer forestsconsisting of variousconifersoccur.Chir pineis the dominant species which occurs at elevations from 800–900 m (2,600–3,000 ft). Other species includeDeodar cedar,which grows at altitudes of 1,900–2,700 m (6,200–8,900 ft),blue pineandmorinda sprucebetween 2,200–3,000 m (7,200–9,800 ft). At higher altitudes, alpine shrubs and meadows occur above the trees. TheEastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadowsextend between 3,200–4,200 m (10,500–13,800 ft) and theWestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadowsoccur at altitudes of 3,600–4,500 m (11,800–14,800 ft). Major vegetation includeJuniperus,Rhododendronon rocky terrain facing the Sun, various flowering plants at high elevations, andmosses,andlichensin humid, shaded areas.[114][115]

InterspersedGrasslandsoccur at certain regions, with thorns and semi-desert vegetation at low precipitation areas in the Western Himalayas.[114]The high altitude mountainous areas are mostly barren or, at the most, sparsely sprinkled with stunted bushes.[74]The Himalayas are home to various medicinal plants such asAbies pindrowused to treatbronchitis,Andrachne cordifoliaused forsnake bites,andCallicarpa arboreaused forskin diseases.Nearly a fifth of the plant species in the Himalayas are used for medicinal purposes.[116][117]Climate change,illegaldeforestation,and introduction of non native species have had an effect on the flora of the range. The increase in temperature has resulted in shifting of various species to higher elevations, and early flowering and fruiting.[118]

Fauna

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Snow leopard
Himalayan tahr

Many of the animal species are from the tropics, which have adapted to the various conditions across the Himalayan range. Some of the species of theEastern Himalayasare similar to those found inEastandSouth East Asia,while the animals of theWestern Himalayashas characteristics of species fromCentral AsiaandMediterraneanregion. Fossils of species such asgiraffe,andhippopotamushave been found in the foothills, suggesting the presence ofAfricanspecies some time ago. Largemammalssuch asIndian elephant,andIndian rhinocerosare confined to the densely forested moist ecosystems in the Eastern and Central Himalayas. Many of the animal species found in the region are unique and endemic or nearly endemic to the region.[119]

Other large animal species found in the Himalayas includeAsiatic black bear,clouded leopard,andherbivoressuch asbharal,Himalayan tahr,takin,Himalayan serow,Himalayan musk deer,andHimalayan goral.Animals found at higher altitudes includebrown bear,and the elusivesnow leopard,which mainly feed on bharal. Thered pandais found in the mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the Eastern Himalayas and theHimalayan water shreware found on the river banks. The forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangeredGee's golden langurand theKashmir gray langur,within highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. Theyaksare large domesticated cattle found in the region.[74][119]

More than 800 species of birds have been recorded with a large number of species restricted to the Eastern Himalayas. Amongst the bird species found includemagpiessuch asblack-rumped magpieandblue magpie,titmice,choughs,whistling thrushes,andredstarts.Raptorsincludebearded vulture,black-eared kite,andHimalayan griffon.Snow partridgeandCornish choughare found at altitudes above 5,700 m (18,700 ft).[119]The Himalayan lakes also serve as breeding grounds for species such asblack-necked craneandbar-headed goose.[67]There are multiple species ofreptilesincludingJapaluralizards,blind snakes,andinsectssuch asbutterflies.Severalfresh water fishsuch asGlyptothoraxare found in the Himalayan waters. The extremes of high altitude favor the presence ofextremophileorganisms, which include various species of insects such asspiders,andmites.[119][120]

Conservation

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Further information:Protected areas in India,Protected areas in Nepal,Protected areas in Pakistan,andProtected areas in Bhutan

The Himalayan fauna include endemic plants and animals andcritically endangeredor endangered species such as Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, musk deer andhangul.[119]There are more than 7,000 endemic plants and 1.9% of global endemic vertebrates in the region. As of 2022,there are 575 protected areas established by the nations in the Himalayan-Hindu Kush region, which account for 40% of the land area and 8.5% of the global protected area. There are also fourbiodiversity hotspots,12ecoregions,348 key biodiversity areas, and sixUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin the region.[121][122]

Demographics

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The Himalayan region with the associatedIndo-Gangetic PlainandTibetan plateauis home to more than a billion people.[91] In 2011, the population in the Himalayan region was estimated to be about 52.8 million with the combineddrainage basinof the Himalayan rivers home to nearly 600 million.[123][124]Of this, 7.96 million (15.1% of the total Himalayan population) live in Eastern Himalayas, 19.22 million in Central Himalayas (36.4%), and 25.59 million reside in Western Himalayas (48.5%). The population of the Himalayas has grown considerably over the last five decades from 19.9 million in 1961 with the annual growth rate (3.31%) more than three times higher than the world average (1.1%) during the same period.[123]

TheSilk Roadand connecting routes in the 1st century CE.

The earliest tribes in the Himalayas might have originated fromDravidian peoplefrom the south of the Indian subcontinent as evidenced by the presence ofDravidian languages.The major human migration towards the Himalayan region occurred in 2000 BCE whenAryanscame from Central Asia and progressively settled along the plains to the south. Information on the Aryan culture in the region is found inHindu literaturesuch as theVedas,andPuranas.Since the second century BCE, theSilk Roadin China was connected to the Indian subcontinent by various routes running along the Himalayan region. The northern side of the Himalayas was under the influence of various Tibetan kingdoms across history. In themiddle ages,the southern side came under the influence of variousRajputkings and later under theMughal rule.Nepal was ruled by various kingdoms from both the Indian and Tibetan regions, until it was conquered by theGurkha kingdomin the early 18th century. Most of the southern region came under theBritish influencein the 18th century till the independence of the constituent states in the mid 20th century.[125]

Ethnicity and languages

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Language familiesofSouth Asia.

The long history along with various outside influences have resulted in the mixture of various traditions and existence of wide range of ethnicity in the region. People speak various languages belonging to four principal language families–Indo-European,Tibeto-Burman,Austroasiatic,andDravidian,with the majority of the languages belonging to the first two categories. TheTibetan Himalayasare inhabited byTibetan people,who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. TheGreat Himalayasare mostly inhabited by nomadic groups and tribes, with most of the population inLesser Himalayas,andShivalik Hills.People towards the Great Himalayas in the north parts mostly speak Tibeto-Burman, while populations in the lower ranges on the southern slopes speak Indo-European languages.[126]

The inhabitants of the Western Himalayas include theKashmiri people,who speakKashmiriin theVale of Kashmirand theGujjarandGaddi people,who speakGujariandGaddirespectively in the lower altitudes ofJammuandHimachal Pradeshin India. The last two arepastoralandnomadicpeople, who own flocks of cattle and migrate across the slopes based on seasons. Various ethnic people such asLadakhi,Balti,andDardlive on the north of the Great Himalayas along theIndus basinin the Kashmir andLadakhregions spread across India, Pakistan, and China. The Dard speakDard,which is part of Indo-European languages, while the Balti and Lakadkhi people speakBalti,andLadakhi,which are part of Tibeto-Burman. In theKumaon regionin Himachal Pradesh andUttarakhandin India, Indo-European speakers such as theKanetand Khasi reside in the lower altitudes along with descendants of migrants from Tibet, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, in theKalpaandLahul-Spitiregions.[126][127]

In the Central Himalayas in Nepal, thePahari people,who speak an Indo-European languagePahari,form the majority. People of various ethnicity such asNewar,Tamang,Gurung,Magar,Sherpa,Bhutia,Lepcha,andKirat,who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, are spread across the mountainous regions of Nepal, Bhutan, and parts ofNorth East India.The Newar and Kirat peoples are largely from theKathmandu valley,and the Magars and Tamangs are spread across the region. The Gurung and Sherpa peoples live along the slopes ofAnnapurnaandEverestrespectively. The Lepcha people reside in Sikkim and western Bhutan while the Bhutia are found in eastern Bhutan. The Indian state ofArunachal Pradeshalong the eastern edge is home to various Tibeto-Burman speaking ethnic groups such asAbor,Aka,Apatani,Dafla,Khamti people,Khowa,Mishmi,Momba,Miri,andSingpho,who mostly practiceshifting cultivation.[126][127]

Culture and religion

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TheHarmukhmountain, north ofKashmir valley,is sacred inHinduism.

Himalayas have had a profound impact on the culture of the people in the region. The Himalayan region is occupied by people of various religions and several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in,Bon,Buddhism,Hinduism,Islam,Jainism,andSikhism.Hindusform the majority of the low highlands and plains inNorthern Indiaand Nepal. People in high altitude region ofLadakh,Bhutan, andNorth East Indiafollow Buddhism while Islam is dominant in the western region of the Himalayas and theKashmir valley.Tibetan religions are followed in the northern Himalayas and various ethnicities in North East India follow indigenous religions.[127]

For the Hindus, Himalaya is a personificationHimavat,the king of all mountains and the father of goddessParvati.[128]It is also considered to be the birthplace of goddessGanga,the personification of riverGanges.[129]It is considered as one of the 68 places hosting aSvayambhuform ofLingam,a form ofShiva.Himalaya is mentioned as the source of medicinal plants inAyurveda,and is the name of the one of the 84asanasinSiddha yoga.[130]Major Hindu pilgrimage centers include theChota Char Dham–Gangotri,Yamunotri,Badrinath,andKedarnath.[131][132]Thousands trek to theAmarnath TempleinSind Valley,where an icestalagmiteformation in theAmarnath Peakis revered as a form of Shiva.[133][134][135]Pashupatinathis a sacred site inShaivism.[136]Muktinathis considered sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists and is considered one of theShakta pithasand part ofChar Dham of Nepal.It housessaligramastones, considered to be an incarnation ofVishnuby Hindus and Gawo Jagpa by Buddhists.[137]

Taktsangmonastery inBhutan

For the Buddhists,Paro Taktsangis a religious site wherePadmasambhavais said to have established Buddhism in Bhutan.[138][139]A number ofVajrayana Buddhistsites andmonasteriesare situated in the Himalayas.[140][141]In Jainism, Mount Ashtapada of the Himalayan mountain range is a sacred place whereRishabhanatha,the first Jaintirthankara,attainedliberation.It is believed that after Rishabhanatha attainednirvana,his sonBharataconstructed three stupas and 24 shrines of theTirthankaraswith their idols in the Himalayas.[142][143]

The Himalayan people's diversity shows through their architecture, their languages, and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, and clothing. The shapes and materials of the people's homes reflect their practical needs and beliefs. The handwoven textiles of the region display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Some Himalayan ethnicities give great importance to jewelry such as theRaiandLimbu,where women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewelry.[144]

Economy

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Terrace farmingin the foothills.

The Himalayas contributes to the economy of the hilly region and the plains below. As the range stretches across various ecological zones, the economy of various regions of the Himalayas depends on the availability of resources. The Himalayan mountain range and its associated forests have extensive natural resources.[145]The fertilealluviumdeposited by the Himalayan rivers have contributed to some the most fertile and arable lands. [146]Fruitssuch asapple,pear,peach,cherry,andgrapeare grown in fertile river valleys and lake beds. The climate also supports extensive cultivation of nuts such aswalnut,andalmond.Teaandspicesare grown on the hills of Eastern Himalayas, which has the conducive climate and soil. The forests provide various natural resources, which form the livelihood of various ethnic tribes in the region.[145][116]

Nainital,ahill stationin the Lower Himalayas.

Due to the higher rate of flow of the Himalayan rivers, they have been dammed at multiple places for development ofirrigationfacilities and generation ofhydroelectricity.Many of the nomadic and pastoral tribes rearlivestockalong the ranges of the Himalayas. They migrate to higher altitudes forgrazingduring the post spring season, when new pastures form and return to lower altitudes during the winters. The region is also rich in minerals, thought access has been an issue. In the Western Himalays,coalis found inJammu region,bauxite,copper,andiron oreinKashmir valley,boraxandsulfurinLadakh,andsemi precious stonessuch assapphireinZanskar range.The Eastern Himalayas consist of deposits ofgypsum,mica,graphite,coal,and various metal ores.[145]

There are a number ofhill stationsand religious centers on the lower ranges of the Himalayas and hencetourismis an important economic activity in the region.[147][148]Due to the presence of major peaks,mountaineeringhas become a major source of income and employment in the Central Himalayan region. However, the increased inflow of tourists and the associated infrastructure projects have resulted in pressure on the fragile ecosystem and depletion of the natural resources.[149][150][151]Sustainable tourismhas been mooted as an alternative in the recent years.[152][153]The increasing growth of population has resulted inreduction in forest coverfor agriculture, and other requirements such asfirewoodandtimber.[145]

Transportation

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Srinagar-Leh highway(NH1) connects theVale of KashmirwithLadakhin India.
Kalka-Shimla Railwayis one of the twoMountain Railways of Indiaoperating in the Himalayan region.

Mountain trails with crossovers at mountain passes were the earlier means of travel and communication within the Himalayas. Since the late 20th century, road construction began in the region, which enabled transportation with the mountain valleys from both the sides of the Himalayas.[145]TheKarakoram Highwayconnects thePakistan administered KashmirwithXin gian g regionin China in the northwestern part of the Himalayas.[154]TheHindustan-Tibet Road(NH 5) stretches from theIndo-Pakistan borderin the west to theIndia-China borderin the east, before crossing over to Tibet atShipka Pass.Other major roads in the western Himalayas include theManali-Leh HighwayconnectingHimachal PradeshwithLadakh,Srinagar-Leh highway(NH1) connecting theVale of Kashmirwith Ladakh throughKhardung pass,and theJammu–Srinagar Highway(NH 44) connectingKashmirwith rest of India through thePir Panjal Range.[145][155][156]

In the eastern part in Nepal, theEast-West Highwayruns along the entire country in the east-west direction along the lower Himalayas. TheKathmandu–Terai Expresswayconnects theKathmandu valleywithPokhara,theArniko HighwayconnectsKathmanduwith China through theKodari passand theTribhuvan Highwaylinks Kathmandu with theNH 28on the Indian side.[145][155][157]The Indian state ofSikkimis connected to Tiber via through mountain passes atJelep LaandNathu La.[158]Several motorable highways connect theNorth East Indianstates with the rest of India.[145][155]

The majority of the railway lines in the region are on the Indian side, operated byIndian Railways.[159]There are twonarrow gauge railwaymountain railway lines‐Darjeeling Himalayan RailwayinWest Bengalopened in 1881, andKalka-Shimla RailwayinHimachal Pradeshoperating since 1903.[160]There is a narrow gauge railway line betweenRaxaulin Indian state ofBiharandAmlekhganjin Nepal.[161]Other railway lines includeJammu–Baramulla linein the Indian Kashmir region andKangra Valley Railwayin theKumaon region.[145]

Multiple airstrips have been constructed on both the sides of the Himalayas for both civilian and military purposes. The major international airports in the Himalayas are theKathmandu airportin the Kathmandu valley andSrinagar airportin the Vale of Kashmir. There are several other airports and airstrips, which support regional and limited international flights.[145]These include some of the world's highest and dangerous airports such asTenzing-Hillary Airportin Nepal, andParo Airportin Bhutan.[162][163]Daulat Beg Oldiin Ladakh is the oldest airstrip in the world.[164]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Sovereignty over the range is contested in several places, most notably in theKashmir region.[1][2]
  2. ^Sanskrit:[ɦɪmaːlɐjɐ];fromSanskrithimá'snow, frost' andā-laya'dwelling, abode'),[3]

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Aitken, Bill,Footloose in the Himalaya,Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003.ISBN81-7824-052-1.
  • Berreman, Gerald Duane,Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change,2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
  • Edmundson, Henry,Tales from the Himalaya,Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019.ISBN978-9937-9330-3-2.
  • Fisher, James F.,Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal,1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990.ISBN0-520-06941-2.
  • Gansser, Augusto,Gruschke, Andreas,Olschak, Blanche C.,Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples,New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987.ISBN0-8160-1994-0and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
  • Hunt, John,Ascent of Everest,London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956.ISBN0-89886-361-9.
  • Isserman, Mauriceand Weaver, Stewart,Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes.Yale University Press, 2008.ISBN978-0-300-11501-7.
  • Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno,The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation.London / New York, Routledge, 1989.ISBN0-415-01157-4.
  • Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D.,The Himalaya, Aspects of Change.Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981.ISBN0-19-561254-X.
  • Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K.,Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya,Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
  • Swami Sundaranand,Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu.Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (2001).ISBN81-901326-0-1.
  • SwamiTapovan Maharaj,Wanderings in the Himalayas,English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
  • Tilman, H. W.,Mount Everest, 1938,Cambridge University Press, 1948.
  • Turner, Bethan, et al.Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity.Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.
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