Hinduism(/ˈhɪnduˌɪzəm/)[1][2]is anIndian religionordharma,a religious anduniversal orderby which its followers abide.[note 1][note 2]The wordHinduis anexonym,[note 3]and while Hinduism ha s been called the oldest religion in the world,[note 4]it has also been described assanātana dharma(Sanskrit:सनातन धर्म,lit. ''the eternal dharma''), a modern usage, based on the belief that its origins lie beyondhuman history,as revealed in theHindu texts.[note 5]Anotherendonymfor Hinduism isVaidika dharma.[web 1]
Shiva(left),Vishnu(middle), andBrahma(right)[3][4][5][6]
Hinduism entails diverse systems of thought, marked by a range of shared concepts that discusstheology,mythology,among other topics, in textual sources.[7]The majorHindu denominationsareVaishnavism,Shaivism,Shaktism,and theSmarta tradition.The sixĀstikaschools ofHindu philosophy,which recognise the authority of the Vedas, are:Sānkhya,Yoga,Nyāya,Vaisheshika,Mimāmsā,andVedānta.[8][9]Hindu texts have been classified intoŚruti( "heard" ) andSmṛti( "remembered" ). The major Hindu scriptures are theVedas,theUpanishads,thePurānas,theMahābhārata,theRāmāyana,and theĀgamas.[10][11]Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs includekarma(action, intent and consequences)[10][12]and the fourPuruṣārthas,proper goals or aims of human life, namely:dharma(ethics/duties),artha(prosperity/work),kama(desires/passions) andmoksha(liberation/freedom from the passions and thecycle of death and rebirth).[13][14]Hindu religious practices include devotion (bhakti), worship (puja), sacrificial rites (yajña), and meditation (dhyāna) andyoga.[15]
While the traditionalItihasa-Puranaand theEpic-Puranic chronologyderived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 6]or synthesis[note 7]ofBrahmanical orthopraxy[note 8]with various Indian cultures,[note 9]having diverse roots[note 10]and no specific founder.[16]ThisHindu synthesisemerged after the Vedic period, betweenc. 500[17]–200[18]BCEandc. 300 CE,[17]in the period of thesecond urbanisationand the earlyclassical period of Hinduismwhen theepicsand the first Purānas were composed.[17][18]It flourished in themedieval period,with thedecline of Buddhism in India.[19]Since the 19th century,modern Hinduism,influenced by western culture, has also a great appeal to the west, most notably in the popularisation of yoga and various sects such asTranscendental Meditationand theHare Krishna movement.
Hinduism is theworld's third-largestreligion, with approximately 1.20 billion followers, or around 15% of the global population, known asHindus.[20][web 2][web 3]It is the most widely professed faith inIndia,[21]Nepal,Mauritius,and inBali,Indonesia.[22]Significant numbers of Hindu communities are found in other countries ofSouth Asia,inSoutheast Asia,in theCaribbean,Middle East,North America,Europe,Oceania,Africa,andother regions.[23][24]
Etymology
The wordHindūis anexonym,[25][26]and is derived from theSanskrit[27]rootSindhu,[28][29]believed to be the name of theIndus Riverin the northwestern part of theIndian subcontinent.[30][28][note 11]
TheProto-Iraniansound change*s>hoccurred between 850 and 600 BCE.[32]According toGavin Flood,"The actual termHindufirst occurs as aPersiangeographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit:Sindhu) ",[28]more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription ofDarius I(550–486 BCE).[33]The termHinduin these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.[28]The wordHinduis found asheptahinduinAvesta– equivalent to Rigvedicsapta sindhu,whilehndstn(pronouncedHindustan) is found in aSasanianinscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia.[34]In Arabic texts,al-Hindreferred to the land beyond the Indus[35]and therefore, all the people in that land were Hindus.[36]This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian termHindū.By the 13th century,Hindustanemerged as a popular alternativename of India,meaning the "land of Hindus".[37]
Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese textRecord of the Western RegionsbyXuanzang,[33]and 14th-century Persian textFutuhu's-salatinby 'Abd al-MalikIsami.[note 3]Some 16–18th centuryBengaliGaudiya Vaishnavatexts mentionHinduandHindu dharmato distinguish from Muslims without positively defining these terms.[38]In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers ofIndian religionscollectively as Hindus.[39][40][note 12]The use of the English term "Hinduism" to describe a collection of practices and beliefs is a fairly recent construction. The termHinduismwas first used byRaja Ram Mohan Royin 1816–17.[30]By the 1840s, the term "Hinduism" was used by those Indians who opposed British colonialism, and who wanted to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians.[28][44][45][46]Before the British began to categorise communities strictly by religion, Indians generally did not define themselves exclusively through their religious beliefs; instead identities were largely segmented on the basis of locality, language,varna,jāti,occupation, and sect.[47][note 13]
Definitions
"Hinduism" is an umbrella-term,[49][50]referring to a broad range of sometimes opposite and often competitive traditions.[8][9][51][52]The term "Hinduism" was coined in Western ethnography in the 18th century[40][note 14]and refers to the fusion,[note 6]or synthesis,[note 7][53]of various Indian cultures and traditions,[54][note 9]with diverse roots[55][note 10]and no founder.[16]ThisHindu synthesisemerged after the Vedic period, betweenc. 500[17]–200[18]BCE andc. 300 CE,[17]in the period of theSecond Urbanisationand the early classical period of Hinduism, when theepicsand the first Puranas were composed.[17][18]It flourished in themedieval period,with thedecline of Buddhism in India.[19]Hinduism's variations in belief and its broad range of traditions make it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.[56]
Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas onspiritualityand traditions; Hindus can bepolytheistic,pantheistic,panentheistic,pandeistic,henotheistic,monotheistic,monistic,agnostic,atheisticorhumanist.[57][58]According toMahatma Gandhi,"a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu".[59]According toWendy Doniger,"ideas about all the major issues of faith and lifestyle – vegetarianism, nonviolence, belief in rebirth, evencaste– are subjects of debate, notdogma."[47]
Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult.[28]The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".[60]Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and "a way of life".[61][note 1]From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism, like other faiths, is appropriately referred to as a religion. In India, the termdharmais preferred, which is broader than the Western term "religion".[62]
The study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of "Hinduism", has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion.[63][64]Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism,[63][note 15]and have also been taken over by critics of the Western view on India.[65][note 16]
Typology
Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into sixdarsanas(philosophies), two schools,VedantaandYoga,are currently the most prominent.[66] The sixāstikaschools of Hindu philosophy, which recognise the authority of the Vedas are:Sānkhya,Yoga,Nyāya,Vaisheshika,Mimāmsā,andVedānta.[8][9]
Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents areShaivism(Shiva),Vaishnavism(Vishnu),Shaktism(Devi) andSmartism(five deities treated as equals).[67][68][69][70]Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality orSupreme God,while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme.[71]Other notable characteristics include a belief in the existence ofātman(self),reincarnationof one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living), although variation exists, with some not following these beliefs.[citation needed]
June McDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand the expression of emotions among the Hindus.[51]The major kinds, according to McDaniel areFolk Hinduism,based on local traditions and cults of localdeitiesand is the oldest, non-literate system;Vedic Hinduismbased on the earliest layers of the Vedas, traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE; Vedantic Hinduism based on the philosophy of theUpanishads,includingAdvaita Vedanta,emphasising knowledge and wisdom; Yogic Hinduism, following the text ofYoga Sutras of Patanjaliemphasising introspective awareness; Dharmic Hinduism or "daily morality", which McDaniel states is stereotyped in some books as the "only form of Hindu religion with a belief in karma, cows and caste"; andbhaktior devotional Hinduism, where intense emotions are elaborately incorporated in the pursuit of the spiritual.[51]
Michaels distinguishes three Hindu religions and four forms of Hindu religiosity.[52]The three Hindu religions are "Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism", "folk religions and tribal religions", and "founded religions".[72]The four forms of Hindu religiosity are the classical "karma-marga",[73]jnana-marga,[74]bhakti-marga,[74]and "heroism", which is rooted inmilitaristic traditions.These militaristic traditions include Ramaism (the worship of a hero of epic literature,Rama,believing him to be an incarnation of Vishnu)[75]and parts ofpolitical Hinduism.[73]"Heroism" is also calledvirya-marga.[74]According to Michaels, one out of nine Hindu belongs by birth to one or both of the Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism and Folk religion typology, whether practising or non-practicing. He classifies most Hindus as belonging by choice to one of the "founded religions" such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism that are moksha-focussed and often de-emphasiseBrahman(Brahmin) priestly authority yet incorporate ritual grammar of Brahmanic-Sanskritic Hinduism.[76]He includes among "founded religions"Buddhism,Jainism,Sikhism that are now distinct religions,syncreticmovements such asBrahmo Samajand theTheosophical Society,as well as various "Guru-isms "and new religious movements such asMaharishi Mahesh YogiandISKCON.[77]
Inden states that the attempt to classify Hinduism by typology started in the imperial times, when proselytising missionaries and colonial officials sought to understand and portray Hinduism from their interests.[78]Hinduism was construed as emanating not from a reason of spirit but fantasy and creative imagination, not conceptual but symbolical, not ethical but emotive, not rational or spiritual but of cognitive mysticism. This stereotype followed and fit, states Inden, with the imperial imperatives of the era, providing the moral justification for the colonial project.[78]From tribal Animism to Buddhism, everything was subsumed as part of Hinduism. The early reports set the tradition and scholarly premises for the typology of Hinduism, as well as the major assumptions and flawed presuppositions that have been at the foundation ofIndology.Hinduism, according to Inden, has been neither what imperial religionists stereotyped it to be, nor is it appropriate to equate Hinduism to be merely the monist pantheism and philosophical idealism of Advaita Vedanta.[78]
Some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges" rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism and others, while not as central, still remain within the category. Based on this ideaGabriella Eichinger Ferro-Luzzihas developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[79]
Sanātana Dharma
To its adherents, Hinduism is a traditional way of life.[83]Many practitioners refer to the "orthodox" form of Hinduism asSanātana Dharma,"the eternal law" or the "eternal way".[84][85]Hindus regard Hinduism to be thousands of years old. ThePuranic chronology,as narrated in theMahabharata,Ramayana,and thePuranas,envisions a timeline of events related to Hinduism starting well before[weasel words]3000 BCE. The worddharmais used here to meanreligionsimilar to modernIndo-Aryan languages,rather than with its original Sanskrit meaning. All aspects of a Hindu life, namely acquiring wealth (artha), fulfilment of desires (kama), and attaining liberation (moksha), are viewed here as part of "dharma", which encapsulates the "right way of living" and eternal harmonious principles in their fulfilment.[86][87]The use of the termSanātana Dharmafor Hinduism is a modern usage, based on the belief that the origins of Hinduism lie beyond human history, as revealed in theHindu texts.[88][89][90][91][clarification needed]
Sanātana Dharmarefers to "timeless, eternal set of truths" and this is how Hindus view the origins of their religion. It is viewed as those eternal truths and traditions with origins beyond human history– truths divinely revealed (Shruti) in theVedas,the most ancient of the world's scriptures.[92][93]To many Hindus, Hinduism is a tradition that can be traced at least to the ancient Vedic era. The Western term "religion" to the extent it means "dogma and an institution traceable to a single founder" is inappropriate for their tradition, states Hatcher.[92][94][note 17]
Sanātana Dharmahistorically referred to the "eternal" duties religiously ordained in Hinduism, duties such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings (ahiṃsā), purity, goodwill, mercy, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, generosity, and asceticism. These duties applied regardless of a Hindu's class, caste, or sect, and they contrasted withsvadharma,one's "own duty", in accordance with one's class or caste (varṇa) and stage in life (puruṣārtha).[web 5]In recent years, the term has been used by Hindu leaders, reformers, and nationalists to refer to Hinduism. Sanatana dharma has become a synonym for the "eternal" truth and teachings of Hinduism, that transcend history and are "unchanging, indivisible and ultimately nonsectarian".[web 5]
Vaidika dharma
Some have referred to Hinduism as theVaidika dharma.[96]The word 'Vaidika' in Sanskrit means 'derived from or conformable to the Veda' or 'relating to the Veda'.[web 6]Traditional scholars employed the terms Vaidika and Avaidika, those who accept the Vedas as a source of authoritative knowledge and those who do not, to differentiate various Indian schools from Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka. According to Klaus Klostermaier, the term Vaidika dharma is the earliest self-designation of Hinduism.[97][98]According toArvind Sharma,the historical evidence suggests that "the Hindus were referring to their religion by the termvaidika dharmaor a variant thereof "by the 4th-century CE.[99]According to Brian K. Smith, "[i]t is 'debatable at the very least' as to whether the termVaidika Dharmacannot, with the proper concessions to historical, cultural, and ideological specificity, be comparable to and translated as 'Hinduism' or 'Hindu religion'. "[100]
Whatever the case, many Hindu religious sources see persons or groups which they consider as non-Vedic (and which reject Vedicvarṇāśrama– 'caste and life stage' orthodoxy) as being heretics (pāṣaṇḍa/pākhaṇḍa). For example, theBhāgavata Purāṇaconsiders Buddhists, Jains as well as someShaivagroups like thePaśupatasandKāpālinsto be pāṣaṇḍas (heretics).[101]
According toAlexis Sanderson,the early Sanskrit texts differentiate between Vaidika, Vaishnava, Shaiva, Shakta, Saura, Buddhist and Jaina traditions. However, the late 1st-millennium CE Indic consensus had "indeed come to conceptualize a complex entity corresponding to Hinduism as opposed to Buddhism and Jainism excluding only certain forms ofantinomianShakta-Shaiva "from its fold.[web 7]Some in theMimamsaschool of Hindu philosophy considered theAgamassuch as the Pancaratrika to be invalid because it did not conform to the Vedas. Some Kashmiri scholars rejected the esoteric tantric traditions to be a part of Vaidika dharma.[web 7][web 8]The Atimarga Shaivism ascetic tradition, datable to about 500 CE, challenged the Vaidika frame and insisted that their Agamas and practices were not only valid, they were superior than those of the Vaidikas.[web 9]However, adds Sanderson, this Shaiva ascetic tradition viewed themselves as being genuinely true to the Vedic tradition and "held unanimously that the Śruti and Smṛti of Brahmanism are universally and uniquely valid in their own sphere, [...] and that as such they [Vedas] are man's sole means of valid knowledge [...]".[web 9]
The term Vaidika dharma means a code of practice that is "based on the Vedas", but it is unclear what "based on the Vedas" really implies, states Julius Lipner.[94]The Vaidika dharma or "Vedic way of life", states Lipner, does not mean "Hinduism is necessarily religious" or that Hindus have a universally accepted "conventional or institutional meaning" for that term.[94]To many, it is as much a cultural term. Many Hindus do not have a copy of the Vedas nor have they ever seen or personally read parts of a Veda, like a Christian, might relate to the Bible or a Muslim might to the Quran. Yet, states Lipner, "this does not mean that their [Hindus] whole life's orientation cannot be traced to the Vedas or that it does not in some way derive from it".[94]
Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"[102][note 18]and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."[103]Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.[94]
Legal definition
Bal Gangadhar Tilakgave the following definition inGita Rahasya(1915): "Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshipped is large".[104][105]It was quoted by the Indian Supreme Court in 1966,[104][105]and again in 1995, "as an 'adequate and satisfactory definition,"[106]and is still the legal definition of a Hindu today.[107]
Diversity and unity
Diversity
Hindu beliefs are vast and diverse, and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single religion.[web 10]Within each religion in this family of religions, there are different theologies, practices, and sacred texts.[web 11][108][109][110][web 12]Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in a declaration of faith or acreed",[28]but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of India.[111][112]According to theSupreme Court of India,
Unlike other religions in the World, the Hindu religion does not claim any one Prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion or creed. It is a way of life and nothing more ".[113]
Part of the problem with a single definition of the termHinduismis the fact that Hinduism does not have a founder.[114]It is a synthesis of various traditions,[115]the "Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions".[116]
Theismis also difficult to use as a unifying doctrine for Hinduism, because while some Hindu philosophies postulate a theisticontologyof creation, otherHindus are or have been atheists.[117]
Sense of unity
Despite the differences, there is also a sense of unity.[118]Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious orsacred literature,the Vedas,[119]although there are exceptions.[120]These texts are a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus,[121][122]thoughLouis Renoustated that "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".[121][123]
Halbfass states that, although Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",[118]there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"[118]of each tradition that indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".[118]
Classical Hinduism
Brahminsplayed an essential role in the development of the post-Vedic Hindu synthesis, disseminating Vedic culture to local communities, and integrating local religiosity into the trans-regional Brahmanic culture.[124]In the post-Gupta periodVedanta developed in southern India, whereorthodox Brahmanic cultureand the Hindu culture were preserved,[125]building on ancient Vedic traditions while "accommoda[ting] the multiple demands of Hinduism."[126]
Medieval developments
The notion of common denominators for several religions and traditions of India further developed from the 12th century CE.[127]Lorenzen traces the emergence of a "family resemblance", and what he calls as "beginnings of medieval and modern Hinduism" taking shape, at c. 300–600 CE, with the development of the early Puranas, and continuities with the earlier Vedic religion.[128]Lorenzen states that the establishment of a Hindu self-identity took place "through a process of mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim Other".[129]According to Lorenzen, this "presence of the Other"[129]is necessary to recognise the "loose family resemblance" among the various traditions and schools.[130]
According to the IndologistAlexis Sanderson,before Islam arrived in India, the "Sanskrit sources differentiated Vaidika, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Saura, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions, but they had no name that denotes the first five of these as a collective entity over and against Buddhism and Jainism". This absence of a formal name, states Sanderson, does not mean that the corresponding concept of Hinduism did not exist. By late 1st-millennium CE, the concept of a belief and tradition distinct from Buddhism and Jainism had emerged.[web 7]This complex tradition accepted in its identity almost all of what is currently Hinduism, except certainantinomiantantric movements.[web 7]Some conservative thinkers of those times questioned whether certain Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta texts or practices were consistent with the Vedas, or were invalid in their entirety. Moderates then, and most orthoprax scholars later, agreed that though there are some variations, the foundation of their beliefs, the ritual grammar, the spiritual premises, and the soteriologies were the same. "This sense of greater unity", states Sanderson, "came to be called Hinduism".[web 7]
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th centuries "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy. "[131]The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted byMikel Burley.[132]Hacker called this "inclusivism"[119]and Michaels speaks of "the identificatory habit".[7]Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[133]and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[134][33]which started well before 1800.[135]Michaels notes:
As a counteraction to Islamic supremacy and as part of the continuing process of regionalization, two religious innovations developed in the Hindu religions: the formation of sects and a historicization which preceded later nationalism... [S]aints and sometimes militant sect leaders, such as the Marathi poet Tukaram (1609–1649) and Ramdas (1608–1681), articulated ideas in which they glorified Hinduism and the past. The Brahmins also produced increasingly historical texts, especially eulogies and chronicles of sacred sites (Mahatmyas), or developed a reflexive passion for collecting and compiling extensive collections of quotations on various subjects.[136]
Colonial views
The notion and reports on "Hinduism" as a "single world religious tradition"[137]was also popularised by 19th-century proselytising missionaries and European Indologists, roles sometimes served by the same person, who relied on texts preserved by Brahmins (priests) for their information of Indian religions, and animist observations that the missionary Orientalists presumed was Hinduism.[137][78][138]These reports influenced perceptions about Hinduism. Scholars such as Pennington state that the colonial polemical reports led to fabricated stereotypes where Hinduism was mere mystic paganism devoted to the service of devils,[note 19]while other scholars state that the colonial constructions influenced the belief that theVedas,Bhagavad Gita,Manusmritiand such texts were the essence of Hindu religiosity, and in the modern association of 'Hindu doctrine' with the schools of Vedanta (in particular Advaita Vedanta) as a paradigmatic example of Hinduism's mystical nature ".[140][note 20]Pennington, while concurring that the study of Hinduism as a world religion began in the colonial era, disagrees that Hinduism is a colonial European era invention.[141]He states that the shared theology, common ritual grammar and way of life of those who identify themselves as Hindus is traceable to ancient times.[141][note 21]
Hindu modernism and neo-Vedanta
All of religion is contained in the Vedanta, that is, in the three stages of the Vedanta philosophy, the Dvaita, Vishishtâdvaita and Advaita; one comes after the other. These are the three stages of spiritual growth in man. Each one is necessary. This is the essential of religion: the Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism.
This inclusivism[150]was further developed in the 19th and 20th centuries byHindu reform movementsand Neo-Vedanta,[151]and has become characteristic of modern Hinduism.[119]
Beginning in the 19th century, Indian modernists re-asserted Hinduism as a major asset of Indian civilisation,[64]meanwhile "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[152]and elevating the Vedic elements. Western stereotypes were reversed, emphasising the universal aspects, and introducing modern approaches of social problems.[64]This approach had great appeal, not only in India, but also in the west.[64]Major representatives of"Hindu modernism"[153]areRam Mohan Roy,Swami Vivekananda,Sarvepalli RadhakrishnanandMahatma Gandhi.[154]
Raja Rammohan Roy is known as the father of theHindu Renaissance.[155]He was a major influence on Swami Vivekananda, who, according to Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".[156]Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity",[153]and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony.[153]According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms.[153]According to Flood, Vivekananda's vision of Hinduism "is one generally accepted by most English-speaking middle-class Hindus today".[157]Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan sought to reconcile western rationalism with Hinduism, "presenting Hinduism as an essentially rationalistic and humanistic religious experience".[158]
This "Global Hinduism"[159]has a worldwide appeal, transcending national boundaries[159]and, according to Flood, "becoming a world religion alongside Christianity, Islam and Buddhism",[159]both for the Hindu diaspora communities and for westerners who are attracted to non-western cultures and religions.[159]It emphasises universal spiritual values such as social justice, peace and "the spiritual transformation of humanity".[159]It has developed partly due to "re-enculturation",[160]or thepizza effect,[160]in which elements of Hindu culture have been exported to the West, gaining popularity there, and as a consequence also gained greater popularity in India.[160]This globalisation of Hindu culture brought "to the West teachings which have become an important cultural force in western societies, and which in turn have become an important cultural force in India, their place of origin".[161]
Modern India and the world
TheHindutvamovement has extensively argued for the unity of Hinduism, dismissing the differences and regarding India as a Hindu-country since ancient times.[162]And there are assumptions of political dominance ofHindu nationalisminIndia,also known as'Neo-Hindutva'.[163][164]There have also been increase in pre-dominance ofHindutvainNepal,similar to that ofIndia.[165]The scope of Hinduism is also increasing in the other parts of the world, due to the cultural influences such asYogaandHare Krishna movementby many missionaries organisations, especially byIskconand this is also due to the migration ofIndian Hindusto the other nations of the world.[166][167]Hinduism is growing fast in manywestern nationsand in someAfrican nations.[note 22]
Main traditions
Denominations
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.[170]Four major denominations are, however, used in scholarly studies:Shaivism,Shaktism,Smartism,andVaishnavism.[67][68][69][70]These denominations differ primarily in the central deity worshipped, the traditions and thesoteriologicaloutlook.[171]The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".[172]
There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[173]Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%.[174][175]In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.[176][note 23]
Vaishnavism is the devotional religious tradition that worships Vishnu[note 24]and his avatars, particularly Krishna and Rama.[178]The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic, oriented towards community events and devotionalism practices inspired by "intimate loving, joyous, playful"Krishnaand other Vishnu avatars.[171]These practices sometimes include community dancing, singing ofKirtansandBhajans,with sound and music believed by some to have meditative and spiritual powers.[179]Temple worship and festivals are typically elaborate in Vaishnavism.[180]The Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana, along with Vishnu-oriented Puranas provide its theistic foundations.[181]
Shaivism is the tradition that focuses on Shiva. Shaivas are more attracted to ascetic individualism, and it has several sub-schools.[171]Their practices include bhakti-style devotionalism, yet their beliefs lean towards nondual, monistic schools of Hinduism such as Advaita and Raja Yoga.[182][179]Some Shaivas worship in temples, while others emphasise yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.[183]Avatars are uncommon, and some Shaivas visualise god as half male, half female, as a fusion of the male and female principles (Ardhanarishvara). Shaivism is related to Shaktism, wherein Shakti is seen as spouse of Shiva.[182]Community celebrations include festivals, and participation, with Vaishnavas, in pilgrimages such as theKumbh Mela.[184]Shaivism has been more commonly practised in the Himalayan north from Kashmir to Nepal, and in south India.[185]
Shaktism focuses on goddess worship of Shakti or Devi as cosmic mother,[171]and it is particularly common in northeastern and eastern states of India such asAssamandBengal.Devi is depicted as in gentler forms likeParvati,the consort of Shiva; or, as fierce warrior goddesses likeKaliandDurga.Followers of Shaktism recognise Shakti as the power that underlies the male principle. Shaktism is also associated withTantrapractices.[186]Community celebrations include festivals, some of which include processions and idol immersion into sea or other water bodies.[187]
Smartismcenters its worship simultaneously on all the majorHindu deities:Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Ganesha,SuryaandSkanda.[188]The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.[189][190]The Smarta tradition is aligned with Advaita Vedanta, and regardsAdi Shankaraas its founder or reformer, who considered worship of God-with-attributes (Saguna Brahman) as a journey towards ultimately realising God-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman, Atman, Self-knowledge).[191][192]The termSmartismis derived from Smriti texts of Hinduism, meaning those who remember the traditions in the texts.[182][193]This Hindu sect practices a philosophical Jnana yoga, scriptural studies, reflection, meditative path seeking an understanding of Self's oneness with God.[182][194]
Ethnicities
Hinduism is traditionally a multi- orpolyethnicreligion. On theIndian subcontinent,it is widespread among manyIndo-Aryan,Dravidianand otherSouth Asian ethnic groups,[195]for example, theMeitei people(Tibeto-Burmanethnicity in the northeastern Indian stateManipur).[196]
In addition, in antiquity and theMiddle Ages,Hinduism was thestate religionin many Indianized kingdoms of Asia, theGreater India– from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all ofSoutheast Asiain the East (Cambodia,Vietnam,Indonesia,partlyPhilippines) – and only by the 15th century was nearly everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam,[197][198]except several still Hindu minorAustronesianethnic groups, such as theBalinese[22]andTenggerese people[199]in Indonesia, and theChamsin Vietnam.[200]Also, a small community of the AfghanPashtunswho migrated to India afterpartitionremain committed to Hinduism.[201]
The Indo-AryanKalash peoplein Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as a form ofancient Hinduism.[202][203]
There are many new ethnicGhanaian Hindusin Ghana, who have converted to Hinduism due to the works ofSwami Ghanananda SaraswatiandHindu Monastery of Africa[204]From the beginning of the 20th century, by the forces of Baba Premananda Bharati (1858–1914),Swami Vivekananda,A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupadaand other missionaries, Hinduism gained a certain distribution among the Western peoples.[205]
Scriptures
The ancient scriptures of Hinduism are in Sanskrit. These texts are classified into two:ShrutiandSmriti.Shruti isapauruṣeyā,"not made of a man" but revealed to therishis(seers), and regarded as having the highest authority, while the smriti are manmade and have secondary authority.[206]They are the two highestsources of dharma,the other two beingŚiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara(conduct of noble people) and finallyĀtma tuṣṭi( "what is pleasing to oneself" ).[note 26]
Hindu scriptures were composed, memorised and transmitted verbally, across generations, for many centuries before they were written down.[207][208]Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the Shruti and Smriti, as well as developed Shastras with epistemological and metaphysical theories of six classical schools of Hinduism.[citation needed]
Shruti(lit. that which is heard)[209]primarily refers to theVedas,which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures, and are regarded as eternal truths revealed to the ancient sages (rishis).[210]There are fourVedas–Rigveda,Samaveda,YajurvedaandAtharvaveda.Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – theSamhitas(mantras and benedictions), theAranyakas(text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), theBrahmanas(commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and theUpanishads(text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[211][212][213]The first two parts of the Vedas were subsequently called theKarmakāṇḍa(ritualistic portion), while the last two form theJñānakāṇḍa(knowledge portion, discussing spiritual insight and philosophical teachings).[214][215][216][217]
The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought, and have profoundly influenced diverse traditions.[218][219][146]Of the Shrutis (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[218][144]Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan states that the Upanishads have played a dominating role ever since their appearance.[220]There are 108MuktikāUpanishads in Hinduism, of which between 10 and 13 are variously counted by scholars asPrincipal Upanishads.[217][221]
The most notable of the Smritis ( "remembered" ) are the Hindu epics and thePuranas.The epics consist of theMahabharataand theRamayana.TheBhagavad Gitais an integral part of theMahabharataand one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism.[222]It is sometimes calledGitopanishad,then placed in the Shruti ( "heard" ) category, being Upanishadic in content.[223]ThePuranas,which started to be composed fromc. 300 CEonward,[224]contain extensive mythologies, and are central in the distribution of common themes of Hinduism through vivid narratives. TheYoga Sutrasis a classical text for the Hindu Yoga tradition, which gained a renewed popularity in the 20th century.[225]
Since the 19th-century Indian modernists have re-asserted the 'Aryan origins' of Hinduism, "purifying" Hinduism from its Tantric elements[152]and elevating the Vedic elements. Hindu modernists like Vivekananda see the Vedas as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[226][227]
Tantraare the religious scriptures which give prominence to the female energy of the deity that in her personified form has both gentle and fierce form. In Tantric tradition,Radha,Parvati,DurgaandKaliare worshipped symbolically as well as in their personified forms.[228]TheAgamasin Tantra refer to authoritative scriptures or the teachings of Shiva to Shakti,[229]whileNigamasrefers to the Vedas and the teachings of Shakti to Shiva.[229]In Agamic schools of Hinduism, the Vedic literature and the Agamas are equally authoritative.[230][231]
Beliefs
Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to)Dharma(ethics/duties),saṃsāra(the continuing cycle of entanglement in passions and the resulting birth, life, death, and rebirth), Karma (action, intent, and consequences), moksha (liberation from attachment and saṃsāra), and the various yogas (paths or practices).[12]However, not all of these themes are found among the various different systems of Hindu beliefs. Beliefs in moksha or saṃsāra are absent in certain Hindu beliefs, and were also absent among early forms of Hinduism, which was characterised by a belief in anAfterlife,with traces of this still being found among various Hindu beliefs, such asŚrāddha.Ancestor worshiponce formed an integral part of Hindu beliefs and is today still found as an important element in various Folk Hindu streams.[232][233][234][235][236][237][238]
Purusharthas
Purusharthas refers to the objectives of human life. Classical Hindu thought accepts four proper goals or aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas –Dharma,Artha,KamaandMoksha.[13][239]
Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)
Dharma is considered the foremost goal of a human being in Hinduism.[240]The concept of dharma includes behaviours that are considered to be in accord withrta,the order that makes life and universe possible,[241]and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[242]Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.[242]Dharma is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.[243]TheBrihadaranyaka Upanishadstates it as:
Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one.
In theMahabharata,Krishnadefines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The wordSanātanameanseternal,perennial,orforever;thus,Sanātana Dharmasignifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[246]
Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life)
Artha is the virtuous pursuit of means, resources, assets, or livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligations, economic prosperity, and to have a fulfilling life. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy, and material well-being. The artha concept includes all "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in, wealth, career and financial security.[247]The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.[248][249]
A central premise of Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person's needs are acknowledged and fulfilled. A person's needs can only be fulfilled when sufficient means are available. Artha, then, is best described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life.[250]
Kāma (sensory, emotional and aesthetic pleasure)
Kāma (Sanskrit,Pali:काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, and pleasure of thesenses,the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection and love, with or without sexual connotations.[251][252]
In contemporary Indian literature kama is often used to refer to sexual desire, but in ancient Indian literature kāma is expansive and includes any kind of enjoyment and pleasure, such as pleasure deriving from the arts. The ancient IndianEpictheMahabharatadescribes kama as any agreeable and desirable experience generated by the interaction of one or more of the five senses with anything associated with that sense, when in harmony with the other goals of human life (dharma, artha and moksha).[253]
In Hinduism, kama is considered an essential and healthy goal of human life when pursued without sacrificing dharma, artha and moksha.
Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from suffering)
Moksha (Sanskrit:मोक्ष,romanized:mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit:मुक्ति) is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. Moksha is a concept associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, and for many theistic schools of Hinduism, liberation fromsamsara(a birth-rebirth cycle). A release from this eschatological cycle in the afterlife is called moksha in theistic schools of Hinduism.[243][255][256]
Due to the belief in Hinduism that theAtmanis eternal, and the concept ofPurusha(the cosmic self or cosmic consciousness),[257]death can be seen as insignificant in comparison to the eternal Atman or Purusha.[258]
Differing views on the nature of moksha
The meaning ofmokshadiffers among the various Hindu schools of thought.
Advaita Vedantaholds that upon attaining moksha a person knows their essence, or self, to be pure consciousness or the witness-consciousness and identifies it as identical toBrahman.[259][260]
The followers ofDvaita(dualistic) schools believe that in the afterlife moksha state, individual essences are distinct from Brahman but infinitesimally close, and after attaining moksha they expect to spend eternity in aloka(heaven).[citation needed]
More generally, in the theistic schools of Hinduism moksha is usually seen as liberation from saṃsāra, while for other schools, such as the monistic school, moksha happens during a person's lifetime and is a psychological concept.[261][259][262][263][260]
According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom, and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".[261][259][263]Mokshawhen viewed as a psychological concept, suggestsKlaus Klostermaier,[260]implies a setting free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense. This concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been previously blocked and shut out.[260]
Due to these different views on the nature of moksha, theVedantic schoolseparates this into two views –Jivanmukti(liberation in this life) andVidehamukti(liberation after death).[260][264][265]
Karma and saṃsāra
Karmatranslates literally asaction,work,ordeed,[266]and also refers to a Vedic theory of "moral law of cause and effect".[267][268]The theory is a combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicisation, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.[269]Karma theory is interpreted as explaining the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions and their consequences may be in a person's current life, or, according to some schools of Hinduism, in past lives.[269][270]This cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is calledsaṃsāra.Liberation from saṃsāra through moksha is believed to ensure lastinghappinessandpeace.[271][272]Hindu scriptures teach that the future is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.[273]The idea ofreincarnation,orsaṃsāra,is not mentioned in the early layers of historical Hindu texts such as theRigveda.[274][275]The later layers of theRigvedado mention ideas that suggest an approach towards the idea of rebirth, according to Ranade.[276][277]According to Sayers, these earliest layers of Hindu literature show ancestor worship and rites such assraddha(offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as theAranyakasand theUpanisadsshow a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals.[278][279][280]The idea of reincarnation and karma have roots in theUpanishadsof the lateVedic period,predating theBuddhaand theMahavira.[281][282]
Concept of God
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with a wide variety of beliefs[57][283][web 15]its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition andphilosophyfollowed. It is sometimes referred to ashenotheistic(i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralisation.[284][285]
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
TheNasadiya Sukta(Creation Hymn) of theRig Vedais one of the earliest texts[289]which "demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being.[290][291]TheRig Vedapraises variousdeities,none superior nor inferior, in a henotheistic manner.[292]The hymns repeatedly refer toOne Truth and One Ultimate Reality.The "One Truth" ofVedic literature,in modern era scholarship, has been interpreted as monotheism, monism, as well as a deified Hidden Principles behind the great happenings and processes of nature.[293]
Hindus believe that all living creatures have a Self. This true "Self" of every person, is called theātman.The Self is believed to be eternal.[294]According to the monistic/pantheistic (non-dualist) theologies of Hinduism (such asAdvaita Vedanta school), thisAtmanis indistinct fromBrahman,the supreme spirit orthe Ultimate Reality.[295]The goal of life, according to theAdvaita school,is to realise thatone's Selfis identical tosupreme Self,that the supreme Self is present in everything and everyone, all life is interconnected and there is oneness in all life.[296][297][298]Dualisticschools (DvaitaandBhakti) understandBrahmanas a Supreme Being separate fromindividual Selfs.[299]They worship the Supreme Being variously asVishnu,Brahma,Shiva,orShakti,depending upon the sect. God is calledIshvara,Bhagavan,Parameshwara,DevaorDevi,and these terms have different meanings in different schools of Hinduism.[300][301][302]
Hindu texts accept a polytheistic framework, but this is generally conceptualised as the divine essence or luminosity that gives vitality and animation to the inanimate natural substances.[303]There is a divine in everything, human beings, animals, trees and rivers. It is observable in offerings to rivers, trees, tools of one's work, animals and birds, rising sun, friends and guests, teachers and parents.[303][304][305]It is the divine in these that makes each sacred and worthy of reverence, rather than them being sacred in and of themselves. This perception of divinity manifested in all things, as Buttimer and Wallin view it, makes theVedicfoundations of Hinduism quite distinct fromanimism,in which all things are themselves divine.[303]The animistic premise sees multiplicity, and therefore an equality of ability to compete for power when it comes to man and man, man and animal,man and nature,etc. TheVedicview does not perceive this competition, equality of man to nature, or multiplicity so much as an overwhelming and interconnecting single divinity that unifies everyone and everything.[303][306][307]
TheHindu scripturesname celestial entities calledDevas(orDeviin feminine form), which may be translated into English asgodsorheavenly beings.[note 27]Thedevasare an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art,architectureand throughicons,and stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and thePuranas.They are, however, often distinguished fromIshvara,a personal god, with many Hindus worshippingIshvarain one of its particular manifestations as theiriṣṭa devatā,or chosen ideal.[308][309]The choice is a matter of individual preference,[310]and of regional and family traditions.[310][note 28]The multitude of Devas is considered manifestations of Brahman.[312]
The wordavatardoes not appear in theVedic literature;[313]It appears in verb forms in post-Vedic literature, and as a noun particularly in the Puranic literature after the 6th century CE.[314]Theologically, the reincarnation idea is most often associated with theavatarsof Hindu godVishnu,though the idea has been applied to other deities.[315]Varying lists of avatars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the tenDashavataraof theGaruda Puranaand the twenty-two avatars in theBhagavata Purana,though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable.[316]The avatars of Vishnu are important in Vaishnavism theology. In the goddess-basedShaktism tradition,avatars of theDeviare found and all goddesses are considered to be different aspects of the samemetaphysical Brahman[317]andShakti(energy).[318][319]While avatars of other deities such asGaneshaand Shiva are also mentioned in medieval Hindu texts, this is minor and occasional.[320]
Both theistic and atheistic ideas, for epistemological and metaphysical reasons, are profuse in different schools of Hinduism. The earlyNyayaschool of Hinduism, for example, was non-theist/atheist,[321]but laterNyayaschool scholars argued that God exists and offered proofs using its theory of logic.[322][323]Other schools disagreed with Nyaya scholars.Samkhya,[324]Mimamsa[325]andCarvakaschools of Hinduism, were non-theist/atheist, arguing that "God was an unnecessary metaphysical assumption".[web 16][326][327]ItsVaisheshikaschool started as another non-theistic tradition relying on naturalism and that all matter is eternal, but it later introduced the concept of a non-creator God.[328][329][330]TheYogaschool of Hinduism accepted the concept of a "personal god" and left it to the Hindu to define his or her god.[331]Advaita Vedanta taught a monistic, abstract Self and Oneness in everything, with no room for gods or deity, a perspective that Mohanty calls, "spiritual, not religious".[332]Bhakti sub-schools of Vedanta taught a creator God that is distinct from each human being.[299]
God in Hinduism is often represented having both thefeminine and masculineaspects. The notion of the feminine in deity is much more pronounced and is evident in the pairings of Shiva with Parvati (Ardhanarishvara),Vishnuaccompanied by Lakshmi,RadhawithKrishnaandSitawithRama.[333]
According toGraham Schweig,Hinduism has the strongest presence of the divine feminine in world religion from ancient times to the present.[334]The goddess is viewed as the heart of the most esotericSaiva traditions.[335]
Authority
Authority and eternal truths play an important role in Hinduism.[336]Religious traditions and truths are believed to be contained in its sacred texts, which are accessed and taught by sages, gurus, saints or avatars.[336]But there is also a strong tradition of the questioning of authority, internal debate and challenging of religious texts in Hinduism. The Hindus believe that this deepens the understanding of the eternal truths and further develops the tradition. Authority "was mediated through [...] an intellectual culture that tended to develop ideas collaboratively, and according to the shared logic of natural reason."[336]Narratives in theUpanishadspresent characters questioning persons of authority.[336]TheKena Upanishadrepeatedly askskena,'by what' power something is the case.[336]TheKatha Upanishadand Bhagavad Gita present narratives where the student criticises the teacher's inferior answers.[336]In theShiva Purana,Shiva questions Vishnu and Brahma.[336]Doubt plays a repeated role in the Mahabharata.[336]Jayadeva'sGita Govindapresents criticism viaRadha.[336]
Practices
Rituals
Most Hindus observereligious rituals at home.[338]The rituals vary greatly among regions, villages, and individuals. They are not mandatory in Hinduism. The nature and place of rituals is an individual's choice. Some devout Hindus perform daily rituals such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing bhajans (devotional hymns), yoga,meditation,chanting mantras and others.[339]
Vedic rituals of fire-oblation (yajna) and chanting of Vedic hymns are observed on special occasions, such as a Hindu wedding.[340]Other major life-stage events, such as rituals after death, include theyajñaand chanting of Vedicmantras.[web 17]
The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"[341]and "do not constitutelinguistic utterances."[342]Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they becomemagicalsounds, "means to an end."[note 29]In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.[342]By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of themantraswill be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings. "[342][325]
Sādhanā
Sādhanā is derived from the root "sādh-", meaning "to accomplish", and denotes a means for the realisation of spiritual goals. Although different denominations of Hinduism have their own particular notions of sādhana, they share the feature of liberation from bondage. They differ on what causes bondage, how one can become free of that bondage, and who or what can lead one on that path.[343][344]
Life-cycle rites of passage
Major life stage milestones are celebrated assanskara(saṃskāra,rites of passage) in Hinduism.[345][346]The rites of passage are not mandatory, and vary in details by gender, community and regionally.[347]GautamaDharmasutrascomposed in about the middle of 1st millennium BCE lists 48 sanskaras,[348]whileGryhasutraand other texts composed centuries later list between 12 and 16 sanskaras.[345][349]The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such ascompassiontowards all living beings and positive attitude.[348]
The major traditional rites of passage in Hinduism include[347]Garbhadhana(pregnancy),Pumsavana(rite before the fetus begins moving and kicking in womb),Simantonnayana(parting of pregnant woman's hair, baby shower),Jatakarman(rite celebrating the new born baby),Namakarana(naming the child),Nishkramana(baby's first outing from home into the world),Annaprashana(baby's first feeding of solid food),Chudakarana(baby's first haircut, tonsure),Karnavedha(ear piercing),Vidyarambha(baby's start with knowledge),Upanayana(entry into a school rite),[350][351]KeshantaandRitusuddhi(first shave for boys, menarche for girls),Samavartana(graduation ceremony), Vivaha (wedding),Vratas(fasting, spiritual studies) andAntyeshti(cremation for an adult, burial for a child).[352]In contemporary times, there is regional variation among Hindus as to which of thesesanskarasare observed; in some cases, additional regional rites of passage such asŚrāddha(ritual of feeding people after cremation) are practised.[347][353]
Bhakti (worship)
Bhaktirefers to devotion, participation in and the love of a personal god or a representational god by a devotee.[web 18][354]Bhakti-margais considered in Hinduism to be one of many possible paths of spirituality and alternative means to moksha.[355]The other paths, left to the choice of a Hindu, areJnana-marga(path of knowledge),Karma-marga(path of works),Rāja-marga(path of contemplation and meditation).[356][357]
Bhakti is practised in a number of ways, ranging from reciting mantras,japas(incantations), to individual private prayers in one's home shrine,[358]or in a temple before amurtior sacred image of a deity.[359][360]Hindu templesand domestic altars, are important elements of worship in contemporary theistic Hinduism.[361]While many visit a temple on special occasions, most offer daily prayers at a domestic altar, typically a dedicated part of the home that includes sacred images of deities or gurus.[361]
One form of daily worship is aarti, or "supplication", a ritual in which a flame is offered and "accompanied by a song of praise".[362]Notable aartis includeOm Jai Jagdish Hare,aHindiprayer toVishnu,andSukhakarta Dukhaharta,aMarathiprayer toGanesha.[363][364]Aarti can be used to make offerings to entities ranging from deities to "human exemplar[s]".[362]For instance, Aarti is offered toHanuman,a devotee of God, in many temples, includingBalaji temples,where the primary deity is an incarnation ofVishnu.[365]InSwaminarayantemples and home shrines, aarti is offered toSwaminarayan,considered by followers to beSupreme God.[366]
Other personal and community practices include puja as well as aarti,[367]kirtan, or bhajan, where devotional verses and hymns are read or poems are sung by a group of devotees.[web 19][368]While the choice of the deity is at the discretion of the Hindu, the most observed traditions of Hindu devotion include Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.[369]A Hindu may worship multiple deities, all as henotheistic manifestations of the same ultimate reality, cosmic spirit and absolute spiritual concept called Brahman.[370][371][312]Bhakti-marga, states Pechelis, is more than ritual devotionalism, it includes practices and spiritual activities aimed at refining one's state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalising god.[372][373]While bhakti practices are popular and easily observable aspect of Hinduism, not all Hindus practice bhakti, or believe in god-with-attributes (saguna Brahman).[374][375]Concurrent Hindu practices include a belief in god-without-attributes (nirguna Brahman), and god within oneself.[376][377]
Festivals
Hindu festivals (Sanskrit:Utsava;literally: "to lift higher" ) are ceremonies that weave individual and social life to dharma.[378][379]Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year, where the dates are set by the lunisolarHindu calendar,many coinciding with either the full moon (Holi) or the new moon (Diwali), often with seasonal changes.[380]Some festivals are found only regionally and they celebrate local traditions, while a few such asHoliandDiwaliare pan-Hindu.[380][381] The festivals typically celebrate events from Hinduism, connoting spiritual themes and celebrating aspects of human relationships such as the sister-brother bond over theRaksha Bandhan(orBhai Dooj) festival.[379][382]The same festival sometimes marks different stories depending on the Hindu denomination, and the celebrations incorporate regional themes, traditional agriculture, local arts, family get togethers,Pujarituals and feasts.[378][383]
Some major regional or pan-Hindu festivals include:
- Ashadhi Ekadashi
- Bonalu
- Chhath
- Dashain
- DiwaliorTiharorDeepawali
- Durga Puja
- Dussehra
- Ganesh Chaturthi
- Gowri Habba
- Gudi Padwa
- Holi
- Karva Chauth
- Kartika Purnima
- Krishna Janmashtami
- Maha Shivaratri
- Makar Sankranti
- Navaratri
- Onam
- Pongal
- Radhashtami
- Raksha Bandhan
- Rama Navami
- Ratha Yatra
- Sharad Purnima
- Shigmo
- Thaipusam
- Ugadi
- Vasant Panchami
- Vishu
Pilgrimage
Many adherents undertakepilgrimages,which have historically been an important part of Hinduism and remain so today.[384]Pilgrimage sites are calledTirtha,Kshetra,GopithaorMahalaya.[385][386]The process or journey associated withTirthais calledTirtha-yatra.[387]According to the Hindu textSkanda Purana,Tirtha are of three kinds: Jangam Tirtha is to a place movable of asadhu,arishi,aguru;Sthawar Tirtha is to a place immovable, like Benaras, Haridwar, Mount Kailash, holy rivers; while Manas Tirtha is to a place of mind of truth, charity, patience, compassion, soft speech, Self.[388][389]Tīrtha-yatrais, states Knut A. Jacobsen, anything that has a salvific value to a Hindu, and includes pilgrimage sites such as mountains or forests or seashore or rivers or ponds, as well as virtues, actions, studies or state of mind.[390][391]
Pilgrimage sites of Hinduism are mentioned in the epic Mahabharata and thePuranas.[392][393]Most Puranas include large sections onTirtha Mahatmyaalong with tourist guides,[394]which describe sacred sites and places to visit.[395][396][397]In these texts,Varanasi(Benares, Kashi),Rameswaram,Kanchipuram,Dwarka,Puri,Haridwar,Sri Rangam,Vrindavan,Ayodhya,Tirupati,Mayapur,Nathdwara,twelveJyotirlingaandShakti Pithahave been mentioned as particularly holy sites, along with geographies where major rivers meet (sangam) or join the sea.[398][393]Kumbh Melais another major pilgrimage on the eve of the solar festivalMakar Sankranti.This pilgrimage rotates at a gap of three years among four sites:Prayagrajat the confluence of theGangesandYamunarivers,Haridwarnear source of theGanges,Ujjainon theShiprariver andNashikon the bank of theGodavaririver.[399]This is one of world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending the event.[399][400][web 20]At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe in the river,[399]a tradition attributed toAdi Shankara.[401]
Some pilgrimages are part of aVrata(vow), which a Hindu may make for a number of reasons.[402][403]It may mark a special occasion, such as the birth of a baby, or as part of arite of passagesuch as a baby's first haircut, or after healing from a sickness.[404][405]It may also be the result of prayers answered.[404]An alternative reason for Tirtha, for some Hindus, is to respect wishes or in memory of a beloved person after his or her death.[404]This may include dispersing their cremation ashes in a Tirtha region in a stream, river or sea to honour the wishes of the dead. The journey to a Tirtha, assert some Hindu texts, helps one overcome the sorrow of the loss.[404][note 30]
Other reasons for a Tirtha in Hinduism is to rejuvenate or gain spiritual merit by travelling to famed temples or bathe in rivers such as the Ganges.[408][409][410]Tirtha has been one of the recommended means of addressing remorse and to perform penance, for unintentional errors and intentional sins, in the Hindu tradition.[411][412]The proper procedure for a pilgrimage is widely discussed in Hindu texts.[413]The most accepted view is that the greatest austerity comes from travelling on foot, or part of the journey is on foot, and that the use of a conveyance is only acceptable if the pilgrimage is otherwise impossible.[414]
Culture
The term "Hindu culture"refers to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such asfestivalsand dress codes followed by theHinduswhich is mainly can be inspired from theculture of IndiaandSoutheast Asia.
Architecture
Hindu architectureis the traditional system of Indian architecture for structures such as temples, monasteries, statues, homes, market places, gardens and town planning as described inHindu texts.[415][416]The architectural guidelines survive in Sanskrit manuscripts and in some cases also in other regional languages. These texts include theVastu shastras,Shilpa Shastras,theBrihat Samhita,architectural portions of the Puranas and the Agamas, and regional texts such as theManasaraamong others.[417][418]
By far the most important, characteristic and numerous surviving examples of Hindu architecture areHindu temples,with anarchitectural traditionthat has left surviving examples in stone, brick, androck-cut architecturedating back to theGupta Empire.These architectures had influence of Ancient Persian andHellenisticarchitecture.[419]Far fewer secular Hindu architecture have survived into the modern era, such as palaces, homes and cities. Ruins and archaeological studies provide a view of early secular architecture in India.[420]
Studies on Indian palaces and civic architectural history have largely focussed on the Mughal and Indo-Islamic architecture particularly of the northern and western India given their relative abundance. In other regions of India, particularly the South, Hindu architecture continued to thrive through the 16th-century, such as those exemplified by the temples, ruined cities and secular spaces of the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayakas.[421][422]The secular architecture was never opposed to the religious in India, and it is the sacred architecture such as those found in the Hindu temples which were inspired by and adaptations of the secular ones. Further, states Harle, it is in the reliefs on temple walls, pillars, toranas and madapams where miniature version of the secular architecture can be found.[423]Art
Hindu artencompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.
Calendar
The Hindu calendar, Panchanga (Sanskrit:पञ्चाङ्ग) or Panjika is one of variouslunisolar calendarsthat are traditionally used in theIndian subcontinentandSoutheast Asia,with further regional variations for social andHindureligious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based onsidereal yearfor solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.[424]Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are theShalivahana Shaka(Based on theKing Shalivahana,also theIndian national calendar) found in theDeccan regionof Southern India and theVikram Samvat(Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions ofIndia– both of which emphasise the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasised and this is called theTamil calendar(though Tamil calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) andMalayalam calendarand these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.[424][425]A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to asPanchangam(पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known asPanjikain Eastern India.[426]
The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in theHebrew calendar,theChinese calendar,and theBabylonian calendar,but different from the Gregorian calendar.[427]Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)[428]and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.[427][425]
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by theHindusall over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then localBuddhist calendars.Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system.[429]TheBuddhist calendarand the traditional lunisolar calendars ofCambodia,Laos,Myanmar,Sri LankaandThailandare also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancientJaintraditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points.[430][431][432]
The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such asEkadashi.[433]
Person and society
Varnas
Hindu society has been categorised into four classes, calledvarṇas.They are theBrahmins:Vedicteachers and priests; theKshatriyas:warriors and kings; theVaishyas:farmers and merchants; and theShudras:servants and labourers.[434] TheBhagavad Gītālinks the varṇa to an individual's duty (svadharma), inborn nature (svabhāva), and natural tendencies (guṇa).[435]TheManusmriticategorises the differentcastes.[web 21] Some mobility and flexibility within thevarṇaschallenge allegations of social discrimination in thecaste system,as has been pointed out by several sociologists,[436][437]although some other scholars disagree.[438]Scholars debate whether the so-calledcaste systemis part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or social custom.[439][web 22][note 31]And various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by theBritish colonial regime.[440]
Arenunciantman of knowledge is usually calledVarṇatitaor "beyond all varṇas" inVedanticworks. The bhiksu is advised to not bother about the caste of the family from which he begs his food. Scholars likeAdi Sankaraaffirm that not only isBrahmanbeyond allvarṇas,the man who is identified with Him also transcends the distinctions and limitations of caste.[441]
Yoga
In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) thatsageshave taught for reaching that goal.Yogais a Hindu discipline which trains the body, mind, and consciousness for health,tranquility,and spiritual insight.[442]Texts dedicated toyogainclude theYoga Sutras,theHatha Yoga Pradipika,theBhagavad Gitaand, as their philosophical and historical basis, theUpanishads.Yogais means, and the four majormarga(paths) of Hinduism are:Bhakti Yoga(the path of love and devotion),Karma Yoga(the path of right action),Rāja Yoga(the path of meditation), andJñāna Yoga(the path of wisdom)[443]An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. The modern practice ofyoga as exercise(traditionallyHatha yoga) has a contested relationship with Hinduism.[444]
Symbolism
Hinduism has a developed system ofsymbolism and iconographyto represent the sacred in art, architecture,literatureand worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures or cultural traditions. The syllableOm(which represents theBrahmanandAtman) has grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as theSwastika(from theSanskrit:स्वस्तिक,romanized:svastika) asign that represents auspiciousness,[445]andTilaka(literally, seed) on forehead – considered to be the location ofspiritual third eye,[446]marks ceremonious welcome, blessing or one's participation in aritual or rite of passage.[447]ElaborateTilakawith lines may also identify a devotee of a particular denomination. Flowers, birds, animals, instruments, symmetricmandaladrawings, objects,lingam,idols are all part ofsymbolic iconographyin Hinduism.[448][449] [450]
Ahiṃsā and food customs
Hindus advocate the practice ofahiṃsā(nonviolence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[451]The termahiṃsāappears in theUpanishads,[452]the epicMahabharata[453]andahiṃsāis the first of the fiveYamas(vows of self-restraint) inPatanjali's Yoga Sutras.[454]
In accordance withahiṃsā,many Hindus embracevegetarianismto respect higher forms of life. Estimates of strictlacto vegetariansinIndia(includes adherents of all religions) who never eat any meat, fish or eggs vary between 20% and 42%, while others are either less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.[455]Those who eat meat seekJhatka(quick death) method of meat production, and dislikeHalal(slow bled death) method, believing that quick death method reduces suffering to the animal.[456][457]The food habits vary with region, with Bengali Hindus and Hindus living inHimalayan regions,or river delta regions, regularly eating meat and fish.[458]Some avoid meat on specific festivals or occasions.[459]Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. Hinduism specifically considersBos indicusto be sacred.[460][461][462]Thecowin Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,[463]and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving,[464]selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.[465] There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strictvegetariandiet in modern times. Some adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.[466]Food affects body, mind and spirit in Hindu beliefs.[467][468]Hindu texts such asŚāṇḍilya Upanishad[469]andSvātmārāma[470][471]recommendMitahara(eating in moderation) as one of theYamas(virtuous Self restraints). The Bhagavad Gita links body and mind to food one consumes in verses 17.8 through 17.10.[472]
Some Hindus such as those belonging to theShaktismtradition,[473]and Hindus in regions such asBaliandNepal[474][475]practiseanimal sacrifice.[474]The sacrificed animal is eaten as ritual food.[476]In contrast, theVaishnavaHindus abhor and vigorously oppose animal sacrifice.[477][478]The principle of non-violence to animals has been so thoroughly adopted in Hinduism that animal sacrifice is uncommon[479]and historically reduced to a vestigial marginal practice.[480]
Institutions
Temple
AHindu templeis a house of god(s).[481]It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.[482]A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmology, the highest spire or dome representingMount Meru– reminder of the abode of Brahma and the center of spiritual universe,[483]the carvings and iconography symbolically presentingdharma,kama,artha,mokshaandkarma.[484][485]The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism.[482]Hindu temples are spiritual destinations for many Hindus (not all), as well as landmarks for arts, annual festivals,rite of passagerituals, and community celebrations.[486][487]
Hindu temples come in many styles, diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs.[488]Two major styles of Hindu temples include theGopuramstyle found in south India, andNagarastyle found in north India.[web 24][web 25]Other styles include cave, forest and mountain temples.[489]Yet, despite their differences, almost all Hindu temples share certain common architectural principles, core ideas, symbolism and themes.[482]
Many temples feature one or more idols (murtis). The idol and Grabhgriya in the Brahma-pada (the center of the temple), under the main spire, serves as a focal point (darsana,a sight) in a Hindu temple.[490]In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate thePurusa(Brahman), the universal essence.[482]
Asrama
Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āśramas (phases or life stages; another meaning includes monastery).[491]The four ashramas are:Brahmacharya(student),Grihastha(householder),Vānaprastha(retired) andSannyasa(renunciation).[492] Brahmacharya represents the bachelor student stage of life. Grihastha refers to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.[492]Grihastha stage starts with Hindu wedding, and has been considered the most important of all stages in sociological context, as Hindus in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.[493]Vanaprastha is the retirement stage, where a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.[494][495]The Sannyasa stage marks renunciation and a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic state), and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.[496][497]
The Ashramas system has been one facet of the dharma concept in Hinduism.[493]Combined with four proper goals of human life (Purusartha), the Ashramas system traditionally aimed at providing a Hindu with fulfilling life and spiritual liberation.[493]While these stages are typically sequential, any person can enter Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and become an Ascetic at any time after the Brahmacharya stage.[498]Sannyasa is not religiously mandatory in Hinduism, and elderly people are free to live with their families.[499]
Monasticism
Some Hindus choose to live amonasticlife (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation (moksha) or another form of spiritual perfection.[15]Monastics commit themselves to a simple and celibate life, detached from material pursuits, of meditation and spiritual contemplation.[500]A Hindu monk is called aSanyāsī,Sādhu,orSwāmi.A female renunciate is called aSanyāsini.Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because of their simpleahiṃsā-driven lifestyle and dedication to spiritual liberation (moksha) – believed to be the ultimate goal of life in Hinduism.[497]Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, depending on donated food and charity for their needs.[501]
History
Hinduism's varied history[12]overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since theIron Age,with some of its traditions tracing back toprehistoric religionssuch as those of the Bronze AgeIndus Valley Civilisation.While the traditionalItihasa-Puranaand theEpic-Puranic chronologyderived from it present Hinduism as a tradition existing for thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as asynthesis[502][17]of various Indian cultures and traditions,[17][116][502]with diverse roots[55]and no single founder,[503][note 32]which emerged after the Vedic period, betweenc. 500[17]–200[18]BCEandc. 300 CE.[17]
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of thehistorical Vedic religionwith theIndo-Aryan migrations,starting somewhere between 1900 BCE to 1400 BCE.[507][note 33]The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",[510]and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, fromc. 200 BCEto 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320–650 CE), which coincides with theGupta Empire.In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namelySamkhya,Yoga,Nyaya,Vaisheshika,Mīmāṃsā,andVedanta.Monotheistic sects likeShaivismandVaishnavismdeveloped during this same period through theBhakti movement.The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period[7]or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, andAdi Shankara's influential consolidation ofAdvaita Vedanta.[511]
Hinduism under both Hindu andIslamicrulers fromc. 1250–1750CE,[512][513]saw the increasing prominence of the Bhakti movement, which remains influential today. Historic persecutions ofHindushappened underMuslim rulers[514]and also byChristian Missionaries.[515]InGoa,the1560 inquisitionbyPortuguese colonistsis also considered one of the most brutalpersecutions of Hindus.[516]Thecolonial periodsaw the emergence of variousHindu reform movementspartly inspired by western movements, such asUnitarianismandTheosophy.[517]In theKingdom of Nepal,theUnification of NepalbyShah dynastywas accompanied by the Hinduization of thestateand continued till thec. 1950s.[518][failed verification]Indianswere hired as plantation labourers inBritish coloniessuch asFiji,Mauritius,Trinidad and Tobago.[519]ThePartition of Indiain 1947 was along religious lines, with theRepublic of Indiaemerging with a Hindu majority.[520]Between 200,000 and one million people, including both Muslims and Hindus, were killed during thePartition of India.[521]During the 20th century, due to theIndian diaspora,Hindu minorities have formed in all continents, with the largest communities in absolute numbers in theUnited States,[522]and theUnited Kingdom.[523]
Although religious conversion from and to Hinduism has been a controversial and debated subject in India, Nepal,[524][525][526]and in Indonesia,[527][note 34]in the 20th–21st century, many missionary organisations such asISKCON,Sathya Sai Organization,Vedanta Societyhave been influential in spreading the core culture of Hinduism outside India.[note 22]Religious leaders of some Hindu reform movements such as theArya SamajlaunchedShuddhimovement to proselytise and reconvert Muslims and Christians back to Hinduism,[529][530]while those such as theBrahmo Samajsuggested Hinduism to be a non-missionary religion.[528]All these sects of Hinduism have welcomed new members to their group, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that given the intensive proselytisation activities from missionary Islam and Christianity, this "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" view must be re-examined.[528][529][531]There have also been an increase ofHindu identityin politics, mostly inIndia,NepalandBangladeshin the form ofHindutva.[532]The revivalist movement was mainly started and encouraged by many organisations likeRSS,BJPand other organisations ofSangh Parivarin India, while there are also manyHindu nationalist parties and organisationssuch asShivsena NepalandRPPinNepal,HINDRAFinMalaysia,etc.[533][518]
Demographics
Hinduism is a majorreligion in India.Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.21 billion (2011 census) (966 million adherents).[534]India contains 94% of the global Hindu population.[535][536]Othersignificant populationsare found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (13 million) and theIndonesianisland ofBali(3.9 million).[537]A significant population of Hindus are also present in Pakistan (4 million).[538]The majority of the IndonesianTenggerese people[199]inJavaand the VietnameseCham peoplealso follow Hinduism, with the largest proportion of the Chams inNinh Thuận Province.[539]Hinduism is thethird fastest-growing religionin the world afterIslamandChristianity,with a predicted growth rate of 34% between 2010 and 2050.[540]
Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus:
Nepal– 81.3%[542]
India– 80.0%[543]
Mauritius– 48.5%[544]
Guyana– 31%[545]
Fiji– 27.9%[546]
Trinidad and Tobago– 24.3%[547]
Bhutan– 22.6%[548]
Suriname– 22.3%[549]
Qatar– 15.9%[550]
Sri Lanka– 12.6%[551]
Bahrain– 9.8%[552]
Bangladesh– 7.5%[553]
Réunion– 6.8%[note 35]
United Arab Emirates– 6.6%[554]
Malaysia– 6.3%[555]
Kuwait– 6%[556]
Oman– 5.5%[557]
Seychelles– 5.4%[558]
Singapore– 5%[559]
Indonesia– 3.86%[560]
Australia– 2.7%[561]
New Zealand– 2.62%[562]
Pakistan– 2.14%[563]
Demographically, Hinduism is theworld's third largest religion,afterChristianityandIslam.[564][565]
| Tradition | Followers | % of the Hindu population | % of the world population | Follower dynamics | World dynamics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vaishnavism | 640,806,845 | 67.6 | 9.3 |  Growing
|
Growing
|
| Shaivism | 252,200,000 | 26.6 | 3.7 | Growing
|
Growing
|
| Shaktism | 30,000,000 | 3.2 | 0.4 |  Stable
|
 Declining
|
| Neo-Hinduism | 20,300,000 | 2.1 | 0.3 | Growing
|
Growing
|
| Reform Hinduism | 5,200,000 | 0.5 | 0.1 | Growing
|
Growing
|
| Cumulative | 948,575,000 | 100 | 13.8 | Growing
|
Growing
|
See also
- Hinduism
- Related systems and religions
- Adivasi religion
- Ayyavazhi
- Bathouism
- Donyi-Polo
- Dravidian folk religion
- Eastern religions
- Eastern philosophy
- Gurung shamanism
- Bon
- Hinduism and other religions
- Indian religions
- Kalash religion
- Kiratism
- Sarna sthal
- Manichaeism
- Peterburgian Vedism
- Proto-Indo-European religion
- Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
- Hinduism and science
- Sanamahism
- Sarnaism
- Sikhism
- Tribal religions in India
- Zoroastrianism
- Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization
- Ancient Iranian religion
Notes
- ^abHinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" (Sharma 2003,pp. 12–13) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" inFlood 2003,pp. 1–17
- ^There isno single-word translationfordharmain Western languages.(Widgery 1930)(Rocher 2003)
The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions,Dharma,defines dharma as follows: "the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." SeeDharma (righteousness, ethics). - ^abThere are several views on the earliest mention of 'Hindu' in the context of religion:
- Flood 1996,p. 6 states: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain, or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century."
- Sharma 2002and other scholars state that the 7th-century Chinese scholarXuanzang,whose 17-year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions were recorded and preserved in the Chinese language, uses the transliterated termIn-tuwhose "connotation overflows in the religious".(Sharma 2002) Xuanzang describesHindu Deva-templesof the early 7th century CE, worship ofSundeity andShiva,his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts atNalanda.See alsoGosch & Stearns 2007,pp. 88–99,Sharma 2011,pp. 5–12,Smith et al. 2012,pp. 321–324.
- Sharma 2002also mentions the use of the wordHinduin Islamic texts such as those relating to the 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century textTarikh Al-Hind,and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the termHinduretains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
- Lorenzen 2006states, citing Richard Eaton: "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work,Futuhu's-Salatin,composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion ".(Lorenzen 2006,p. 33)
- Lorenzen 2006,pp. 32–33 also mentions other non-Persian texts such asPrithvíráj Rásoby ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in the 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity.
- Lorenzen 2006,p. 15 states that one of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.
- ^See:
- Fowler 1997,p. 1: "probably the oldest religion in the world."
- Klostermaier 2007,p. 1: The "oldest living major religion" in the world.
- Kurien 2006:"There are almost a billion Hindus living on Earth. They practice the world's oldest religion..."
- Bakker 1997:"it [Hinduism] is the oldest religion".
- Noble 1998:"Hinduism, the world's oldest surviving religion, continues to provide the framework for daily life in much of South Asia."
Animism has also been called "the oldest religion." (Sponsel 2012:"Animism is by far the oldest religion in the world. Its antiquity seems to go back at least as far as the period of the Neanderthals some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago." )
Australianlinguist,R. M. W. Dixondiscovered thatAboriginal mythsregarding the origin of the Crater Lakes might be dated as accurate back to 10,000 years ago.(Dixon 1996)David et al. (2024)found archaeological evidence that the mulla-mullung ritual, described in the 19th century, dates back at least 12,000 years.
See also:- Urreligion,Shamanism,Animism,Ancestor worshipfor some of the oldest forms of religion
- SarnaismandSanamahism,Indian Tribal religions connected to the earliest migrations into India
- ^Santana dharma:
- Harvey 2001,p. xiii: "In modern Indian usage, sanātana dharma is often equated with 'Hinduism' as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it."
- Knott 1998,p. 5: "Many describe Hinduism assanatana dharma,the eternal tradition or religion. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history. ";
- Knott 1998,p. 117: "The phrase sanatana dharma, eternal tradition, used often by Hindus to describe their religion, implies antiquity, but its usage is modern."
- Parpola 2015,p. 3: "Some Indians object to having a foreign term for their religion, preferring the Sanskrit expressionsanātana dharma,"eternal law or truth," despite the fact that this expression was not applied to any religious system in ancient texts. "
- ^abLockard 2007,p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion ofAryanandDravidianoccurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis. "
Lockard 2007,p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries." - ^abHiltebeitel 2002,p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE). "
- ^See:
- Samuel 2008,p. 194: "The Brahmanical pattern"
- Flood 1996,p. 16: "The tradition of brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative'"
- Hiltebeitel 2002,p. 12: "Brahmanical synthesis"
- ^abSee also:
- Ghurye 1980,pp. 3–4: "He [J. H. Hutton, the Commissioner of the Census of 1931] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. 'The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism'."
- Zimmer 1951,pp. 218–219.
- Sjoberg 1990,p. 43. Quote: [Tyler (1973).India: An Anthropological Perspective.p. 68.]; "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."
- Sjoberg 1990.
- Flood 1996,p. 16: "Contemporary Hinduism cannot be traced to a common origin [...] The many traditions which feed into contemporary Hinduism can be subsumed under three broad headings: the tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy, the renouncer traditions and popular or local traditions. The tradition of Brahmanical orthopraxy has played the role of 'master narrative', transmitting a body of knowledge and behaviour through time, and defining the conditions of orthopraxy, such as adherence tovarnasramadharma."
- Nath 2001.
- Werner 1998.
- Werner 2005,pp. 8–9.
- Lockard 2007,p. 50.
- Hiltebeitel 2002.
- Hopfe & Woodward 2008,p. 79: "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
- Samuel 2010.
- ^abAmong its roots are theVedic religionof the lateVedic period(Flood 1996,p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (Samuel 2008,pp. 48–53), but also the religions of theIndus Valley civilisation(Narayanan 2009,p. 11;Lockard 2007,p. 52;Hiltebeitel 2002,p. 3;Jones & Ryan 2007,p. xviii) theśramaṇaor renouncer traditions ofnortheastern India(Flood 1996,p. 16;Gomez 2013,p. 42), with possible roots in a non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture (Bronkhorst 2007); and "popular orlocal traditions"(Flood 1996,p. 16) and prehistoric cultures "that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence."Doniger 2010,p. 66)
- ^The Indo-Aryan wordSindhumeans "river", "ocean".[31]It is frequently being used in theRigveda.The Sindhu-area is part ofĀryāvarta,"the land of the Aryans".
- ^In the contemporary era, the term Hindus are individuals who identify with one or more aspects of Hinduism, whether they are practising or non-practicing orLaissez-faire.[41]The term does not include those who identify with other Indian religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism or various animist tribal religions found in India such asSarnaism.[42]The term Hindu, in contemporary parlance, includes people who accept themselves as culturally or ethnically Hindu rather than with a fixed set of religious beliefs within Hinduism. One need not be religious in the minimal sense, statesJulius Lipner,to be accepted as Hindu by Hindus, or to describe oneself as Hindu.[43]
- ^InD. N. Jha's essayLooking for a Hindu identity,he writes: "No Indians described themselves as Hindus before the fourteenth century" and "Hinduism was a creation of the colonial period and cannot lay claim to any great antiquity."[39]He further wrote "The British borrowed the word 'Hindu' from India, gave it a new meaning and significance, [and] reimported it into India as a reified phenomenon called Hinduism."[48]
- ^Hinduismis derived from Persianhindu-and the-ismsuffix. It is first recorded in 1786, in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".[web 4]
- ^Sweetman mentions:
- Halbfass 1988,India and Europe
- Sontheimer 1989,Hinduism Reconsidered
- Ronald Inden,Imagining India
- Carol BreckenridgeandPeter van der Veer,Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament
- Vasudha DalmiaandHeinrich von Stietencron,Representing Hinduism
- S.N. Balagangadhara,The Heathen in his Blindness...
- Thomas Trautmann,Aryans and British India
- King 1999,Orientalism and religion
- ^SeeRajiv MalhotraandBeing Differentfor a critic who gained widespread attention outside the academia,Invading the Sacred,andHindu studies.
- ^The termsanatana dharmaand its Vedic roots had another context in the colonial era, particularly the early 19th-century through movements such as theBrahmo Samajand theArya Samaj.These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of 1895.[95]
- ^Lipner quotes Brockington (1981),The sacred tread,p. 5.
- ^Pennington[139]describes the circumstances in which early impressions of Hinduism were reported by colonial era missionaries: "Missionary reports from India also reflected the experience of foreigners in a land whose native inhabitants and British rulers often resented their presence. Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine-prone Bengal – now West Bengal and Bangladesh]. Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: a fabricated Hinduism crazed by blood-lust and devoted to the service of devils."
- ^Sweetman (2004,p. 13) identifies several areas in which "there is substantial, if not universal, an agreement that colonialism influenced the study of Hinduism, even if the degree of this influence is debated":
- The wish of European Orientalists "to establish a textual basis for Hinduism", akin to the Protestant culture,(Sweetman 2004,p. 13) which was also driven by preference among the colonial powers for "written authority" rather than "oral authority".(Sweetman 2004,p. 13)
- The influence ofBrahminson European conceptions of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004,p. 13)
- [T]he identification of Vedanta, more specificallyAdvaita Vedanta,as 'the paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion'.(Sweetman 2004,p. 13) (Sweetman citesKing 1999,p. 128.) Several factors led to the favouring of Vedanta as the "central philosophy of the Hindus":(Sweetman 2004,pp. 13–14)
- According to Niranjan Dhar's theory that Vedanta was favoured because British feared French influence, especially the impact of theFrench Revolution;and Ronald Inden's theory that Advaita Vedanta was portrayed as 'illusionist pantheism' reinforcing the colonial stereotypical construction of Hinduism as indifferent to ethics and life-negating.(Sweetman 2004,pp. 13–14)
- "The amenability of Vedantic thought to both Christian and Hindu critics of 'idolatry' in other forms of Hinduism".(Sweetman 2004,p. 14)
- The colonial constructions of caste as being part of Hinduism.(Sweetman 2004,pp. 14–16) According to Nicholas Dirks' theory that, "Caste was refigured as a religious system, organising society in a context where politics and religion had never before been distinct domains of social action. (Sweetman citesDirks 2001,p. xxvii.)
- "[T]he construction of Hinduism in the image of Christianity" (Sweetman 2004,p. 15)
- Anti-colonial Hindus(Sweetman 2004,pp. 15–16) "looking toward the systematisation of disparate practices as a means of recovering a pre-colonial, national identity".(Sweetman 2004,p. 15) (Sweetman citesViswanathan 2003,p. 26.)
- ^Many scholars have presented pre-colonial common denominators and asserted the importance of ancient Hindu textual sources in medieval and pre-colonial times:
- Klaus Witz[142]states that HinduBhakti movementideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
- John Henderson[143]states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognised attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta.
- Patrick Olivelle[144]and others[145][146][147]state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.
- ^ab* Hinduism is the fastest growing religion inRussia,GhanaandUnited States.This was due to the influence of theISKCONand the migration ofHindusin these nations.[168]
- In western nations,thegrowth of Hinduismhas been very fast and is the second fastest growing religion inEurope,afterIslam.[169]
- ^According toJones & Ryan 2007,p. 474, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."[176][dubious–discuss]
- ^sometimes withLakshmi,the spouse of Vishnu; or, as Narayana and Sri;[177]
- ^Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliestIndo-Europeantexts.
- ^According toBhavishya Purana,Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7, there are foursources of dharma:Śruti(Vedas),Smṛti(Dharmaśāstras, Puranas),Śiṣṭa Āchāra/Sadāchara(conduct of noble people) and finallyĀtma tuṣṭi(Self satisfaction). From the sloka:
- वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद्धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥[web 14]
- vedaḥ smṛtiḥ sadācāraḥ svasya ca priyamātmanah
etaccaturvidham prāhuḥ sākshāddharmasya lakshaṇam - – Bhavishya Purāṇa, Brahmaparva, Adhyāya 7
- ^For translation ofdevain singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see:Monier-Williams 2001,p. 492. For translation ofdevatāas "godhead, divinity", see:Monier-Williams 2001,p. 495.
- ^Among some regional Hindus, such as Rajputs, these are calledKuldevisorKuldevata.[311]
- ^Klostermaier: "Brahman,derived from the rootbŗh= to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reifiedspeech-act"to that" of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end. "Klostermaier 2007,p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990),Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds,p.4.
- ^The cremation ashes are calledphool(flowers). These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage calledasthi sanchayana,then dispersed duringasthi visarjana.This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living. Tirtha locations offer these services.[406][407]
- ^Venkataraman and Deshpande: "Caste-based discrimination does exist in many parts of India today.... Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching ofHindu sacred textsthat divinity is inherent in all beings. "[web 23]
- ^Among its roots are theVedic religion[116]of the lateVedic periodand its emphasis on the status of Brahmans,[504]but also the religions of theIndus Valley Civilisation,[55][505][21]the śramaṇa[506]or renouncer traditions[116]ofeast India,[506]and "popular orlocal traditions".[116]
- ^There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[508]Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[509]
- ^According to Sharma, the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts of Hinduism.[528]
- ^Réunionis not a country, but an independentFrench terretory.
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... in certain other places [of Rigveda], an approach is being made to the idea of Transmigration.... There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet [of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.
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Under the circumstances God becomes an unnecessary metaphysical assumption. Naturally the Sankhyakarikas do not mention God, Vachaspati interprets this as rank atheism.
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An analysis of consumption data originating from National Sample Survey (NSS) shows that 42 percent of households are vegetarian, in that they never eat fish, meat or eggs. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians.
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Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
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- ^Yayasan, Bumi Kita (2005)."The Hidden Life of Bali".In Gouyon, Anne (ed.).The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference.Equinox Publishing (Asia). p. 51.ISBN978-979-3780-00-9.Archivedfrom the original on 26 July 2011.Retrieved12 August2010.
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Further reading
- Encyclopedias
- Dalal, Roshen(2010b).Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide.New Delhi: Penguin Books India.ISBN978-0-14-341421-6.
- Jacobsen, Knut A.;et al., eds. (2009–2015).Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Vol. 1–6. Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-9004271289.
- Vol. 1:Regions, Pilgrimage, Deities(2009).
- Vol. 2:Sacred Languages, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts(2010).
- Vol. 3:Society, Religious Professionals, Religious Communities, Philosophies(2011).
- Vol. 4:Historical Perspectives, Poets/Teachers/Saints, Relation to Other Religions and Traditions, Hinduism and Contemporary Issues(2012).
- Vol. 5:Symbolism, Diaspora, Modern Groups and Teachers(2013).
- Vol. 6:Indices(2015).
- Jain, Pankaj;Sherma, Rita;Khanna, Madhu,eds. (2018). "Hinduism and Tribal Religions".Swaminarayan.Encyclopedia of Indian Religions.Encyclopedia of Indian Religions. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6.doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_541-1.ISBN978-94-024-1036-5.
- Johnson, W. J. (2009).A Dictionary of Hinduism.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-861025-0.
- Jones, Constance A.; Ryan, James D. (2007).Encyclopedia of Hinduism.Encyclopedia of World Religions.J. Gordon Melton,Series Editor. New York: Facts On File.ISBN978-0-8160-5458-9.Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2020.
- Klostermaier, Klaus K.(1998).A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism.London: Oneworld Publications.ISBN978-1-78074-672-2.
- Potter, Karl H.,ed. (1970–2019).Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers.Vol. 1–25. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass.Archived fromthe originalon 1 February 2022.Ongoingmonographic seriesproject.
- Sullivan, Bruce M. (2001).The A to Z of Hinduism(Rev. ed.). Lanham, Md; London: Scarecrow Press.ISBN0-8108-4070-7.
- Werner, Karel(1997).A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism(Rev. ed.). Surrey: Curzon Press.ISBN0-7007-1049-3.
- Introductory
- Flood, Gavin(1996).An Introduction to Hinduism.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.Archivedfrom the original on 29 November 2016.
- Flood, Gavin,ed. (2003).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.Oxford:Blackwell.ISBN0-631-21535-2.Archived from the original on 29 March 2024.Retrieved29 May2023.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997).Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices.Sussex Academic Press.ISBN978-1-898723-60-8.[permanent dead link]
- Hiltebeitel, Alf(2002) [1987]."Hinduism".InKitagawa, Joseph M.(ed.).The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture.London: RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 3–40.ISBN0-7007-1762-5.
- Klostermaier, Klaus K.(2007).Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide.Oneworld Publications.ISBN978-1-78074-026-3.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2020.
- Knott, Kim (1998).Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction.New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-160645-8.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2020.
- History
- Chattopadhyaya, D. P.(ed.).History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization.Vol. 1–15. Delhi:Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
- Basham, Arthur Llewellyn(1954).The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims.London: Sidgwick & Jackson.
- Parpola, Asko(2015).The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-022693-0.
- Samuel, Geoffrey(2010).The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century.Cambridge University Press.
- Philosophy and theology
- Dasgupta, Surendranath(1922–1955).A History of Indian Philosophy.Vol. 1–5. London: Cambridge University Press.Vol. 1|Vol. 2|Vol. 3|Vol. 4|Vol. 5.
- Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli(1923–1927).Indian Philosophy.Vol. 1–2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Texts
- Klostermaier, Klaus K.(2010).A Survey of Hinduism(3rd ed.). New York: SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-8011-3.
- Richards, Glyn, ed. (1985).A Sourcebook of Modern Hinduism.Surrey: Curzon Press.ISBN978-0-7007-0173-5.
External links
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