Wikipedia

Hindu texts

(Redirected fromHindu literature)

Hindu textsorHindu scripturesaremanuscriptsand voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions withinHinduism.Some of the majorHindutexts include theVedas,theUpanishads,and theItihasa.Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature ofHinduism,[1][2]but many list theAgamasas Hindu scriptures,[1][2][3]and Dominic Goodall includesBhagavata PuranaandYajnavalkya Smritiin the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[1]

History

edit

There are two historic classifications ofHindutexts:Shruti(Sanskrit:श्रुति,IAST:Śruti) – that which is heard,[4]andSmriti(Sanskrit:स्मृति,IAST:Smṛti) – that which is remembered.[5]TheShrutitexts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancientreligious texts,believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (rishis). These comprise the central canon ofHinduism.[4][6]It includes the fourVedasincluding its four types of embedded texts – theSamhitas,theBrahmanas,theAranyakasand theUpanishads.[7]Of theShrutis,the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[8][9]

TheSmrititexts are a specific body ofHindutexts attributed to an author,[7]as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative thanShrutiin Hinduism.[5]The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited toVedāngas,the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), theSutras and Shastras,the texts ofHindu philosophies,thePuranas,the Kāvya or poetical literature, theBhasyas,and numerousNibandhas(digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[10][11]

Many ancient Hindu texts were composed inSanskritand other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into otherIndian languagesand some in non-Indian languages.[1]Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.[12][13]This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[12][13]

Shruti

edit

The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.[14]The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.[14]The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts:Rig Veda,Sama Veda,Yajur Veda,andAtharva Veda.[15]Each Veda is subcategorized intoSamhitas,Brahmanas,Aranyakas,andUpanishads.[15]

Vedas

edit
Main article:Vedas
Manuscripts of 18th-century Hindu texts in Sanskrit(Devanagari) and Odia.

The four Vedas (Rig Veda,Sama Veda,Yajur Veda,andAtharva Veda) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from theVedic periodin northern India, theRig Vedabeing composedc. 1200 BCE,and itsSamhitaandBrahmanascomplete before about 800 BCE.[16]Composed inVedic Sanskrithymns,the texts constitute the oldest layer ofSanskrit literatureand the oldest scriptures ofHinduism.[17][18][19]Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,[16]apauruṣeya,which means "not of a man, superhuman"[20]and "impersonal, authorless".[21][22][23]The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.[6]

Vedas are also calledshruti( "what is heard" ) literature,[24]distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are calledsmṛti( "what is remembered" ). The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of theDeity.[citation needed]In the Hindu Epic theMahabharata,the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation,Brahma.[25]

Each of the four Vedas[26][27]have been subclassified into four major text types:

  1. theSamhitas(mantras and benedictions),
  2. theAranyakas(text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
  3. theBrahmanas(commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
  4. theUpanishads(text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[26][28][29]

Upanishads

edit
Main article:Upanishads

The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[8][note 1]The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[9][30]

The Upanishads are commonly referred to asVedānta,interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of theVeda"or" the object, the highest purpose of the Veda ".[31]The concepts ofBrahman(Ultimate Reality) andĀtman(Soul, Self) are central ideas in all theUpanishads,[32][33]and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[33]The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[8][9][note 2]

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as themukhya(main) orprincipal Upanishads.[34][35]The ten mukhya Upanishads are:Isha,Kena,Katha,Prashna,Mundaka,Mandukya,Taittiriya,Aitareya,Chandogya,andBrihadaranyaka.[36]ThemukhyaUpanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of theBrahmanasandAranyakas[37]and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed downverbally.The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),[38]down to theMaurya period.[39]Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of theMuktikacanon, composed from about the start of common era throughmedieval Hinduism.New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.[40][41]

Smriti

edit
Main article:Smriti

Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures andItihasas (epics like theRamayanaandMahabharata),HarivamsaPuranas,AgamasandDarshanas.This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools ofHindu philosophy:Samkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika, Mimamsa andVedanta.[42][43]

The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. TheDharma-shastras(law books), derivatives of theDharma-sutras.Other examples werebhautikashastra"physics",rasayanashastra"chemistry",jīvashastra"biology",vastushastra"architectural science",shilpashastra"science of sculpture",arthashastra"economics" andnītishastra"political science".[44]It also includesTantrasandAgamaliterature.[45]

A 19th century manuscript of the Hindu textBhagavad Gita

Puranas

edit
Main article:Puranas

The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.[46]The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.[47]Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[48][49]several of these texts are named after majorHindudeities such asVishnu,Shiva,andDevi.[50][51]

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[52]and it includes diverse topics such ascosmogony,cosmology,genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[47][49][50]The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[48]

There are 18Maha Puranas(Great Puranas):Agni Purana,Bhagavata Purana,Bhavishya Purana,Brahmanda Purana,Brahmavaivarta Purana,Garuda Purana,Kurma Purana,Linga Purana,Markandeya Purana,Naradiya Purana,Padma Purana,Shiva Purana,Skanda Purana,Vamana Purana,Varaha Purana,Vayu Purana,andVishnu Purana[46]and 18Upa Puranas(Minor Puranas),[53]with over 400,000 verses.[47]The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism,[53]but are considered aSmriti.[54]These Hindu texts have been influential in theHindu culture,inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[55]TheBhagavata Puranahas been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[56][57]The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes bhakti (devotion) towards Krishna. The Bhagavata Purana is a key text in Krishna bhakti literature.[46][58]

Mahabharata

edit
Main article:Mahabharata

TheMahābhārata,which translates to "The Great Indian Tale",was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[59][60]The text probably reached its final form by the earlyGupta period(c. 4th century CE).[61][62]The composition is traditionally attributed toVedavyasaand is made up of over 100,000shlokas.[63]

The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (thePandavasand theKauravas) and the aftermath of theKurukshetra War.[63]The Mahabharata also teaches aboutdharma(duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes theBhagavad Gita.[15]

The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion betweenKrishnaandArjunaon the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God,moksha,and dharma.[64]

Ramayana

edit
Main article:Ramayana

The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sageValmikiand contains over 24,000 verses.[65]

The epic covers the life journey ofRama,an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wifeSita,and brotherLakshmana.Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted byRavanaofLanka.Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana,Hanuman(a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return toAyodhya,where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.[15]

Other Hindu texts

edit

Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:

Field Reviewer Reference
Agriculture and food Gyula Wojtilla [66]
Architecture P Acharya,
B Dagens		 [67][68]
Devotionalism Karen Pechelis [69]
Drama, dance and performance arts AB Keith,
Rachel Baumer and James Brandon,
Mohan Khokar		 [70][71][72]
Education, school system Hartmut Scharfe [73]
Epics John Brockington [74]
Gnomic and didactic literature Ludwik Sternbach [75]
Grammar Hartmut Scharfe [76]
Law and jurisprudence J Duncan M Derrett [77]
Lexicography Claus Vogel [78]
Mathematics and exact sciences Kim Plofker
David Pingree		 [79][80]
Medicine MS Valiathan,
Kenneth Zysk		 [81][82]
Music Emmie te Nijenhuis,
Lewis Rowell		 [83][84]
Mythology Ludo Rocher [85]
Philosophy Karl Potter [86]
Poetics Edwin Gerow, Siegfried Lienhard [87]
Gender and Sex Johann Jakob Meyer [88]
State craft, politics Patrick Olivelle [89]
Tantrism, Agamas Teun Goudriaan [90]
Temples, Sculpture Stella Kramrisch [91]
Scriptures (Vedas and Upanishads) Jan Gonda [92]

Historical significance

edit

The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such asmusic,dance,sculptures,architecture,astronomy,science,mathematics,medicineandwellness.Valmiki'sRamayana(500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing byGandharvas,dance byApsarassuch asUrvashi,Rambha,Menaka,TilottamaPanchāpsaras,and byRavana's wives who excelling innrityageetaor "singing and dancing" andnritavaditraor "playing musical instruments" ).[93]The evidence of earliest dance related texts are inNatasutras,which are mentioned in the text ofPanini,the sage who wrote the classic onSanskrit grammar,and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[94][95]This performance arts relatedSutratext is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (IAST:Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[94][96]Richmond et al. estimate theNatasutrasto have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.[94][95]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.Olivelle (1998)
  2. ^Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.

References

edit
  1. ^abcdDominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,ISBN978-0-520-20778-3,p. ix–xliii
  2. ^abKlaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-7082-4,pp. 46–52, 76–77
  3. ^RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House,ISBN978-0-679-41078-2,pages 1–11 and Preface
  4. ^abJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8,page 645
  5. ^abJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing,ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8,pp. 656–657
  6. ^abRamdas Lamb (2002).Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable Religion in Central India.State University of New York Press. pp. 183–185.ISBN978-0-7914-5386-5.
  7. ^abWendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press,ISBN0-7190-1867-6,pp. 2–3
  8. ^abcOlivelle 1998,p. 3.
  9. ^abcWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press,ISBN978-0-226-61847-0,pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
  10. ^Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130
  11. ^Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press,ISBN978-0-8248-2085-5,pp. 16–18
  12. ^abMichael Witzel,"Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,ISBN1-4051-3251-5,pp. 68–71
  13. ^abWilliam Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-44820-8,pp. 67–77
  14. ^abRoger R. Keller, "Hinduism,"Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions(Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.
  15. ^abcd"Hindu Philosophy".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  16. ^abGavin D. Flood (1996).An Introduction to Hinduism.Cambridge University Press. pp.35–39.ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
  17. ^see e.g.MacDonell 2004,pp. 29–39;Sanskrit literature(2003) inPhilip's Encyclopedia.Accessed 2007-08-09
  18. ^see e.g.Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957,p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas andUpaniṣads",in:Flood 2003,p. 68;MacDonell 2004,pp. 29–39;Sanskrit literature(2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
  19. ^Sanujit Ghose (2011). "Religious Developments in Ancient India"inAncient History Encyclopedia.
  20. ^Vaman Shivaram Apte,The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary,see apauruSeya
  21. ^D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pp. 196–197
  22. ^Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-538496-3,page 290
  23. ^Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World,ISBN978-1-4094-6681-9,p. 128
  24. ^Apte 1965,p. 887
  25. ^Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the MahābhārataBruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86
  26. ^abGavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-43878-0,pages 35–39
  27. ^Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
  28. ^A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology,ISBN978-0-595-38455-6,pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-533261-2,page 285
  29. ^Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01603-2
  30. ^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6,p. 39;Quote:"The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";
    Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,ISBN978-1-59257-846-7,pp. 208–210
  31. ^Max Muller,The Upanishads,Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
  32. ^Mahadevan 1956,p. 59.
  33. ^abPT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-88706-139-4,pp. 35–36
  34. ^Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press,ISBN978-0-231-14485-8,Chapter 1
  35. ^E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads,ISBN978-1-58638-021-2,pp. 298–299
  36. ^Piparaiya, Ram K. (2003).Ten Upanishads of Four Vedas.Motilal Banarsidass.
  37. ^Mahadevan 1956,p. 56.
  38. ^Olivelle 1998a,p. 12-14.
  39. ^King & Ācārya 1995,p. 52.
  40. ^Ranade 1926,p. 12.
  41. ^Varghese 2008,p. 101.
  42. ^Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,ISBN978-0-231-14987-7,pp. 2–5
  43. ^Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0779-2
  44. ^Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02676-5
  45. ^Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02091-6,pp. 7–14
  46. ^abc"Puranas".UCLA Social Sciences.
  47. ^abcGreg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-17281-3,pp. 437–439
  48. ^abJohn Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-1382-1,pp. 185–204
  49. ^abGregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press,ISBN978-1-57003-449-7,pp. 139
  50. ^abLudo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02522-5,pp. 1–5, 12–21
  51. ^Nair, Shantha N. (2008).Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice.Hindology Books. p. 266.ISBN978-81-223-1020-7.
  52. ^Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas,ISBN0-877790426,page 915
  53. ^abCornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press,ISBN978-81-208-3972-4,pp. xii, 4
  54. ^Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-17281-3,p. 503
  55. ^Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02522-5,pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210
  56. ^Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,ISBN978-0-520-20778-3,page xli
  57. ^Thompson, Richard L. (2007).The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe.Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 10.ISBN978-81-208-1919-1.
  58. ^"Hindu Philosophy".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  59. ^Austin, Christopher R. (2019).Pradyumna: Lover, Magician, and Son of the Avatara.Oxford University Press. p. 21.ISBN978-0-19-005411-3.Archivedfrom the original on 7 September 2023.Retrieved11 January2020.
  60. ^Brockington (1998, p. 26)
  61. ^Pattanaik, Devdutt (13 December 2018)."How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?".Scroll.in.Archivedfrom the original on 14 August 2020.Retrieved30 May2020.
  62. ^Van Buitenen;The Mahabharata– 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)
  63. ^abDoniger, Wendy (5 February 2024)."Mahabharata".Encyclopædia Britannica.
  64. ^"The Bhagavad Gītā".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  65. ^Basu, Anindita (30 August 2016)."Ramayana".World History Encyclopedia.
  66. ^Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-05306-8
  67. ^PK Acharya (1946),An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture,Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6
  68. ^Bruno Dagens(1995), MAYAMATA: An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography,ISBN978-81-208-3525-2
  69. ^Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-535190-3
  70. ^The Sanskrit Drama,Oxford University Press
  71. ^Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0772-3
  72. ^Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers,ISBN978-0-7206-0574-7
  73. ^Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL,ISBN978-90-04-12556-8
  74. ^John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL,ISBN978-90-04-10260-6
  75. ^Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01546-2
  76. ^Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01722-8
  77. ^J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01519-5
  78. ^Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01722-8
  79. ^Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-12067-6
  80. ^David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society,ISBN978-0-87169-213-9
  81. ^MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan,ISBN978-81-250-2505-4
  82. ^Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-1401-1
  83. ^Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature; v. 6: Scientific and technical literature; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-01831-9
  84. ^Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press,ISBN0-226-73033-6
  85. ^Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN978-3-447-02522-5
  86. ^Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN81-208-0309-4
  87. ^Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01722-8
  88. ^JJ Meyer,Sexual Life in Ancient India,Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-1-4826-1588-3
  89. ^Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0-19-989182-5
  90. ^Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-02091-1
  91. ^Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-81-208-0222-3
  92. ^Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,ISBN3-447-01603-5
  93. ^Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991,The Society of the Ramayana,Page 180-200.
  94. ^abcNatalia Lidova (1994).Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 111–113.ISBN978-81-208-1234-5.
  95. ^abRichmond, Swann & Zarrilli 1993,p. 30.
  96. ^Tarla Mehta 1995,pp. xxiv, xxxi–xxxii, 17.

Bibliography

edit

Further reading

edit
edit

Manuscripts collections (incomplete)

Wikimedia Commons has media related toHindu texts.

Online resources:

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hindu_texts&oldid=1258136605"