Wikipedia

Himalayas

(Redirected fromHimalayan Mountains)
This article is about a mountain range. For other uses, seeHimalaya (disambiguation).

TheHimalayas,orHimalaya(/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə,hɪˈmɑːləjə/HIM-ə-LAY-ə, hih-MAH-lə-yə)[b]is amountain rangein Asia, separating theplainsof theIndian subcontinentfrom theTibetan Plateau.The range hasseveral peaksexceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) includingMount Everest,thehighest mountainon Earth. The mountain range runs for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) as an arc from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent.

The Himalayas
The arc of the Himalayas showing theeight-thousanders(in red);Indo-Gangetic Plain;Tibetan plateau;riversIndus,Ganges,andYarlung Tsangpo-Brahmaputra;and the two anchors of the range (in yellow)
Highest point
PeakMount Everest,Nepal/China
Elevation8,848.86 m (29,031.7 ft)
Coordinates27°59′N86°55′E/ 27.983°N 86.917°E/27.983; 86.917
Dimensions
Length2,400 km (1,500 mi)
Area595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi)
Geography
Map of the Himalayan-Hindu Kushregion
Countries
[a]
ContinentAsia
Geology
OrogenyAlpine orogeny
Rock ageCretaceoustoCenozoic
Rock types

The Himalayas occupy an area of 595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi) acrosssix countries–Afghanistan,Bhutan,China,India,Nepal,andPakistan.The sovereignty of the range in theKashmirregion is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. It is bordered by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the northwest, Tibetan Plateau in the north, and by theIndo-Gangetic Plainin the south. Its western anchorNanga Parbatlies south of the northernmost bend of theIndus riverand its eastern anchorNamcha Barwalies to the west of the great bend of theYarlung Tsangpo River.The Himalayas consists of four parallel mountain ranges: theSivalik Hillson the south; theLower Himalayas;theGreat Himalayas,which is the highest and central range; and theTibetan Himalayason the north. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east.

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges onEarthand is made up of upliftedsedimentaryandmetamorphicrocks. It was formedmore than 10myadue to thesubductionof theIndian tectonic platewith theEurasian Platealong theconvergent boundary.Due to the continuous movement of the Indian plate, the Himalayas keep rising every year, making them geologically andseismicallyactive. The mountains consist of largeglaciers,which are remnants of the lastice age,and give rise to some of theworld's major riverssuch as theIndus,Ganges,andTsangpo–Brahmaputra.Their combineddrainage basinis home to nearly 600 million people including 52.8 million living in the vicinity of the Himalayas. The region is also home to manyendorheiclakes.

The Himalayas have a major impact on the climate of the Indian subcontinent. It blocks the cold winds fromCentral Asia,and plays a significant roles in influencing themonsoons.The vast size, varying altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas result in a wide range of climates, fromhumidandsubtropicaltocold and dry desertconditions. The mountains have profoundly shaped the cultures ofSouth AsiaandTibet.Many Himalayan peaks are considered sacred across variousIndianandTibetanreligions such asHinduism,Buddhism,Jainism,andBon.Hence, the summits of several peaks in the region such asGangkhar Puensum,Machapuchare,andKailashhave been off-limits to climbers.

Etymology

edit

The name of the range is derived from theSanskritwordHimālay(हिमालय) meaning 'abode of snow'.[4][5][6]It is a combination of the wordshim(हिम) meaning 'frost/cold' andālay(आलय) meaning 'dwelling/house'.[7][8]The name of the range is mentioned asHimavat(Sanskrit:हिमवत्) in older literature such as theIndian epicMahabharata,which is the personification of the Hindu deityHimavan.[9]The mountain range is known asHimālayainHindiandNepali(both writtenहिमालय),[10]Himalaya(ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་) inTibetan,[11]Himāliya(سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ) inUrdu,[12]Himaloy(হিমালয়) inBengali,[13]andXimalaya(simplified Chinese:Himalayas;traditional Chinese:Himalayas;pinyin:Xǐmǎlāyǎ) inChinese.[14]It was mentioned asHimmalehin western literature such asEmily Dickinson's poetry andHenry David Thoreau's essays.[15][16]

Geography and topography

edit

Political map of the Himalayan region.
See also:List of Himalayan peaks and passesandHimalayan Rim

The Himalayas run as an arc for 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of theIndian subcontinent,separating theIndo-Gangetic Plainsfrom theTibetan Plateau.It is bordered by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the northwest, which extend intoCentral Asia.[1][17]Its western anchorNanga Parbatlies south of the northernmost bend of theIndus riverinPakistan-administered Kashmirand its eastern anchorNamcha Barwalies to the west of the great eastern bend of theYarlung Tsangpo RiverinTibet Autonomous RegionofChina.The Himalayas occupies an area of 595,000 km2(230,000 sq mi) acrosssix countries–Afghanistan,Bhutan,China,India,Nepal,andPakistan.The sovereignty of the range in the Kashmir region is disputed amongst India, Pakistan, and China. The range varies in width from 350 km (220 mi) in the north-west to 150 km (93 mi) in the south-east.[1][18]The range hasseveral peaksexceeding an elevation of 8,000 m (26,000 ft) includingMount Everest,thehighest mountainon Earth at 8,848 m (29,029 ft).[19]

Sub-ranges

edit
Geologic map showing the regions and major features of the Himalayas.

The Himalayas consist of four parallel mountain ranges from south to north: theSivalik Hillson the south; theLower Himalayas;theGreat Himalayas,which is the highest and central range; and theTibetan Himalayason the north.[20][21]

TheSivalik Hillsform the lowest sub-Himalayan range and extends for about 1,600 km (990 mi) from theTeesta Riverin the Indian state ofSikkimto northern Pakistan. The name derives fromSanskritmeaning "Belonging toShiva",which was originally used to denote the 320 km (200 mi) stretch fromHaridwarto theBeas River.The range is about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide on average and the elevation ranges from 900–1,200 m (3,000–3,900 ft). It rises along theIndo-Gangetic Plainand is often separated from the higher northern sub-ranges by valleys. The eastern portion of the range is calledChuria Rangein Nepal.[22][23]

TheLower or Lesser Himalaya(also known asHimachal) is the lower middle sub-section of the Himalayas. It extends almost along the entire length of the Himalayas and is about 75 km (47 mi) wide. It is mostly composed of rocky surfaces and has an average elevation of 3,700–4,500 m (12,100–14,800 ft).[22][24]TheGreater Himalayas(also known asHimadri) form the highest section of the Himalayas and extend for about 2,300 km (1,400 mi) from northern Pakistan to northernArunachal Pradeshin India. The sub-range has an average elevation of more than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and contains many of the world's tallest peaks, including Everest. It is mainly composed ofgraniterocks.[22][25]TheTibetan Himalayas(also known asTethys) form the northern most sub-range of the Himalayas inTibet.[21][26]

Divisions

edit
A view of theWestern Himalayas.

Longitudinally, the range is broadly divided into three regions–western,central,andeastern.[27]TheWestern Himalayasform the westernmost section of the range and extend for about 560 km (350 mi) from the bend of theIndus Riveralong the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region in the north-west to theSatlejriver basin in India in the south-east. Most of the region lies in the Kashmir territory disputed between India and Pakistan with certain portions of the Indian state ofHimachal Pradesh.The Indus forms the division between the Western Himalayas and the Karakoram range to the north. The Western Himalayas include theZanskar,Pir Panjal Ranges,and parts of the Sivalik and Great Himalayas. The western anchorNanga Parbatis the highest point in the region at 8,126 m (26,660 ft).[28]It is also referred Punjab, Kashmir or Himachal Himalyas from west to east locally.[27][29]

The central Himalayas orKumaonextend for about 320 km (200 mi) along the state ofUttarakhandinnorthern Indiafrom the Sutlej River in the east to theKali Riverin the west. The region comprises parts of Sivalik and Great Himalayas. At lower elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft), the region has atemperate climateand consists of permanent settlements. At elevations higher than 4,300 m (14,100 ft), permanent snow caps cover the Great Himalayas with the highest peaks beingNanda Deviat 7,817 m (25,646 ft) andKametat 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is also the source of major streams of theGangesriver system.[30]

Part of theEastern Himalayasshowing theeight-thousanders.

TheEastern Himalayasform the eastern most stretch of the range and consist of the states of parts of Tibet in China,Sikkim,Assam,Arunachal Pradesh,parts of otherNorth East Indianstates and northWest Bengalin India, entirety of Bhutan, mountain regions of central and eastern Nepal, and most of the western lowlands in Nepal.[31]The eastern Himalayas broadly consists of two regions–the western Nepal Himalayas and the eastern Assam Himalayas.[1][29]The Nepal Himalayas forms the centre of the Himalayan curve and extend for 800 km (500 mi) between the Kali andTeesta Rivers.The Great Himalayas in the region form the highest part of the entire Himalayas and consist of many of theeight-thousandersincluding Everest,Kanchenjungaat 8,586 m (28,169 ft), andMakaluat 8,463 m (27,766 ft). These mountains host large glaciers that form the source of various rivers of theGanges-Brahmaputrariver system. The high altitude regions are uninhabitable with few mountain passes inbetween that serve as crossovers with the human settlements in the lower valleys.[32]

TheAssam Himalayaforms the eastern most sub-section that extends eastward for 720 km (450 mi) from the Indian state of Sikkim through Bhutan and north-east India past theDihang Riverto the India-Tibet border. The highest peak is the eastern anchorNamcha Barwaat 7,756 m (25,446 ft). The region is the source of many of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and consists of major mountain passes such asNathu La,andJelep La.[33]Beyond the Dihang valley, the mountains extend as Purvanchal mountain range across the eastern boundary of India.[29]

Geology

edit
Main article:Geology of the Himalayas
The 6,000 km-plus journey of theIndia landmassbefore its collision with theEurasian Platemore than 10mya.

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists of upliftedsedimentaryandmetamorphic rock.According to the modern theory ofplate tectonics,it was formed as a result of acontinental collisionandorogenyalong theconvergent boundarybetween theIndiaandEurasian Plates.During theJurassic period(201 to 145mya), theTethys Oceanformed the southern border of then existent Eurasian landmass. When the super-continentGondwanabroke up nearly 180 mya, theIndo-Australian plateslowly drifted northwards towards Eurasia for 130-140 million years.[34]The Indian Plate broke up with theAustralian Plateabout 100 mya.[35]The Tethys ocean constricted as the Indian plate moved gradually upward. As both the plates were made ofcontinental crusts,which were less denser thanoceanic crusts,the increased compressive forces resulted infoldingof the underlying rock bed.[36]Thethrust faultscreated between the folds resulted ingraniteandbasaltrocks from theEarth's mantleprotruding through thecrust.During thepaleogeneperiod (about 50 mya), the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate after it completely closed the Tethys ocean gap.[34][37]

The Indian plate continued tosubductunder the Eurasian plate over the next 30 million years that resulted in the formation of theTibetan plateau.Duringmiocene(20 mya), the increasing collision between the plates resulted in the top layer of metamorphic rocks getting peeled, which moved southwards to formnappeswith trenches in between. As the mountains received rainfall, the waters flowing down the mountains eroded and steepened the southern slopes. The silt deposited by these rivers and streams in the trough between the Himalayas and theDeccan plateauformed theIndo-Gangetic Plain.About 0.6 mya in thepleistoceneperiod, the Himalayas rose higher and became the highest mountains on Earth. In the northernGreat Himalayas,newgneissand granite formations emerged on crystalline rocks that gave rise to the higher peaks.[34][38]

The summit ofMount Everestis made of unmetamorphosed marineordovicianlimestonewith fossiltrilobites,crinoids,andostracodsfrom the Tethys ocean.[39]The upliftment of the Himalayas occurred gradually and as the Great Himalayas became higher, they became a climatic barrier and blocked the winds, which resulted in lesser precipitation on the upper slopes. The lower slopes continued to be eroded by the rivers, which flowed in the gaps between the mountains and the folded lowerShivalik Hillsand theLesser Himalayaswere formed due to the downwarping of the intermediate lands. Minor streams ran between the faults within the mountains until they joined the major river systems in the plains. Intermediate valleys such asKashmirandKathmanduwere formed from temporary lakes that were formed duringpleistocene,which dried up later.[34][40]

the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the regionseismicallyactive.Earthquakesin the Himalayan region (1900-2016).

The Himalayan region is made up of five geological zones– the Sub-Himalayan Zone bound by theMain Frontal Thrustand theMain Boundary Thrust(MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and theMain Central Thrust(MCT); the Higher Himalayan Zone beyond the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate.[41]TheArakan Yomahighlands inMyanmarand theAndaman and Nicobar Islandsin theBay of Bengalwere also formed as a result of the same tectonic processes that formed the Himalayas.[42]The Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau at about 67 mm (2.6 in) per year, forcing it to continue to move upwards. About 20 mm (0.79 in) per year is absorbed bythrustingalong theHimalaya southern front,which leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm (0.20 in) per year.[43]This makes the Himalayan region geologically active and the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the regionseismicallyactive, leading to earthquakes from time to time.[44][45]

The northern slopes of the Himalayas have a thicker soil cover than the southern slopes due to presence of lesser number of rivers and streams. These soils areloamyand are dark brown in colour, and are covered with forests in the lowlands and grassland meadows in the mid altitudes. The composition and texture of the soils in the Himalayas also vary across regions. In theEastern Himalayas,the wet soils has a highhumuscontent conducive for growingtea.Podzolicsoils occur in the eastern range of theIndus basinbetween theIndusandShyok Rivers.TheLadakhregion is generally dry withsaline soilwhile fertilealluvial soilsoccur in select river valleys such as theKashmir valley.The higher elevations consist of rock fragements andlithosolswith very low humus content.[34]

Hydrology

edit

Glaciers

edit
IcefallonKhumbu Glacier

The Himalayas and the Central Asian mountain ranges consist of the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after theAntarcticandArcticregions.[46]It is often referred to as the "Third Pole" as it encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3(2,900 cu mi) of fresh water.[47][48]TheSouth ColandKhumbu Glacierin theMount Everestregion are amongst the world's highest glaciers.[49]TheGangotriwhich is 32 km (20 mi) long and is one of the largest glaciers, is one of the sources of theGanges.The Himalayan glaciers show considerable variation in the rate of descent. The Khumbu moves about 1 ft (0.30 m) daily compared to certain other glaciers which move about 6 ft (1.8 m) per day.[50]

During thelast ice age,there was a connected ice stream ofglaciersbetweenKangchenjungain the east andNanga Parbatin the west.[51]The glaciers joined with the ice stream network in theKarakoramin the west, the Tibetan inland ice in the north, and came to an end below an elevation of 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft) in the south. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most 20–32 km (12–20 mi) in length, several of the main valley glaciers were 60–112 km (37–70 mi) long during the ice age.[52][53]The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation andablationof a glacier are balanced) was about 1,400–1,660 m (4,590–5,450 ft) lower than it is today. Thus, the climate would have been at least 7.0–8.3 °C (12.6–14.9 °F) colder than it is today.[54]

Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate ofglacier retreatacross the region as a result of climate change.[55][56]The rate of retreat varies across regions depending on the local conditions. Since 1975, a marked increase in the loss of glacial mass from 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr has been observed with an estimated 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas.[47][57][58][59]The resulting climate variations and changes in hydrology could affect the livelihoods of the people in the Himalayas and the plains below.[60]

Rivers

edit
Confluence of theIndusandZanskar Riversin the Himalayas.

Despite its greater size, the Himalayas does not form awater divideacross its span because of the multiple river systems that cut across the range. While the mountains were formed gradually, the rivers concurrently cut across deeper gorges ranging from 1,500–5,000 m (4,900–16,400 ft) in depth and 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) in width. The actual water divide lies to the north of the Himalayas with rivers flowing down both the sides of the mountains. Some of the major river systems and their drainage system outdate the formation of the mountains itself. The water divide is formed by theKarakoramandHindu Kushranges on the west and theLadakh Rangeon the east, separating the Indus system from Central Asia. On the east,KailasandNyenchen Tanglha Mountainsseparate the Brahmaputra river system from the Tibetan rivers to the north. There are 19 major rivers in the Himalayas which form part of the two major river systems ofGanges-Brahmaputra,which follow an easterly course andIndus,which follows a north-westerly course.[50]

  • TheIndus Basinextends from the western section of the range and has a catchment area of nearly 450,000 km2(170,000 sq mi). The river rises nearLake Manasarovarin Tibet and flows westward joining theZanskarandShyok Rivers.The five major tributaries of Indus–Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas,andSutlejjoin the Indus in the Punjab region spread across India and Pakistan. These five rivers constitute a watershed area of about 132,000 km2(51,000 sq mi). The river system drains across the Himalayan region inKashmir,before spreading through thePunjab Plainsand later forms theIndus Deltanear the India-Pakistan border before joining theArabian sea.[61][62]
Bhagirathi,one of the head streams ofGangesatGangotri.
  • TheGanges-Brahmaputra Basinextends from the north-eastern part of the Himalayas till its eastern edge. The system has an average discharge of 30,770 m2(331,200 sq ft), which is the third greatest of the world's river systems and forms the largest alluvial deposits in the world with nearly 1.84 billion tonnes of silt deposited every year. The Ganges is formed by five head streams of which the major ones are theAlaknandaandBhagirathiarising atGangotriinUttarakhand.[63]Other Himalayan rivers that form the major tributaries of the Ganges includeYamuna,Ramganga,Ghaghara,Rapti,Gandaki,Bagmati,andKosi,which together drain about 218,000 km2(84,000 sq mi) of area. The Brahmaputra arises in the Tibetan region flowing eastwards before making a turn towards south into India. TheTeesta,Raidak,Manasform the major tributaries of the Brahmaputra and together drain 184,000 km2(71,000 sq mi) of catchment area.[50][64]The Ganges and Brahmaputra join together before forming theGanges-Brahmaputra Deltaspread across India and Bangladesh for nearly 60,000 km2(23,000 sq mi) is the largest in the world.[65]

The northern slopes ofGyala Periand the peaks beyond theTsangpodrain into theIrrawaddy River,which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south throughMyanmarto drain into theAndaman Sea.TheSalween,Mekong,Yangtze,andYellow Riversall originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau, north of the great water divide. These are considered distinct from the Himalayan watershed and are known as circum-Himalayan rivers.[66]

Lakes

edit
See also:List of Alpine lakes in India
Gurudongmar Lakein Sikkim

The Himalayan region has multiple lakes across various elevations includingendorheicfreshwaterandsaline lakes.The geology of the lakes vary across geographies depending on various factors such as altitude, climate, water source, andlithology.Tarnsare high altitude mountain lakes situated above 5,500 m (18,000 ft) and are formed primarily by the snow-melt of the glaciers. The lower altitude lakes are replenished by a combination of rains, underground springs, and streams. Large lakes in the Himalayan basin were formed in theholoceneperiod, when water pooled in the faults and the water supply was subsequently cut off.[67][68]

There are more than 4500 high altitude lakes of which about 12 large lakes contribute to more than 75% of the total lake area in the Indian Himalayas.[67]Pangong Lakespread across India and China is the highest saline lake in the world at an altitude of 4,350 m (14,270 ft) and amongst the largest in the region with a surface area of 700 km2(270 sq mi).[69]Spread across 189 km2(73 sq mi),Wular Lakeis amongst the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.[70]Other large lakes includeTso Moriri,andTso KarinLadakh,Nilnag,andTarsar Lake,inJammu and Kashmir,Gurudongmar,Chholhamu,andTsomgo LakesinSikkim,Tilicho,Rara,Phoksundo,andGokyo Lakesin Nepal.[67][71][72]Some of the Himalayan lakes present the danger of aglacial lake outburst floodas they have grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.[73]While these lakes support a range of ecosystems and local communities, many of them remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity.[67][74]

Climate

edit
Main article:Ecology of the Himalayas

Due to its location and size, the Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier which affects the weather conditions of theIndian subcontinentand the regions north of the range.[75]The mountains are spread across more than eight degrees oflatitudeand hence includes a wide range of climatic zones includingsub-tropical,temperate,andsemi-arid.The climate in a region is determined by factors such as altitude, latitude, and the impact on monsoon.[76]There are generally five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn or post-monsoon, winter, and spring.[77]The summer in April-May is followed by monsoon rains from June to September. The post monsoon season is largely devoid of rain and snow before beginning of cold winters in December-January with intermediate spring before the summer.[75]There are localised wind pressure systems at high altitudes resulting in heavy winds.[78]

Temperature

edit
Map showing various climatic zones in the Indian subcontinent.

Due to its high altitude, the range blocks the flow ofcold windsfrom the north into the Indian subcontinent.[75][79]This causes the tropical zone to extend farther north inSouth Asiathan anywhere else in the world. The temperatures are more pronounced in theBrahmaputra valleyin the eastern section as it lies at a lower latitude and due to thelatent heatof the forced air from theBay of Bengalwhichcondensesbefore moving past theNamcha Barwa,the eastern anchor of the Himalayas.[80][76]Due to this, the permanentsnow lineis among the highest in the world, at typically around 5,500 m (18,000 ft) while severalequatorialmountains such as inNew Guinea,theRwenzoris,andColombia,have a snow line at 900 m (3,000 ft) lower.[81][82]

As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. The temperature at a location is dependent on the season, orientation and bearing with respect to theSun,and themassof the mountain. As the Sun is the major contributor to the temperature, it is often directly proportional to the received radiation from the Sun with faces receiving more sunlight having a higher heat buildup. In narrow valleys between steep mountain faces, the weather conditions may differ significantly on both the margins. The mountains act asheat islandsand heavier mountains absorb and retain more heat than the surroundings, and therefore influences theamount of heatneeded to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum.[83]However, soil temperatures mostly remain the same on both the sides of a mountain at altitudes higher than 4,500 m (14,800 ft).[84]

Temperatures in the Himalayas reduce by 2 °C (36 °F) for every 300 m (980 ft) increase of altitude.[76][85]Higher altitudes invariably experience low temperatures. In the Eastern Himalayas,Darjeelingat an altitude of 1,945 m (6,381 ft) has an average minimum temperature of 11 °C (52 °F) during the month of May, while the same has been recorded as −22 °C (−8 °F) at an altitude of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on theEverest.At lower altitudes, the temperature is pleasantly warm during the summers. During winters, the low-pressure weather systems from the west cause heavysnowfall.[75]

Precipitation

edit
Map of India showing the onset of summer and winter monsoon.

There are two periods of precipitation with most of the rainfall occurring during the post summer season and moderate amount during the winter storms.[75]The Himalayan range obstructs the path of thesouth west monsoonwinds, causing heavy precipitation on the slopes and the plains below.[79]The effect of Himalayas on the hydroclimate impacts millions in the plains as the variability in monsoon rainfall is the main factor behind wet and dry years.[86][87]As the Himalayas force the monsoon winds to give up most of the moisture before ascending up, the winds became dry once its reaches the north of the mountains. This results in the dry and windycold desert climatein the Tibetan Himalayas and the plateau beyond.[75]It also played a role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as theTaklamakanandGobi.[88]

The monsoon is triggered by the different rates of heating and cooling between theIndian Oceanand Central Asia, which create large differences in theatmospheric pressureprevailing above each. As the Central Asian landmass heats up during the summer compared to the ocean below, the difference in pressure creates athermal low.The moist air from the ocean is pushed inwards towards the low pressure system causing the monsoon winds. It results in precipitation along the slopes due to theorographic effectas the air rises along the mountains and condenses.[78][89]The monsoon begins at the end of May in the eastern fringes of the range and moves upwards towards the west in June and July. There is heavy precipitation in the east which reduces progressively towards the west as the air becomes drier.Cherrapunjiin Eastern Himalayas is one of the wettest places on Earth with an annual precipitation of 428 in (10,900 mm).[90]

The average annual rainfall varies from 120 in (3,000 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas to about 120 in (3,000 mm) in theKumaonregion. The northern extremes of the Great Himalayas inKashmirandLadakhreceive only 3–6 in (76–152 mm) of rainfall per year.[75]During the winter season, a high pressure system develops over Central Asia, which results in winds flowing towards the Himalayas. However, due to the presence of less water bodies in the Central Asian region, the moisture content is low.[78]As the condensation occurs at higher altitudes in the north, there is more precipitation in the Great Himalayas in the west during the winter rains and the precipitation reduces towards the east. In January, the Kumaon region receives about 3 in (76 mm) of rainfall compared to about 1 in (25 mm) in the Eastern Himalayas.[75]

Climate change

edit
Loss of glacier mass in the Himalayas since the 20th century.

The Himalayan region has a highly sensitive ecosystem and is amongst the most affected regions due toclimate change.Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate ofglacier retreatand changes occurring at a far rapid rate.[55][56][91]As per a 2019 assessment, the Himalayan region, which had experienced a temperature rise of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade was warming at an increased rate of 0.1 °C (32.2 °F) per decade over the past half a century. The average warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade while the average cold days and nights had declined by 0.5 and 1 respectively. This has also prolonged the length of thegrowing seasonby 4.25 days per decade.[92]

The climate change might results in erratic rainfall, varying temperatures, and natural disasters likelandslides,andfloods.[93][94]The increasing glacier melt had been followed by an increase in the number ofglacial lakes,some of which may be prone to dangerous floods. The region is expected to encounter continued increase in average annual temperature and 81% of the region'spermafrostis projected to be lost by the end of the century.[95]The increased warming and melting of snow is projected to accelerate the regional river flows until 2060 after which it would decline due to reduction in ice caps and glacier mass. As the precipitation is projected to increase concurrently, the annual river flows would be largely unaffected for the Eastern Himalayan rivers fed by monsoons, but would reduce the flows in the Western Himalayan rivers.[96][97][98]

Glacial lakesinBhutanformed by increasing glacier melt, some of which may be prone to dangerous floods.

Almost a billion people live on either side of the mountain and are prone to impact of the climate change. This includes the people who live in the mountains, who are more vulnerable due to temperature variations and other biota.[91]Countries in the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan are amongst the most vulnerable countries in theGlobal Southdue to climate change.[99][100][101]The temperature rise increases the incidence oftropical diseasessuch asmalaria,anddenguefurther north. The extreme weather events might cause physical harm directly and indirectly due to lack of access and contamination ofdrinking water,pollution,exposure to chemicals, and destruction of crops, anddrought.[102][103][104]The climate change also impact the flora and fauna of the region. Changes might decrease the territory available for local wildlife and reduction inpreyfor thepredators.This puts the animals inconflict with humansas humans might encroach animal territories and the animals might venture into human habitats for search of food, which might exacerbate the economic loss of the local population.[105]

The Himalayan nations are signatories of theParis agreement,aimed atclimate change mitigationandadaptation.[106][107]The actions are aimed at reducingemissions,increase the usage ofrenewable energy,and sustainable environmental practices.[108]As the local population increasingly experience the impact of the changes in climate such as variations in temperature and precipitation, and change in vegetation, they are forced to adapt for the same. This has led to increased awareness on the impact of climate change, and adaptations such as change incrop cycles,introduction ofdrought resistantcrops, and plantation of new trees.[109]This has also led to the construction of moredams,canals,and other water structures, to prevent flooding and aid in agriculture. New plantations on barren lands to prevent landslides, and construction of fire lines made of litter and mud to preventforest fireshave been undertaken.[110][111]However, lack of funding, awareness, access to technology, and government policy are barriers for the same.[110]

Flora and fauna

edit

The Himalayan region belongs to theIndomalayan realm.[112]The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary broadly across regions depending on the climate and geology.[72]The Himalayas are home to multiplebiodiversityhotspots, and is home to an estimated 35,000+ species of plants and 200+ species of animals. An average of 35 new species have been found every year since 1998.[113]

Flora

edit
Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forestsinBhutan.
Himalayan shrub and meadowsinNepal.

There arefour typesof vegetation found in the regiontropical and subtropical,temperate,coniferous,andgrasslands.Tropical and subtropical broadleaf forestsare mostly constricted to the high temperature and humid regions inEastern and Central Himalayas,and pockets ofKashmirin the west. There are about 4,000 species ofAngiospermswith major vegetation includeDipterocarpus,andCeylon ironwoodon porous soils at elevations below 2,400 m (7,900 ft) andoak,andIndian horse chestnutonlithosolbetween 1,100–1,700 m (3,600–5,600 ft).Himalayan subtropical pine forestswithHimalayan screw pinetrees occur above 4,000 m (13,000 ft) andAlder,andbambooare found on terrains with higher gradient. Temperate forest occur at altitudes between 1,400–3,400 m (4,600–11,200 ft) while moving from south-east to north-west towards higher latitude.EasternandWestern Himalayan broadleaf forestsconsisting ofsal treesdominate the ecosystem.[114]

At higher altitudes,EasternandWestern Himalayan subalpine conifer forestsconsisting of variousconifersoccur.Chir pineis the dominant species which occurs at elevations from 800–900 m (2,600–3,000 ft). Other species includeDeodar cedar,which grows at altitudes of 1,900–2,700 m (6,200–8,900 ft),blue pineandmorinda sprucebetween 2,200–3,000 m (7,200–9,800 ft). At higher altitudes, alpine shrubs and meadows occur above the trees. TheEastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadowsextend between 3,200–4,200 m (10,500–13,800 ft) and theWestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadowsoccur at altitudes of 3,600–4,500 m (11,800–14,800 ft). Major vegetation includeJuniperus,Rhododendronon rocky terrain facing the Sun, various flowering plants at high elevations, andmosses,andlichensin humid, shaded areas.[114][115]

InterspersedGrasslandsoccur at certain regions, with thorns and semi-desert vegetation at low precipitation areas in the Western Himalayas.[114]The high altitude mountainous areas are mostly barren or, at the most, sparsely sprinkled with stunted bushes.[74]The Himalayas are home to various medicinal plants such asAbies pindrowused to treatbronchitis,Andrachne cordifoliaused forsnake bites,andCallicarpa arboreaused forskin diseases.Nearly a fifth of the plant species in the Himalayas are used for medicinal purposes.[116][117]Climate change,illegaldeforestation,and introduction of non native species have had an effect on the flora of the range. The increase in temperature has resulted in shifting of various species to higher elevations, and early flowering and fruiting.[118]

Fauna

edit
Snow leopard
Himalayan tahr

Many of the animal species are from the tropics, which have adapted to the various conditions across the Himalayan range. Some of the species of theEastern Himalayasare similar to those found inEastandSouth East Asia,while the animals of theWestern Himalayashas characteristics of species fromCentral AsiaandMediterraneanregion. Fossils of species such asgiraffe,andhippopotamushave been found in the foothills, suggesting the presence ofAfricanspecies some time ago. Largemammalssuch asIndian elephant,andIndian rhinocerosare confined to the densely forested moist ecosystems in the Eastern and Central Himalayas. Many of the animal species found in the region are unique and endemic or nearly endemic to the region.[119]

Other large animal species found in the Himalayas includeAsiatic black bear,clouded leopard,andherbivoressuch asbharal,Himalayan tahr,takin,Himalayan serow,Himalayan musk deer,andHimalayan goral.Animals found at higher altitudes includebrown bear,and the elusivesnow leopard,which mainly feed on bharal. Thered pandais found in the mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the Eastern Himalayas and theHimalayan water shreware found on the river banks. The forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangeredGee's golden langurand theKashmir gray langur,within highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. Theyaksare large domesticated cattle found in the region.[74][119]

More than 800 species of birds have been recorded with a large number of species restricted to the Eastern Himalayas. Amongst the bird species found includemagpiessuch asblack-rumped magpieandblue magpie,titmice,choughs,whistling thrushes,andredstarts.Raptorsincludebearded vulture,black-eared kite,andHimalayan griffon.Snow partridgeandCornish choughare found at altitudes above 5,700 m (18,700 ft).[119]The Himalayan lakes also serve as breeding grounds for species such asblack-necked craneandbar-headed goose.[67]There are multiple species ofreptilesincludingJapaluralizards,blind snakes,andinsectssuch asbutterflies.Severalfresh water fishsuch asGlyptothoraxare found in the Himalayan waters. The extremes of high altitude favor the presence ofextremophileorganisms, which include various species of insects such asspiders,andmites.[119][120]

Conservation

edit
Further information:Protected areas in India,Protected areas in Nepal,Protected areas in Pakistan,andProtected areas in Bhutan

The Himalayan fauna include endemic plants and animals andcritically endangeredor endangered species such as Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, musk deer andhangul.[119]There are more than 7,000 endemic plants and 1.9% of global endemic vertebrates in the region. As of 2022,there are 575 protected areas established by the nations in the Himalayan-Hindu Kush region, which account for 40% of the land area and 8.5% of the global protected area. There are also fourbiodiversity hotspots,12ecoregions,348 key biodiversity areas, and sixUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin the region.[121][122]

Demographics

edit

The Himalayan region with the associatedIndo-Gangetic PlainandTibetan plateauis home to more than a billion people.[91] In 2011, the population in the Himalayan region was estimated to be about 52.8 million with the combineddrainage basinof the Himalayan rivers home to nearly 600 million.[123][124]Of this, 7.96 million (15.1% of the total Himalayan population) live in Eastern Himalayas, 19.22 million in Central Himalayas (36.4%), and 25.59 million reside in Western Himalayas (48.5%). The population of the Himalayas has grown considerably over the last five decades from 19.9 million in 1961 with the annual growth rate (3.31%) more than three times higher than the world average (1.1%) during the same period.[123]

TheSilk Roadand connecting routes in the 1st century CE.

The earliest tribes in the Himalayas might have originated fromDravidian peoplefrom the south of the Indian subcontinent as evidenced by the presence ofDravidian languages.The major human migration towards the Himalayan region occurred in 2000 BCE whenAryanscame from Central Asia and progressively settled along the plains to the south. Information on the Aryan culture in the region is found inHindu literaturesuch as theVedas,andPuranas.Since the second century BCE, theSilk Roadin China was connected to the Indian subcontinent by various routes running along the Himalayan region. The northern side of the Himalayas was under the influence of various Tibetan kingdoms across history. In themiddle ages,the southern side came under the influence of variousRajputkings and later under theMughal rule.Nepal was ruled by various kingdoms from both the Indian and Tibetan regions, until it was conquered by theGurkha kingdomin the early 18th century. Most of the southern region came under theBritish influencein the 18th century till the independence of the constituent states in the mid 20th century.[125]

Ethnicity and languages

edit
Language familiesofSouth Asia.

The long history along with various outside influences have resulted in the mixture of various traditions and existence of wide range of ethnicity in the region. People speak various languages belonging to four principal language families–Indo-European,Tibeto-Burman,Austroasiatic,andDravidian,with the majority of the languages belonging to the first two categories. TheTibetan Himalayasare inhabited byTibetan people,who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. TheGreat Himalayasare mostly inhabited by nomadic groups and tribes, with most of the population inLesser Himalayas,andShivalik Hills.People towards the Great Himalayas in the north parts mostly speak Tibeto-Burman, while populations in the lower ranges on the southern slopes speak Indo-European languages.[126]

The inhabitants of the Western Himalayas include theKashmiri people,who speakKashmiriin theVale of Kashmirand theGujjarandGaddi people,who speakGujariandGaddirespectively in the lower altitudes ofJammuandHimachal Pradeshin India. The last two arepastoralandnomadicpeople, who own flocks of cattle and migrate across the slopes based on seasons. Various ethnic people such asLadakhi,Balti,andDardlive on the north of the Great Himalayas along theIndus basinin the Kashmir andLadakhregions spread across India, Pakistan, and China. The Dard speakDard,which is part of Indo-European languages, while the Balti and Lakadkhi people speakBalti,andLadakhi,which are part of Tibeto-Burman. In theKumaon regionin Himachal Pradesh andUttarakhandin India, Indo-European speakers such as theKanetand Khasi reside in the lower altitudes along with descendants of migrants from Tibet, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, in theKalpaandLahul-Spitiregions.[126][127]

In the Central Himalayas in Nepal, thePahari people,who speak an Indo-European languagePahari,form the majority. People of various ethnicity such asNewar,Tamang,Gurung,Magar,Sherpa,Bhutia,Lepcha,andKirat,who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, are spread across the mountainous regions of Nepal, Bhutan, and parts ofNorth East India.The Newar and Kirat peoples are largely from theKathmandu valley,and the Magars and Tamangs are spread across the region. The Gurung and Sherpa peoples live along the slopes ofAnnapurnaandEverestrespectively. The Lepcha people reside in Sikkim and western Bhutan while the Bhutia are found in eastern Bhutan. The Indian state ofArunachal Pradeshalong the eastern edge is home to various Tibeto-Burman speaking ethnic groups such asAbor,Aka,Apatani,Dafla,Khamti people,Khowa,Mishmi,Momba,Miri,andSingpho,who mostly practiceshifting cultivation.[126][127]

Culture and religion

edit
TheHarmukhmountain, north ofKashmir valley,is sacred inHinduism.

Himalayas have had a profound impact on the culture of the people in the region. The Himalayan region is occupied by people of various religions and several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in,Bon,Buddhism,Hinduism,Islam,Jainism,andSikhism.Hindusform the majority of the low highlands and plains inNorthern Indiaand Nepal. People in high altitude region ofLadakh,Bhutan, andNorth East Indiafollow Buddhism while Islam is dominant in the western region of the Himalayas and theKashmir valley.Tibetan religions are followed in the northern Himalayas and various ethnicities in North East India follow indigenous religions.[127]

For the Hindus, Himalaya is a personificationHimavat,the king of all mountains and the father of goddessParvati.[128]It is also considered to be the birthplace of goddessGanga,the personification of riverGanges.[129]It is considered as one of the 68 places hosting aSvayambhuform ofLingam,a form ofShiva.Himalaya is mentioned as the source of medicinal plants inAyurveda,and is the name of the one of the 84asanasinSiddha yoga.[130]Major Hindu pilgrimage centers include theChota Char Dham–Gangotri,Yamunotri,Badrinath,andKedarnath.[131][132]Thousands trek to theAmarnath TempleinSind Valley,where an icestalagmiteformation in theAmarnath Peakis revered as a form of Shiva.[133][134][135]Pashupatinathis a sacred site inShaivism.[136]Muktinathis considered sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists and is considered one of theShakta pithasand part ofChar Dham of Nepal.It housessaligramastones, considered to be an incarnation ofVishnuby Hindus and Gawo Jagpa by Buddhists.[137]

Taktsangmonastery inBhutan

For the Buddhists,Paro Taktsangis a religious site wherePadmasambhavais said to have established Buddhism in Bhutan.[138][139]A number ofVajrayana Buddhistsites andmonasteriesare situated in the Himalayas.[140][141]In Jainism, Mount Ashtapada of the Himalayan mountain range is a sacred place whereRishabhanatha,the first Jaintirthankara,attainedliberation.It is believed that after Rishabhanatha attainednirvana,his sonBharataconstructed three stupas and 24 shrines of theTirthankaraswith their idols in the Himalayas.[142][143]

The Himalayan people's diversity shows through their architecture, their languages, and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, and clothing. The shapes and materials of the people's homes reflect their practical needs and beliefs. The handwoven textiles of the region display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Some Himalayan ethnicities give great importance to jewelry such as theRaiandLimbu,where women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewelry.[144]

Economy

edit
Terrace farmingin the foothills.

The Himalayas contributes to the economy of the hilly region and the plains below. As the range stretches across various ecological zones, the economy of various regions of the Himalayas depends on the availability of resources. The Himalayan mountain range and its associated forests have extensive natural resources.[145]The fertilealluviumdeposited by the Himalayan rivers have contributed to some the most fertile and arable lands. [146]Fruitssuch asapple,pear,peach,cherry,andgrapeare grown in fertile river valleys and lake beds. The climate also supports extensive cultivation of nuts such aswalnut,andalmond.Teaandspicesare grown on the hills of Eastern Himalayas, which has the conducive climate and soil. The forests provide various natural resources, which form the livelihood of various ethnic tribes in the region.[145][116]

Nainital,ahill stationin the Lower Himalayas.

Due to the higher rate of flow of the Himalayan rivers, they have been dammed at multiple places for development ofirrigationfacilities and generation ofhydroelectricity.Many of the nomadic and pastoral tribes rearlivestockalong the ranges of the Himalayas. They migrate to higher altitudes forgrazingduring the post spring season, when new pastures form and return to lower altitudes during the winters. The region is also rich in minerals, thought access has been an issue. In the Western Himalays,coalis found inJammu region,bauxite,copper,andiron oreinKashmir valley,boraxandsulfurinLadakh,andsemi precious stonessuch assapphireinZanskar range.The Eastern Himalayas consist of deposits ofgypsum,mica,graphite,coal,and various metal ores.[145]

There are a number ofhill stationsand religious centers on the lower ranges of the Himalayas and hencetourismis an important economic activity in the region.[147][148]Due to the presence of major peaks,mountaineeringhas become a major source of income and employment in the Central Himalayan region. However, the increased inflow of tourists and the associated infrastructure projects have resulted in pressure on the fragile ecosystem and depletion of the natural resources.[149][150][151]Sustainable tourismhas been mooted as an alternative in the recent years.[152][153]The increasing growth of population has resulted inreduction in forest coverfor agriculture, and other requirements such asfirewoodandtimber.[145]

Transportation

edit
Srinagar-Leh highway(NH1) connects theVale of KashmirwithLadakhin India.
Kalka-Shimla Railwayis one of the twoMountain Railways of Indiaoperating in the Himalayan region.

Mountain trails with crossovers at mountain passes were the earlier means of travel and communication within the Himalayas. Since the late 20th century, road construction began in the region, which enabled transportation with the mountain valleys from both the sides of the Himalayas.[145]TheKarakoram Highwayconnects thePakistan administered KashmirwithXin gian g regionin China in the northwestern part of the Himalayas.[154]TheHindustan-Tibet Road(NH 5) stretches from theIndo-Pakistan borderin the west to theIndia-China borderin the east, before crossing over to Tibet atShipka Pass.Other major roads in the western Himalayas include theManali-Leh HighwayconnectingHimachal PradeshwithLadakh,Srinagar-Leh highway(NH1) connecting theVale of Kashmirwith Ladakh throughKhardung pass,and theJammu–Srinagar Highway(NH 44) connectingKashmirwith rest of India through thePir Panjal Range.[145][155][156]

In the eastern part in Nepal, theEast-West Highwayruns along the entire country in the east-west direction along the lower Himalayas. TheKathmandu–Terai Expresswayconnects theKathmandu valleywithPokhara,theArniko HighwayconnectsKathmanduwith China through theKodari passand theTribhuvan Highwaylinks Kathmandu with theNH 28on the Indian side.[145][155][157]The Indian state ofSikkimis connected to Tiber via through mountain passes atJelep LaandNathu La.[158]Several motorable highways connect theNorth East Indianstates with the rest of India.[145][155]

The majority of the railway lines in the region are on the Indian side, operated byIndian Railways.[159]There are twonarrow gauge railwaymountain railway lines–Darjeeling Himalayan RailwayinWest Bengalopened in 1881, andKalka-Shimla RailwayinHimachal Pradeshoperating since 1903.[160]There is a narrow gauge railway line betweenRaxaulin Indian state ofBiharandAmlekhganjin Nepal.[161]Other railway lines includeJammu–Baramulla linein the Indian Kashmir region andKangra Valley Railwayin theKumaon region.[145]

Multiple airstrips have been constructed on both the sides of the Himalayas for both civilian and military purposes. The major international airports in the Himalayas are theKathmandu airportin the Kathmandu valley andSrinagar airportin the Vale of Kashmir. There are several other airports and airstrips, which support regional and limited international flights.[145]These include some of the world's highest and dangerous airports such asTenzing-Hillary Airportin Nepal, andParo Airportin Bhutan.[162][163]Daulat Beg Oldiin Ladakh is the oldest airstrip in the world.[164]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^Sovereignty over the range is contested in several places, most notably in theKashmir region.[1][2]
  2. ^Sanskrit:[ɦɪmaːlɐjɐ];fromSanskrithimá'snow, frost' andā-laya'dwelling, abode'),[3]

References

edit
  1. ^abcdBishop, Barry;Chatterjee, Shiba."Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 29 April 2015.Retrieved10 November2024.
  2. ^Zurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 8-12.
  3. ^"Himalayan".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.Retrieved1 June2021.Etymology: <Himālaya(Sanskrit <himasnow +ālayadwelling, abode) + -an suffix)(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
  4. ^"BEN Cologne Scan".Sanskrit-lexicon.p. 1115.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2022.Retrieved27 March2022.
  5. ^H.H. Wilson (1832)."WIL Cologne Scan".Sanskrit-lexicon.p. 976.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2022.Retrieved27 March2022.
  6. ^"Himālay".Sanskrit-lexicon.p. 1299.Retrieved27 March2022.
  7. ^"Him".Sanskrit-lexicon.p. 1298.Retrieved27 March2022.
  8. ^H.H. Wilson (1832)."Alaya, a dictionary in Sanskrit and English".Sanskrit-lexicon.p. 121.Archivedfrom the original on 6 October 2022.Retrieved27 March2022.
  9. ^Roshen Dalal(2014).Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.Penguin Books.ISBN978-8-184-75277-9.
  10. ^"Nepali-English Dictionary"(PDF).Nepal Research.p. 56.Retrieved1 June2024.
  11. ^"Translation of ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ into English".Glosbe.Archivedfrom the original on 11 November 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  12. ^"Himaliya death zone".BBC News(in Urdu). 26 June 2024.Archivedfrom the original on 26 June 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  13. ^"হিমালয় in English".English-Bangla.Archivedfrom the original on 11 November 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  14. ^"Ximalaya".Reverso.Retrieved1 June2024.
  15. ^Dickinson, Emily,The Himmaleh was known to stoop.
  16. ^Thoreau, Henry David(1849),A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers.
  17. ^Wadia, D. N. (1931). "The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny".Geological Survey of India.65(2): 189–220.
  18. ^A.B.Roy; Ritesh Purohit (2018). "The Himalayas: Evolution Through Collision".Indian Shield: Precambrian Evolution and Phanerozoic Reconstitution.Elsevier.pp. 311–327.ISBN978-0-128-09839-4.
  19. ^"The Eight-Thousanders Of The Himalayas And The Karakoram".World Atlas.16 August 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  20. ^S. Sathyakumar; Mansi Mungee; Ranjana Pal (2020). "Biogeography of the Mountain Ranges of South Asia".Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes.Elsevier.pp. 543–554.ISBN978-0-124-09548-9.
  21. ^ab"Physiography of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 13 September 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  22. ^abcNag & Sengupta 1992,p. 40.
  23. ^"Siwalik".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 23 June 2024.Retrieved10 November2024.
  24. ^"Lesser Himalayas".Britannica.Retrieved10 November2024.
  25. ^"Great Himalayas".Britannica.Retrieved10 November2024.
  26. ^Dubey, A.K. (2014). "The Tethys Himalaya".Understanding an Orogenic Belt.Springer Geology.pp. 345–352.ISBN978-3-319-05588-6.
  27. ^abNag & Sengupta 1992,p. 42.
  28. ^"Western Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 28 December 2017.Retrieved10 November2024.
  29. ^abc"Geographical Divisions of India"(PDF).NCERT.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 November 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  30. ^"Western Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2016.Retrieved10 November2024.
  31. ^Eastern Himalayas(PDF).World Wide Fund for Nature(Report). February 2005. p. 2.Retrieved1 June2024.
  32. ^"Nepal Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 12 October 2017.Retrieved10 November2024.
  33. ^"Assam Himalayas".Britannica.Retrieved10 November2024.
  34. ^abcde"Physical features".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 30 March 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  35. ^"Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two".Columbia University.7 July 1995.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2017.Retrieved1 June2024.
  36. ^Davies 2022,p. 81.
  37. ^"The Himalayas: Two continents collide".USGS.5 May 1999.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2020.Retrieved3 January2015.
  38. ^Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011,p. 209.
  39. ^Sakai, Harutaka; Sawada, Minoru; Takigami, Yutaka; Orihashi, Yuji; Danhara, Tohru; Iwano, Hideki; Kuwahara, Yoshihiro; Dong, Qi; Cai, Huawei; Li, Jianguo (December 2005)."Geology of the summit limestone of Mount Qomolangma (Everest) and cooling history of the Yellow Band under the Qomolangma detachment".The Island Arc.14(4): 297–310.Bibcode:2005IsArc..14..297S.doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x.ISSN1038-4871.S2CID140603614.Archivedfrom the original on 9 March 2023.Retrieved9 March2023.
  40. ^Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011,p. 211.
  41. ^Chakrabarti 2016,pp. 5–9.
  42. ^Garzanti, Eduardo; Limonta, Mara; Resentini, Alberto; Bandopadhyay, Pinaki C.; Najman, Yani; Andò, Sergio; Vezzoli, Giovanni (1 August 2013)."Sediment recycling at convergent plate margins (Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman–Nicobar Ridge)".Earth-Science Reviews.123:113–132.Bibcode:2013ESRv..123..113G.doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.04.008.ISSN0012-8252.
  43. ^"Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas".The Geological Society.Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2016.Retrieved13 September2016.
  44. ^Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011,p. 11.
  45. ^"Devastating earthquakes are priming the Himalaya for a mega-disaster".National Geographic.17 January 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2024.Retrieved28 March2024.
  46. ^"The Himalayas – Himalayas Facts".PBS.11 February 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 30 November 2014.Retrieved21 January2014.
  47. ^abKulkarni, Anil V.; Karyakarte, Yogesh (2014)."Observed changes in Himalayan Glaciers".Current Science.106(2): 237–244.JSTOR24099804.Archivedfrom the original on 20 March 2023.Retrieved20 March2023.
  48. ^"The Himalayan Glaciers, Fourth assessment report on climate change".IPCC.2007.Archivedfrom the original on 20 January 2010.Retrieved22 January2014.
  49. ^Potocki, Mariusz; Mayewski, Paul Andrew; Matthews, Tom; Perry, L. Baker; Schwikowski, Margit; Tait, Alexander M.; Korotkikh, Elena; Clifford, Heather; Kang, Shichang; Sherpa, Tenzing Chogyal; Singh, Praveen Kumar; Koch, Inka; Birkel, Sean (2022)."Mt. Everest's highest glacier is a sentinel for accelerating ice loss".Nature.5(1): 1–8.doi:10.1038/s41612-022-00230-0.Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2022.Retrieved1 June2024.
  50. ^abc"Himalayas, Drainage".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 29 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  51. ^"Glacier maps".Elsevier.Archivedfrom the original on 6 June 2013.Retrieved1 June2024.
  52. ^Kuhle, M. (2011). "The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.; Hughes, P.D. (eds.).Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look.Amsterdam:ElsevierBV. pp. 943–965.
  53. ^Kuhle, M. (1987). "Subtropical mountain- and highland-glaciation as ice age triggers and the waning of the glacial periods in the Pleistocene".GeoJournal.14(4): 393–421.Bibcode:1987GeoJo..14..393M.doi:10.1007/BF02602717.S2CID129366521.
  54. ^Kuhle, M. (2005). "The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya – a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal) including information on late-glacial-, neoglacial-, and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages".GeoJournal.62(3–4): 193–650.doi:10.1007/s10708-005-2338-6.
  55. ^abLee, Ethan; Carrivick, Jonathan L.; Quincey, Duncan J.; Cook, Simon J.; James, William H. M.; Brown, Lee E. (20 December 2021)."Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age".Scientific Reports.11(1): 24284.Bibcode:2021NatSR..1124284L.doi:10.1038/s41598-021-03805-8.ISSN2045-2322.PMC8688493.PMID34931039.
  56. ^ab"Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion".Reuters.4 June 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2018.Retrieved13 March2018.
  57. ^Kaushik, Saurabh; Rafiq, Mohammd; Joshi, P.K.; Singh, Tejpal (April 2020). "Examining the glacial lake dynamics in a warming climate and GLOF modelling in parts of Chandra basin, Himachal Pradesh, India".Science of the Total Environment.714:136455.Bibcode:2020ScTEn.71436455K.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136455.PMID31986382.S2CID210933887.
  58. ^Rafiq, Mohammd; Romshoo, Shakil Ahmad; Mishra, Anoop Kumar; Jalal, Faizan (January 2019)."Modelling Chorabari Lake outburst flood, Kedarnath, India".Journal of Mountain Science.16(1): 64–76.Bibcode:2019JMouS..16...64R.doi:10.1007/s11629-018-4972-8.ISSN1672-6316.S2CID134015944.
  59. ^"Glaciers melting at alarming speed".People's Daily Online.24 July 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 11 October 2017.Retrieved17 April2009.
  60. ^Himalayan Glaciers: Climate Change, Water Resources, and Water Security.Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 2012.doi:10.17226/13449.ISBN978-0-309-26098-5.
  61. ^Shrestha, AB; Agrawal, NK; Alfthan, B; Bajracharya, SR; Maréchal, J; van Oort, B, eds. (2015).The Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in Five of Asia's Major River Basins.ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal and CICERO. p. 58.ISBN978-9-291-15357-2.Archivedfrom the original on 17 August 2024.Retrieved15 November2024.
  62. ^"Indus River".Britannica.Retrieved1 June2024.
  63. ^"Ganges River".Britannica.Retrieved1 June2024.
  64. ^"Brahmaputra River".Britannica.Retrieved1 June2024.
  65. ^"Sunderbans the world's largest delta".Gits4u.Archived fromthe originalon 3 January 2015.Retrieved3 January2015.
  66. ^Gaillardet, J.; Métivier, F.; Lemarchand, D.; Dupré, B.; Allègre, C.J.; Li, W.; Zhao, J. (2003)."Geochemistry of the Suspended Sediments of Circum-Himalayan Rivers and Weathering Budgets over the Last 50 Myrs"(PDF).Geophysical Research Abstracts.5:13,617.Bibcode:2003EAEJA....13617G.Abstract 13617.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved4 November2006.
  67. ^abcdeHigh Altitude Himalayan Lakes(PDF)(Report).Indian Space Research Organisation.January 2011.Retrieved1 June2024.
  68. ^Drews, Carl."Highest Lake in the World".Archived fromthe originalon 18 August 2012.Retrieved14 November2010.
  69. ^"Pangong".Government of Ladakh.Archivedfrom the original on 24 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  70. ^"Wular Lake".Global nature.Retrieved1 June2024.
  71. ^Waterbodies of Jammu and Kashmir(PDF)(Report).Government of Jammu and Kashmir.Archived(PDF)from the original on 29 June 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  72. ^abO'Neill, A. R. (2019)."Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas".Global Ecology and Conservation.20(e00715): 19.doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715.
  73. ^"Tsho Rolpa".Rolwaling.Archivedfrom the original on 20 June 2017.Retrieved1 June2024.
  74. ^abcO'Neill, Alexander; et al. (25 February 2020). "Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland".Wetlands Ecology & Management.28(2): 375–388.Bibcode:2020WetEM..28..375O.doi:10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7.S2CID211081106.
  75. ^abcdefgh"Climate of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  76. ^abcZurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 50.
  77. ^"Weather & Season Info of Nepal".Classic Himalaya.Retrieved28 March2024.
  78. ^abcZurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 52.
  79. ^abBarry 2008,p. 70.
  80. ^Barry 2008,p. 36.
  81. ^Shi, Yafeng; Xie, Zizhu; Zheng, Ben xing; Li, Qichun (1978)."Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China"(PDF).World Glacier Inventory.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 April 2013.
  82. ^Henderson-Sellers, Ann; McGuffie, Kendal (2012).The Future of the World's Climate: A Modelling Perspective.Elsevier.pp. 199–201.ISBN978-0-12-386917-3.
  83. ^Zurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 51.
  84. ^Barry 2008,p. 59.
  85. ^Romshoo, Shakil Ahmad; Rafiq, Mohammd; Rashid, Irfan (March 2018)."Spatio-temporal variation of land surface temperature and temperature lapse rate over mountainous Kashmir Himalaya".Journal of Mountain Science.15(3): 563–576.Bibcode:2018JMouS..15..563R.doi:10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x.ISSN1672-6316.S2CID134568990.
  86. ^Kad, Pratik; Ha, Kyung-Ja (27 November 2023)."Recent Tangible Natural Variability of Monsoonal Orographic Rainfall in the Eastern Himalayas".Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres.128(22). AGU.Bibcode:2023JGRD..12838759K.doi:10.1029/2023JD038759.
  87. ^Kad, Pratik; Ha, Kyung-Ja (27 November 2023)."Recent Tangible Natural Variability of Monsoonal Orographic Rainfall in the Eastern Himalayas".Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres.128(22). AGU.Bibcode:2023JGRD..12838759K.doi:10.1029/2023JD038759.
  88. ^Devitt, Terry (3 May 2001)."Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau".University of Wisconsin–Madison News.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2016.Retrieved1 November2011.
  89. ^Clift & Plumb 2008,p. 14-21.
  90. ^Zurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 54.
  91. ^abc"Climate Change".World Wide Fund for Nature.Retrieved1 June2024.
  92. ^Wester, Philippus; Mishra, Arabinda; Mukherji, Aditi; Shrestha, Arun Bhakta, eds. (2019).The Hindu Kush Himalya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People.Springer Nature.ISBN978-3-319-92287-4.LCCN2018954855.
  93. ^Gentle, Popular; Thwaites, Rik; Race, Digby; Alexander, Kim (November 2014). "Differential impacts of climate change on communities in the middle hills region of Nepal".Natural Hazards.74(2): 815–836.Bibcode:2014NatHa..74..815G.doi:10.1007/s11069-014-1218-0.hdl:1885/66271.S2CID129787080.
  94. ^"Climate Change Policy, 2011"(PDF).Government of Nepal.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 April 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  95. ^Krishnan, Raghavan; Shrestha, Arun Bhakta; Ren, Guoyu; Rajbhandari, Rupak; Saeed, Sajjad; Sanjay, Jayanarayanan; Syed, Md. Abu.; Vellore, Ramesh; Xu, Ying; You, Qinglong; Ren, Yuyu (2019)."Unravelling Climate Change in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: Rapid Warming in the Mountains and Increasing Extremes".The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment.Springer Nature.pp. 57–97.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3.ISBN978-3-319-92287-4.S2CID134572569.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2024.Retrieved13 November2024.
  96. ^Damian Carrington (4 February 2019)."A third of Himalayan ice cap doomed, finds report".The Guardian.Retrieved20 October2022.
  97. ^Bolch, Tobias; Shea, Joseph M.; Liu, Shiyin; Azam, Farooq M.; Gao, Yang; Gruber, Stephan; Immerzeel, Walter W.; Kulkarni, Anil; Li, Huilin; Tahir, Adnan A.; Zhang, Guoqing; Zhang, Yinsheng (5 January 2019)."Status and Change of the Cryosphere in the Extended Hindu Kush Himalaya Region".The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment.Springer Nature.pp. 209–255.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_7.ISBN978-3-319-92287-4.S2CID134814572.Archivedfrom the original on 28 September 2024.Retrieved13 November2024.
  98. ^Scott, Christopher A.; Zhang, Fan; Mukherji, Aditi; Immerzeel, Walter; Mustafa, Daanish; Bharati, Luna (5 January 2019)."Water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya".The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment.Springer Nature.pp. 257–299.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8.ISBN978-3-319-92287-4.S2CID133800578.
  99. ^"Countries most affected by climate change".World Food Program.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  100. ^Almulhim, Abdulaziz I.; Alverio, Gabriela Nagle; Sharifi, Ayyoob; Shaw, Rajib; Huq, Saleemul; Mahmud, Md Juel; Ahmad, Shakil; Abubakar, Ismaila Rimi (14 June 2024)."Climate-induced migration in the Global South: an in depth analysis".Nature Partner Journals.3:47.Bibcode:2024npjCA...3...47A.doi:10.1038/s44168-024-00133-1.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  101. ^Agrawal, A; Perrin, N (2008).Climate adaptation, local institutions and rural livelihoods.University of Michigan.pp. 350–367.
  102. ^Devkota, Fidel (1 August 2013)."Climate Change and its socio-cultural impact in the Himalayan region of Nepal – A Visual Documentation".Anthrovision. Vaneasa Online Journal.1(2).doi:10.4000/anthrovision.589.Archivedfrom the original on 16 December 2023.Retrieved16 December2023.
  103. ^Rublee, Caitlin; Bhatta, Bishnu; Tiwari, Suresh; Pant, Suman (29 November 2023)."Three Climate and Health Lessons from Nepal Ahead of COP28".NAM Perspectives.11(29).doi:10.31478/202311f.PMC11114597.PMID38784635.S2CID265597908.
  104. ^Berstrand, s."Fact Sheet | Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021) | White Papers | EESI".EESI.Archivedfrom the original on 31 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  105. ^Oli, Madan K.; Taylor, Iain R.; Rogers, M. Elizabeth (1 January 1994). "Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: An assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal".Biological Conservation.68(1): 63–68.Bibcode:1994BCons..68...63O.doi:10.1016/0006-3207(94)90547-9.
  106. ^"Paris climate deal: US and China formally join pact".BBC News.3 September 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 2 January 2018.Retrieved4 September2016.
  107. ^"India Ratifies Landmark Paris Climate Deal, Says, 'Kept Our Promise'".NDTV.Archivedfrom the original on 3 October 2016.Retrieved2 October2016.
  108. ^"Nepal".Climate Action Tracker.Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  109. ^Das, Suraj; Mishra, Anindya Jayanta (1 March 2023)."Climate change and the Western Himalayan community: Exploring the local perspective through food choices".Ambio.52(3): 534–545.Bibcode:2023Ambio..52..534D.doi:10.1007/s13280-022-01810-3.PMC9735043.PMID36480087.
  110. ^abDhungana, Nabin; Silwal, Nisha; Upadhaya, Suraj; Khadka, Chiranjeewee; Regmi, Sunil Kumar; Joshi, Dipesh; Adhikari, Samjhana (1 June 2020). "Rural coping and adaptation strategies for climate change by Himalayan communities in Nepal".Journal of Mountain Science.17(6): 1462–1474.Bibcode:2020JMouS..17.1462D.doi:10.1007/s11629-019-5616-3.S2CID219281555.
  111. ^BMP."Fire Lines and Lanes"(PDF).BMP No. 12, Fire Lines and Lanes.
  112. ^"Indomalayan realm".Biology Online.7 October 2019. Archived fromthe originalon 6 October 2022.Retrieved29 August2021.
  113. ^Wester, Philippus; Mishra, Arabinda; Mukherji, Aditi; Shrestha, Arun Bhakta (2019).The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1.ISBN978-3-319-92288-1.S2CID199491088.Archivedfrom the original on 9 March 2021.Retrieved11 November2024.
  114. ^abc"Plant life of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  115. ^Miehe, Georg; Miehe, Sabine; Vogel, Jonas; Co, Sonam; Duo, La (May 2007)."Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet"(PDF).Mountain Research and Development.27(2): 169–173.doi:10.1659/mrd.0792.hdl:1956/2482.S2CID6061587.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 June 2013.
  116. ^abJahangeer A. Bhat; Munesh Kumar; Rainer W. Bussmann (2 January 2013)."Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India".Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.9(1): 1.doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-1.PMC3560114.PMID23281594.
  117. ^Gupta, Pankaj; Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2014).Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas.Springer Nature.ISBN978-81-322-1925-5.
  118. ^"Himalayan Forests Disappearing".Earth Island Journal.21(4): 7–8. 2006.
  119. ^abcde"Animal life of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  120. ^Hogan, C. Michael (2010). Monosson, E. (ed.)."Extremophile".Encyclopedia of Earth.Washington, DC: National Council for Science and the Environment.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2019.Retrieved13 March2018.
  121. ^Sunita Chaudhary; Kabir Uddin; Nakul Chettri; Rajesh Thapa; Eklabya Sharma (17 August 2022)."Protected areas in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A regional assessment of the status, distribution, and gaps".Society for Conservation Biology.4(10).Bibcode:2022ConSP...4E2793C.doi:10.1111/csp2.12793.Archivedfrom the original on 23 August 2022.Retrieved13 November2024.
  122. ^Nieves López Isquierdo."Protected areas and biodiversity hotspot areas in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region".Grida.Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2022.Retrieved1 August2022.
  123. ^abApollo, M. (2017). "Chapter 9: The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future". In Efe, R.; Öztürk, M. (eds.).Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.pp. 143–159.
  124. ^A.P. Dimri; B. Bookhagen; M. Stoffel; T. Yasunari (8 November 2019).Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment.Springer Science.p. 380.ISBN978-3-030-29684-1.
  125. ^Zurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 70-71.
  126. ^abc"People of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 1 November 2019.Retrieved1 June2024.
  127. ^abcZurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 76-78.
  128. ^Gupta, Pankaj; Sharma, Vijay Kumar (2014).Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas.Springer Science.ISBN978-8-132-21925-5.
  129. ^Dallapiccola, Anna (2002).Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend.National Geographic.ISBN978-0-500-51088-9.
  130. ^"Himalaya".Wisdom library.Archivedfrom the original on 25 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  131. ^"Char Dham Yatra".Government of Uttarakhand.Archived fromthe originalon 12 May 2009.Retrieved1 June2024.
  132. ^Jahangeer A. Bhat; Munesh Kumar; Rainer W. Bussmann (2 January 2013)."Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India".Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine.9(1): 1.doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-1.PMC3560114.PMID23281594.
  133. ^"New shrine on Amarnath route".The Hindu.Chennai, India. PTI. 30 May 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 18 June 2007.Retrieved15 November2006.
  134. ^"The pilgrimage to Amarnath".BBC News.6 August 2002.Archivedfrom the original on 6 January 2012.Retrieved5 May2012.
  135. ^Shankar, Ravi (26 September 2021)."Motherlodes of Power: The story of India's 'Shakti Peethas'".The New Indian Express.Archivedfrom the original on 26 September 2021.Retrieved28 December2021.
  136. ^Dubey, Yashika (21 December 2023)."Pashupatinath Temple: The Celestial Abode of Lord Shiva in Nepal".Amar Granth.Retrieved1 June2024.
  137. ^"Nepal's Top Pilgrimage and Holy Sites – The Abode of Spirituality".Nepali Sansar.30 March 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 17 November 2020.Retrieved1 June2020.]
  138. ^Pommaret, Francoise (2006).Bhutan Himalayan Mountains Kingdom(5th ed.). Odyssey Books. pp. 136–137.ISBN978-962-217-810-6.
  139. ^Cantor, Kimberly (14 July 2016)."Paro, Bhutan: The Tiger's Nest".The Huffington Post.Archivedfrom the original on 15 July 2016.Retrieved9 June2018.
  140. ^"Tibetan monks: A controlled life".BBC News.20 March 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 18 February 2009.Retrieved26 February2009.
  141. ^Mehra, P. L. (1960)."Lacunae in the Study of the History of Bhutan and Sikkim".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.23:190–201.ISSN2249-1937.JSTOR44137539.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2024.Retrieved28 March2024.
  142. ^Jain, Arun Kumar (2009).Faith & Philosophy of Jainism.Gyan Publishing House.ISBN978-8-17835-723-2.
  143. ^"To heaven and back".The Times of India.11 January 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 7 July 2012.Retrieved2 March2012.
  144. ^Zurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 79.
  145. ^abcdefghij"Economy of Himalayas".Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  146. ^"Indo Gangetic Plain"(PDF).University Grants Commission.Retrieved1 June2024.
  147. ^Howard, Christopher A (2016).Mobile Lifeworlds: An Ethnography of Tourism and Pilgrimage in the Himalayas.New York:Routledge.doi:10.4324/9781315622026.ISBN978-0-367-87798-9.
  148. ^Lim, Francis Khek Ghee (2007). "Hotels as sites of power: tourism, status, and politics in Nepal Himalaya".Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.New Series.13(3). Royal Anthropological Institute: 721–738.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00452.x.
  149. ^Humbert-Droz, Blaise (2017). "Impacts of Tourism and Military Presence on Wetlands and Their Avifauna in the Himalayas". In Prins, Herbert H. T.; Namgail, Tsewang (eds.).Bird Migration across the Himalayas Wetland Functioning amidst Mountains and Glaciers.Foreword by H.H. The Dali Lama. Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.pp. 343–358.ISBN978-1-107-11471-5.
  150. ^Nyaupane, Gyan P.; Chhetri, Netra (2009). "Vulnerability to Climate Change of Nature-Based Tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas".Tourism Geographies.11(1): 95–119.doi:10.1080/14616680802643359.S2CID55042146.
  151. ^Nyaupane, Gyan P.; Timothy, Dallen J., eds. (2022).Tourism and Development in the Himalya: Social, Environmental, and Economic Forces.Routledge Cultural Heritage and Tourism Series. London and New York:Routledge.ISBN978-0-367-46627-5.
  152. ^Pati, Vishwambhar Prasad (2020).Sustainable Tourism Development in the Himalya: Constraints and Prospects.Environmental Science and Engineering. Cham, Switzerland:Springer Nature.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-58854-0.ISBN978-3-030-58853-3.S2CID229256111.
  153. ^Serenari, Christopher; Leung, Yu-Fai; Attarian, Aram; Franck, Chris (2012). "Understanding environmentally significant behavior among whitewater rafting and trekking guides in the Garhwal Himalaya, India".Journal of Sustainable Tourism.20(5): 757–772.Bibcode:2012JSusT..20..757S.doi:10.1080/09669582.2011.638383.S2CID153859477.
  154. ^Mahnaz Z. Ispahani (June 1989).Roads and Rivals: The Political Uses of Access in the Borderlands of Asia(First ed.).Cornell University Press.p.191.ISBN978-0801422201.
  155. ^abcZurick & Pacheco 2006,p. 85-88.
  156. ^"Rationalization of Numbering Systems of National Highways"(PDF).Government of India.28 April 2010.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 October 2011.Retrieved21 August2011.
  157. ^Nepal road standard(PDF)(Report).Government of Nepal.June 2019.Retrieved1 June2024.
  158. ^Arora, Vibha (2008)."Routing the Commodities of the Empire through Sikkim (1817-1906)"(PDF).Commodities of Empire Working Paper.No. 9.Open University.p. 8.ISSN1756-0098.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 September 2015.
  159. ^"Railway map of India".Survey of India.Archivedfrom the original on 29 May 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  160. ^"Mountain Railways of India".World Heritage List.World Heritage Committee.1999.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2008.Retrieved5 January2009.
  161. ^"Nepalese Railway and Economic Development: What Has Gone Wrong?".India Review.11 June 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 19 November 2021.Retrieved19 November2021.
  162. ^"Most Extreme Airports".History Specials.Season 1. Episode 104.The History Channel.26 August 2010.
  163. ^"The top 10 highest altitude airports in the world".Airport-technology.30 January 2024.Archivedfrom the original on 12 June 2024.Retrieved1 June2024.
  164. ^Anant Bewoor (July 2020).Daulat Beg Oldi: Operating from the World's Highest Airfield(PDF)(Report).Retrieved1 June2024.

Bibliography

edit

Further reading

edit
  • Aitken, Bill,Footloose in the Himalaya,Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003.ISBN81-7824-052-1.
  • Berreman, Gerald Duane,Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change,2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
  • Edmundson, Henry,Tales from the Himalaya,Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019.ISBN978-9937-9330-3-2.
  • Fisher, James F.,Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal,1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990.ISBN0-520-06941-2.
  • Gansser, Augusto,Gruschke, Andreas,Olschak, Blanche C.,Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples,New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987.ISBN0-8160-1994-0and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
  • Hunt, John,Ascent of Everest,London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956.ISBN0-89886-361-9.
  • Isserman, Mauriceand Weaver, Stewart,Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes.Yale University Press, 2008.ISBN978-0-300-11501-7.
  • Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno,The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation.London / New York, Routledge, 1989.ISBN0-415-01157-4.
  • Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D.,The Himalaya, Aspects of Change.Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981.ISBN0-19-561254-X.
  • Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K.,Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya,Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
  • Swami Sundaranand,Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu.Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (2001).ISBN81-901326-0-1.
  • SwamiTapovan Maharaj,Wanderings in the Himalayas,English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
  • Tilman, H. W.,Mount Everest, 1938,Cambridge University Press, 1948.
  • Turner, Bethan, et al.Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity.Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Himalayas&oldid=1259618142"