Wikipedia

Hollow Earth

This article is about the concept. For other uses, seeHollow Earth (disambiguation).

TheHollow Earthis an obsolete concept proposing that the planetEarthis entirely hollow or contains a substantial interior space. Notably suggested byEdmond Halleyin the late 17th century, the notion was disproven, first tentatively byPierre Bouguerin 1740, then definitively byCharles Huttonin hisSchiehallion experimentaround 1774.

A cross-sectional drawing of the planet Earth showing the "Interior World" of Atvatabar, fromWilliam R. Bradshaw's 1892 science-fiction novelThe Goddess of Atvatabar

It was still occasionally defended through the mid-19th century, notably byJohn Cleves Symmes Jr.andJ. N. Reynolds,but by this time it was part of popularpseudoscienceand no longer a scientifically viable hypothesis.

The concept of a hollow Earth still recurs infolkloreand as a premise forsubterranean fiction,a subgenre ofadventure fiction.Hollow Earth also recurs inconspiracy theoriessuch as the underground kingdom ofAgarthaand theCryptoterrestrial hypothesisand is often said to be inhabited by mythological figures or political leaders.

History

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Ancient times

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In ancient times, the concept of a subterranean land inside the Earth appeared inmythology,folkloreandlegends.The idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of "places" of origin or afterlife, such as theGreek underworld,theNordicSvartálfaheimr,the ChristianHell,and the JewishSheol(with details describing inner Earth inKabalisticliterature, such as theZoharandHesed L'Avraham). The idea of a subterranean realm is also mentioned inTibetan Buddhistbelief.[1][2]According to one story from Tibetan Buddhist tradition, there is an ancient city calledShamballawhich is located inside the Earth.[2]

According to theAncient Greeks,there werecavernsunder the surface which were entrances leading to theunderworld,some of which were the caverns atTainaroninLakonia,atTroezeninArgolis,at Ephya inThesprotia,at Herakleia inPontos,and inErmioni.[3]InThracianandDacianlegends, it is said that there arecavernsoccupied by an ancient god calledZalmoxis.[4]InMesopotamian religionthere is a story of a man who, after traveling through the darkness of a tunnel in the mountain of "Mashu", entered a subterranean garden.[5]

Chapel, bell tower and penitential beds onStation Island.The bell tower stands on a mound that is the site of a cave which, according to various myths, is an entrance to a place ofpurgatoryinside the Earth. The cave has been closed since October 25, 1632.

InCeltic mythologythere is a legend of a cave called "Cruachan",also known as" Ireland's gate to Hell ", a mythical and ancient cave from which strange creatures would emerge and be seen on the surface of the Earth.[6]There are also stories of medieval knights and saints who went on pilgrimages to a cave located inStation Island,County Donegal in Ireland, where they made journeys inside the Earth into a place ofpurgatory.[7]InCounty Down,Northern Ireland there is a myth which says tunnels lead to the land of the subterraneanTuatha Dé Danann,a group of people who are believed to have introducedDruidismto Ireland, and then went back underground.[8]

In Hindu mythology, the underworld is referred to asPatala.In the Bengali version of the Hindu epicRamayana,it has been depicted howRamaandLakshmanawere taken by the king of the underworldAhiravan,brother of the demon kingRavana.Later on they were rescued byHanuman.TheAngami Nagatribes ofIndiaclaim that their ancestors emerged in ancient times from a subterranean land inside the Earth.[9]TheTainofrom Cuba believe their ancestors emerged in ancient times from two caves in a mountain underground.[10]

Natives of theTrobriand Islandsbelieve that their ancestors had come from a subterranean land through a cavern hole called "Obukula".[11]Mexican folklore also tells of a cave in a mountain five miles south ofOjinaga,and that Mexico is possessed by devilish creatures who came from inside the Earth.[12]

In theMiddle Ages,an ancient German myth held that some mountains located betweenEisenachandGothahold a portal to the inner Earth. A Russian legend says theSamoyeds,an ancientSiberiantribe,traveled to a cavern city to live inside the Earth.[13]The Italian writerDantedescribes a hollow earth in his well-known 14th-century workInferno,in which the fall of Lucifer from heaven caused an enormous funnel to appear in previously solid and spherical earth, as well as an enormous mountain opposite it, "Purgatory".

InNative American mythology,it is said that the ancestors of theMandan peoplein ancient times emerged from a subterranean land through a cave on the north side of theMissouri River.[14]There is also a tale about a tunnel in theSan Carlos Apache Indian ReservationinArizonanearCedar Creekwhich is said to lead inside the Earth to a land inhabited by a mysterious tribe.[15]It is also the belief of thetribesof theIroquoisthat their ancient ancestors emerged from a subterranean world inside the Earth.[16]The elders of theHopi peoplebelieve that aSipapuentrance in theGrand Canyonexists which leads to theunderworld.[17][18]

Brazilian Indians,who live alongside theParima Riverin Brazil, claim that their forefathers emerged in ancient times from an underground land, and that many of their ancestors still remained inside the Earth. Ancestors of theIncasupposedly came from caves which are located east ofCuzco,Peru.[19]

16th to 18th centuries

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Diagram ofEdmond Halley's hypothesis

The notion was proposed byAthanasius Kircher's non-fictionMundus Subterraneus(1665), which speculated that there is an "intricate system of cavities and a channel of water connecting the poles".[20]: 137 

Edmond Halleyin 1692[21]conjectured that the Earth might consist of a hollow shell about 800 km (500 mi) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles. The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged theatmosphereinside asluminous(and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused theAurora Borealis.[22]

Le Clerc Milfortin 1781 led a journey with hundreds ofMuscogee Peoplesto a series ofcavernsnear theRed Riverabove the junction of theMississippi River.According to Milfort the original Muscogee Peoples' ancestors are believed to have emerged out to the surface of the Earth in ancient times from the caverns. Milfort also claimed the caverns they saw "could easily contain 15,000 – 20,000 families".[23][24]

It is often claimed that mathematicianLeonhard Eulerproposed a single-shell hollow Earth with a small sun (1,000 kilometres across) at the center, providing light and warmth for an inner-Earth civilization, but that is not true. Instead, he did a thought experiment of an object dropped into a hole drilled through the center, unrelated to a hollow Earth.[25]

19th century

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In 1818,John Cleves Symmes, Jr.suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about 1,300 km (810 mi) thick, with openings about 2,300 km (1,400 mi) across at bothpoleswith 4 inner shells each open at the poles. Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents, andHamilton, Ohioeven has a monument to him and his ideas.[26]He proposed making an expedition to theNorth Polehole,[27]thanks to efforts of one of his followers,James McBride.

J. N. Reynoldsalso delivered lectures on the "Hollow Earth" and argued for an expedition. Reynolds went on an expedition to Antarctica himself but missed joining theGreat U.S. Exploring Expeditionof 1838–1842, even though that venture was a result of his agitation.

Though Symmes himself never wrote a book on the subject, several authors published works discussing his ideas. McBride wroteSymmes' Theory of Concentric Spheresin 1826. It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827:Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review.In 1868, professor W.F. Lyons publishedThe Hollow Globewhich put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth hypothesis, but failed to mention Symmes himself. Symmes's son Americus then publishedThe Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheresin 1878 to set the record straight.

Sir John Leslieproposed a hollow Earth in his 1829Elements of Natural Philosophy(pp. 449–53).

In 1864, inJourney to the Center of the Earth[28]Jules Vernedescribes an expedition into the Earth's interior via the fictionalIcelandicvolcano Scartaris. The protagonists do not actually reach the centre, but nevertheless discover a subterranean ocean inhabited by creatures believed extinct. They escape through another volcano on the Italian island ofStromboli.

William Fairfield Warren,in his bookParadise Found – The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole(1885), presented his belief that humanity originated on a continent in the Arctic calledHyperborea.This influenced some early Hollow Earth proponents. According to Marshall Gardner, both theEskimoandMongolian peopleshad come from the interior of the Earth through an entrance at theNorth Pole.[29]

20th century

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NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages,first serialized in a newspaper printed in Topeka, Kansas in 1900 and considered an earlyfeminist utopiannovel, mentions John Cleves Symmes' theory to explain its setting in a hollow Earth.

An early 20th-century proponent of hollow Earth,William Reed,wrotePhantom of the Polesin 1906. He supported the idea of a hollow Earth, but without interior shells or the inner sun.

ThespiritualistwriterWalburga, Lady Pagetin her bookColloquies with an unseen friend(1907) was an early writer to mention the hollow Earth hypothesis. She claimed that cities exist beneath a desert, which is where the people ofAtlantismoved. She said an entrance to the subterranean kingdom will be discovered in the 21st century.[30]

Marshall Gardner wroteA Journey to the Earth's Interiorin 1913 and published an expanded edition in 1920. He placed an interior sun in the Earth and built a working model of the Hollow Earth which he patented (U.S. patent 1,096,102). Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did criticize Symmes for his ideas. Around the same time,Vladimir Obruchevwrote a novel titledPlutonia,in which the Hollow Earth possessed an inner Sun and was inhabited by prehistoric species. The interior was connected with the surface by an opening in theArctic.

The explorerFerdynand Ossendowskiwrote a book in 1922 titledBeasts, Men and Gods.Ossendowski said he was told about a subterranean kingdom that exists inside the Earth. It was known toBuddhistsasAgharti.[31]

George Papashvilyin hisAnything Can Happen(1940) claimed the discovery in theCaucasus Mountainsof a cavern containing human skeletons "with heads as big as bushel baskets" and an ancient tunnel leading to the center of the Earth. One man entered the tunnel and never returned.[32]

NovelistLobsang Rampain his bookThe Cave of the Ancientssaid an underground chamber system exists beneath theHimalayasofTibet,filled with ancient machinery, records and treasure.[33]Michael Grumley,acryptozoologist,has linkedBigfootand otherhominidcryptidsto ancient tunnel systems underground.[34]

According to theancient astronautwriterPeter Kolosimoa robot was seen entering a tunnel below amonasteryin Mongolia. Kolosimo also claimed a light was seen from underground in Azerbaijan.[35]Kolosimo and other ancient astronaut writers such asRobert Charrouxlinked these activities toUFOs.

A book by "Dr.Raymond Bernard"which appeared in 1964,The Hollow Earth,exemplifies the idea of UFOs coming from inside the Earth, and adds the idea that theRing Nebulaproves the existence of hollow worlds, as well as speculation on the fate ofAtlantisand the origin of flying saucers.[36]An article byMartin Gardnerrevealed that Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym "Bernard", but not until the 1989 publishing of Walter Kafton-Minkel'sSubterranean Worlds: 100,000 Years of Dragons, Dwarfs, the Dead, Lost Races & UFOs from Inside the Earthdid the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister become well-known.[37]

The science fictionpulp magazineAmazing Storiespromoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as "The Shaver Mystery". The magazine's editor,Ray Palmer,ran a series of stories byRichard Sharpe Shaver,claiming that a superior pre-historic race had built ahoneycombof caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as "Dero", live there still, using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface. As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described "voices" that purportedly came from no explainable source. Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth. The writerDavid Hatcher ChildressauthoredLost Continents and the Hollow Earth(1998) in which he reprinted the stories of Palmer and defended the Hollow Earth idea based on alleged tunnel systems beneath South America and Central Asia.[38]

Hollow Earth proponents have claimed a number of different locations for the entrances which lead inside the Earth. Other than the North and South poles, entrances in locations which have been cited include: Paris in France,[39]Staffordshirein England,[40]Montrealin Canada,[41]Hangzhouin China,[42]and theAmazon rainforest.[43]

Variations

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In "A Culture of Conspiracy",Political scientistMichael Barkundraws a distinction between the termshollow earthandinner earth,to differentiate materials that conceive the majority of the interior of the planet to be hollow, from those that view it as solid buthoneycombedwith interconnected spaces.[44][45][46]

Concave Hollow Earths

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An example of a concave hollow Earth. Humans live on the interior, with the universe in the center.

Instead of saying that humans live on the exterior surface of a hollow planet, sometimes called a "convex" Hollow Earth hypothesis, it is hypothesized humans live on theinteriorsurface. This has been called the "concave" Hollow Earth hypothesis or skycentrism.

Cyrus Teed,a doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave Hollow Earth in 1869, calling his scheme "Cellular Cosmogony".[47]Teed founded a group called theKoreshan Unitybased on this notion, which he calledKoreshanity.The main colony survives as a preserved Florida state historic site, atEstero, Florida,but all of Teed's followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the Earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of "rectilineator" equipment.

Several 20th-century German writers, includingPeter Bender,Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braut, published works advocating the Hollow Earth hypothesis, orHohlweltlehre.It has even been reported, although apparently without historical documentation, thatAdolf Hitlerwas influenced by concave Hollow Earth ideas and sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by pointing infrared cameras up at the sky.[48][49]

TheEgyptianmathematicianMostafa Abdelkaderwrote several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the Concave Earth model.[50][51]In his bookOn the Wild Side(1992),Martin Gardnerdiscusses the Hollow Earth model articulated by Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this hypothesis posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern. A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the "point at infinity" corresponding to the center of the Earth. Gardner notes that "most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable". Gardner rejects the concave Hollow Earth hypothesis on the basis ofOccam's razor.[52]

Purportedly verifiable hypotheses of a Concave Hollow Earth need to be distinguished from a thought experiment which defines acoordinatetransformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes "exterior" and the exterior becomes "interior". (For example, in spherical coordinates, let radiusrgo toR2/rwhereRis the Earth's radius; seeinversive geometry.) The transformation entails corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws. This is not a hypothesis but an illustration of the fact that any description of the physical world can be equivalently expressed in more than one way.[53]

Contrary evidence

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Schiehallion experiment

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Main article:Schiehallion experiment

In 1735,Pierre BouguerandCharles Marie de La Condaminechartered an expedition from France to theChimborazovolcano in Ecuador. Arriving and climbing the volcano in 1738, they conducted avertical deflectionexperiment at two different altitudes to determine how local mass anomalies affected gravitational pull. In a paper written a little over ten years later, Bouguer commented that his results had at least falsified the Hollow Earth Theory. In 1772,Nevil Maskelyneproposed to repeat the same experiment to the Royal Society. Within the same year, the Committee of Attraction was formed and they sentCharles Masonto find the perfect candidate for the vertical deflection experiment. Mason found the Schiehallion mountain, where the experiment took place[54]and not only supported the earlier Chimborazo Experiment but yielded far greater results.

Seismic

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The picture of thestructure of the Earththat has been arrived at through the study ofseismic waves[55]is quite different from a fully hollow Earth. The time it takes for seismic waves to travel through and around the Earth directly contradicts a fully hollow sphere. The evidence indicates the Earth is mostly filled with solid rock (mantle and crust), liquid nickel-iron alloy (outer core), and solid nickel-iron (inner core).[56]

Gravity

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Main articles:Schiehallion experimentandCavendish experiment

Another set of scientific arguments against a Hollow Earth or any hollow planet comes fromgravity.Massive objects tend to clump together gravitationally, creating non-hollow spherical objects such as stars and planets. The solid spheroid is the best way to minimize thegravitational potential energyof a rotating physical object; having hollowness is unfavorable in the energetic sense. In addition, ordinary matter is not strong enough to support a hollow shape of planetary size against the force of gravity; a planet-sized hollow shell with the known, observed thickness of the Earth's crust would not be able to achievehydrostatic equilibriumwith its own mass and would collapse.[citation needed]

Based upon the size of the Earth and the force of gravity on its surface, the average density of the planet Earth is 5.515 g/cm3,and typical densities of surface rocks are only half that (about 2.75 g/cm3). If any significant portion of the Earth were hollow, the average density would be much lower than that of surface rocks. The only way for Earth to have the force of gravity that it does is for much more dense material to make up a large part of the interior. Nickel-iron alloy under the conditions expected in a non-hollow Earth would have densities ranging from about 10 to 13 g/cm3,which brings the average density of Earth to its observed value.[57]: 186 

Direct observation

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Drilling holes does not provide direct evidence against the hypothesis. The deepest hole drilled to date is theKola Superdeep Borehole,[58]with a true vertical drill-depth of around 12 km (7.5 mi). However, the distance to the center of the Earth is nearly 6,400 km (4,000 mi).[59]

In fiction

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Main article:Subterranean fiction

The idea of a hollow Earth is a common element of fiction, appearing as early asLudvig Holberg's 1741 novelNicolai Klimii iter subterraneum(«Niels Klim's Underground Travels»), in which Nicolai Klim falls through a cave while spelunking and spends several years living on both a smaller globe within and the inside of the outer shell.

Other notable early examples includeGiacomo Casanova's 1788Icosaméron,a 5-volume, 1,800-page story of a brother and sister who fall into the Earth and discover the subterranean utopia of the Mégamicres, a race of multicolored, hermaphroditic dwarves;Symzonia: A Voyage of Discoveryby a "Captain Adam Seaborn" (1820) which reflected the ideas of John Cleves Symmes, Jr.;Edgar Allan Poe's 1838 novelThe Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket;Jules Verne's 1864 novelJourney to the Center of the Earth,which showed a subterranean world teeming with prehistoric life;George Sand's 1864 novelLaura, Voyage dans le Cristalwhere giantcrystalscould be found in the interior of the Earth;Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton's novelVril: The Power of the Coming Race,published anonymously in 1871;Etidorhpa,an 1895 science-fiction allegory with major subterranean themes; andThe Smoky God,a 1908 novel that included the idea that the North Pole was the entrance to the hollow planet.

InWilliam Henry Hudson's1887romance,A Crystal Age,[60]the protagonist falls down a hill into aUtopianparadise; since he falls into this world, it is sometimes classified as a hollow Earth story; although the hero himself thinks he may havetraveled forward in timeby millennia.

The idea was used byEdgar Rice Burroughsin the seven-novel "Pellucidar"series, beginning withAt the Earth's Core(1914). Using a mechanical drill, called the Iron Mole, his heroesDavid Innesand ProfessorAbner Perrydiscover a prehistoric world called Pellucidar, 500 miles below the surface, that is lit by a constant noonday inner sun. They find prehistoric people, dinosaurs, prehistoric mammals and theMahar,who evolved from pterosaurs. The series ran for six more books, ending withSavage Pellucidar(1963).[61]The 1915 novelPlutoniabyVladimir Obruchevuses the concept of the Hollow Earth to take the reader through various geological epochs.

In recent decades, the idea has become a staple of the science fiction and adventure genres across films (Children Who Chase Lost Voices,Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs,Aquamanand theMonsterVerse), television programs (Inside Job,Slugterra,and the third and fourth seasons ofSanctuary),role-playing games(e.g., theHollow World Campaign SetforDungeons & Dragons,Hollow Earth Expedition), and video games (Torin's PassageandGears of War). The idea is also partially used in theMarvel Comicsuniverse, where there exists a subterranean realm beneath the Earth known asSubterranea.TheSuper Nintendo Entertainment System(SNES) video gameTerranigmafeatures this concept in the opening and closing acts of the game.

The Hollow Earth is a key location inLegendary Pictures'sMonsterVersefranchise, being the point of origin of theTitansand thestrange animalsofSkull Island.Initially being teased inKong: Skull IslandandGodzilla: King of the Monsters,a full expedition into the Hollow Earth is a primary focus ofGodzilla vs. Kong,its sequelGodzilla x Kong: The New Empire,and theMonarch: Legacy of MonstersTV series.

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In 1975, Japanese artistTadanori Yokooused elements of theAgarthalegend, along with otherEasternsubterranean myths, to depict an advanced civilization in the cover art for jazz musicianMiles Davis's albumAgharta.[62]Tadanori said he was partly inspired by his reading ofRaymond W. Bernard's 1969 bookThe Hollow Earth.[63]

See also

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Citations

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  1. ^Hollow Earth in the PuranasOnline
  2. ^abThe Way to Shambhala,Edwin Bernbaum, Anchor Books; 1st edition, 1980ISBN0-385-12794-4
  3. ^Sherwood Fox, William(1916),Greek and Roman,vol. 1, Boston, Marshall Jones Company, p. 143
  4. ^Mircea Eliade,Zalmoxis, the vanishing God: comparative studies in the religions and folklore of Dacia and Eastern Europe,1959, pp. 24–30
  5. ^Myth: its meaning and functions in ancient and other cultures,G. S. Kirk, 1970, p. 136
  6. ^John A MacCulloch, Celtic Mythology, Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 1932, pp. 125–26
  7. ^T. Write,Saint Patrick's Purgatory: A medieval Pilgrimage in Ireland,1918, p. 107
  8. ^Harold Bayley,Archaic England: An Essay in Deciphering Prehistory from Megalithic Monuments,1919 Online Edition:Link
  9. ^Angami NagaBrown,Account of Munnipore,1968., p. 113
  10. ^Ellen Russell Emerson,Indian Myths,1965 "It is to the Cubans we are indebted for the following version of man's origin: It was from the depths of a deep cavern in the earth that mankind issued."
  11. ^Philip Freund,Myths of Creation;1965, pp. 131–32
  12. ^George, Wally – "Pilgrimage To The Devil"., Article inFate magazine,Aug. 1957, pp. 38–52
  13. ^Clark B Firestone and Ruth Hambidge,The Coasts of Ilusion,Harper & Bros; First Edition, 1924
  14. ^Martha Warren Beckwith,Mandan-Hidatsa myths and ceremonies,G. E. Stechert, 1937, p. 10
  15. ^Grenville Goodwin,Myths and Tales of the White Mountain Apache,1939, p. 20 (Kessinger Publishing have reprinted the book in 2011)
  16. ^William Martin Beauchamp,Iroquois folk lore: gathered from the Six Nations of New York,I. J. Friedman, 1965, pp. 152–153
  17. ^Pages from Hopi history,Harry Clebourne James, University of Arizona Press, 1974, Chapter 6
  18. ^Arizona and the West, Volume 17, University of Arizona Press., 1975, p. 179
  19. ^Harold Osbourne,South American Mythology.New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1986, pp. 42, 119
  20. ^Stableford, Brian M. (2006).Science Fact and Science Fiction: An Encyclopedia.Taylor & Francis. pp. 137–139.ISBN978-0-415-97460-8.
  21. ^Halley, Edmond, "An Account of the cause of the Change of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle; with an Hypothesis of the Structure of the Internal Parts of the Earth",Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London,No. 195, 1692, pp. 563–578
  22. ^Halley, Edmond, "An Account of the Late Surprizing [sic!] Appearance of the Lights Seen in the Air, on the Sixth of March Last; With an Attempt to Explain the Principal Phaenomena thereof",Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London,No. 347 (1716), pp. 406–28
  23. ^Migration Legend of the Creek Indians,Volumes 1–2, Albert S. Gatschet, Ams Pr Inc, 1969
  24. ^The Franco-American Review,Volumes 1–2, the Yale University Press, 1938, p. 111. Also seeThe Venus Calendar Observatory at Aztec New Mexico,Allan Macgillivray III, 2010, p. 25
  25. ^Sandifer, Edward (April 2007)."Euler and the Hollow Earth: Fact or Fiction?"(PDF).The Mathematical Association of America.pp. 209–214.Retrieved12 September2021.
  26. ^"Hollow Earth Monument | Atlas Obscura: John Symmes Hollow Earth monument".atlasobscura.Retrieved1 November2015.
  27. ^Simon, Matt."Fantastically Wrong: The Real-Life Journey to the Center of the Earth That Almost Was".Wired.Retrieved18 September2019.
  28. ^"Jules Verne – Voyage au centre de la Terre – Chapitre 30. - Translation (French – English) – WebLitera – library of translations".31 March 2024.
  29. ^A Journey to the Earth's Interior,Marshall Gardner, Mokelumne Hill Pr, 1974 Edition,ISBN0-7873-1192-8
  30. ^Paget Walburga,Colloquies with an unseen friend,William Rider & Son., London, 1909, p. 36
  31. ^Ferdynand Ossendowski (1922).Beasts, Men and Gods.New York: E. P. Dutton & Company.
  32. ^George & Helen Papashvily, –Anything Can Happen., Harper & Bros., New York, NY., 1940
  33. ^Cave of the Ancients,Lobsang Rampa,Random House,1993
  34. ^There are Giants in the Earth,Michael Grumley, Panther Books, 1976, pp. 42–47
  35. ^Peter Kolosimo,Not of this World,Sphere Books 1974ISBN0-7221-5309-0also see Peter Kolosimo, Timeless Earth, Citadel Pr, 1988 EditionISBN0-8065-1070-6
  36. ^Reece, Gregory L. (2007).UFO Religion: Inside Flying Saucer Cults and Culture.I. B. Tauris. p.17.ISBN978-1-84511-451-0.
  37. ^Walter Kafton-MinkelSubterranean Worlds: 100,000 Years of Dragons, Dwarfs, the Dead, Lost Races and Ufos from Inside the EarthLoompanics Unlimited,1989ISBN978-1559500159
  38. ^David Hatcher ChildressLost Continents and the Hollow EarthAdventures Unlimited Press, 1998ISBN978-0932813633
  39. ^Alien races and Fantastic Civilizations,Serge Hutin, Berkeley Medallion Books, 1975, pp. 109–132 – In the Bowels of the Earth: Refers to the mysterious catacombs beneath Paris, and other underground mysteries which lead inside the Earth.
  40. ^The Under-People,Eric Norman, Award Books, 1969
  41. ^Inner Earth People And Outer Space People,William L. Blessing, Inner Light Publications, 2008 EditionISBN1-60611-036-5
  42. ^Chinese ghouls and goblins,G Willoughby-Meade, Stokes co, 1929
  43. ^Mysteries of Ancient South America,Harold T. Wilkins, Citadel Press.', New York, 1956
  44. ^Michael Barkun(2003).A Culture of Conspiracy(1st ed.).University of California Press.p. 207.ISBN0-520-23805-2.
  45. ^Kafton-Minkel, Walter (1989).Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 Years of Dragons, Dwarfs, the Dead, Lost Races & UFOs from Inside the Earth(PDF).Port Townsend:Loompanics.pp. 44–55.ISBN9781559500159.
  46. ^Radner, Radne, Daisie, Michael (1982).Science and Unreason.Belmont, California:Wadsworth.pp. 48–50.ISBN9780534011536.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^"Fantastically Wrong: The Legendary Scientist Who Swore Our Planet Is Hollow | WIRED".Wired.wired. 2014-07-02.Retrieved1 November2015.
  48. ^Kuiper, Gerard. P.(June 1946). "German Astronomy during the War".Popular Astronomy.54:263–286.Bibcode:1946PA.....54..263K.See pp. 277–78.
  49. ^Yenne, William (2003). "Adolf Hitler and the Concave Earth Cult".Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs That Changed History.New York: Berkley Books. pp. 271–272.ISBN978-0-425-18992-4.
  50. ^Abdelkader, M. (1983). "A Geocosmos: Mapping Outer Space Into a Hollow Earth".Speculations in Science & Technology(6): 81–89.
  51. ^Notices of the American Mathematical Society,(Oct. 1981 and Feb. 1982).
  52. ^On the Wild Side(1992), Martin Gardner, pp. 18–19
  53. ^On the Wild Side, 1992,Martin Gardner.
  54. ^Davies, R. D. "A Commemoration of Maskelyne at Schiehallion." Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 26, NO. 3/SEP, P. 289, 1985 26 (1985): 289.
  55. ^Press, Frank;Siever, Raymond; Grotzinger, John; Jordan, Tom (2003).Understanding Earth(4 ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. pp. 484–487.ISBN978-0-7167-9617-6.
  56. ^"The Interior of the Earth".pubs.usgs.gov.Retrieved1 November2015.
  57. ^Lowrie, W., & Fichtner, A. (2020). Fundamentals of geophysics. Cambridge university press.
  58. ^"What's At The Bottom Of The Deepest Hole On Earth?".11 March 2016.Retrieved2016-08-17.
  59. ^Mamajek, E. E.; Prsa, A.; Torres, G.; Harmanec, P.; Asplund, M.; Bennett, P. D.; Capitaine, N.; Christensen-Dalsgaard, J.; Depagne, E.; Folkner, W. M.; Haberreiter, M.; Hekker, S.; Hilton, J. L.; Kostov, V.; Kurtz, D. W.; Laskar, J.; Mason, B. D.; Milone, E. F.; Montgomery, M. M.; Richards, M. T.; Schou, J.; Stewart, S. G. (2015). "IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties".arXiv:1510.07674[astro-ph.SR].
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  62. ^Buchwald, Dagmar (2012). "Black Sun Underground: The Music of AlieNation". In Berressem, Hanjo; Bucher, Michael; Schwagmeier, Uwe (eds.).Between Science and Fiction: The Hollow Earth as Concept and Conceit.LIT Verlag Munster. p. 109.ISBN978-3-643-90228-3.
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General and cited references

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  • Kafton-Minkel, Walter.Subterranean Worlds.Loompanics Unlimited, 1989.
  • Lamprecht, Jan.Hollow Planets: A Feasibility Study of Possible Hollow WorldsGrave Distraction Publications, 2014.
  • Lewis, David.The Incredible Cities of Inner Earth.Science Research Publishing House, 1979.
  • Seaborn, Captain Adam.Symzonia; Voyage of Discovery.J. Seymour, 1820.
  • Standish, David.Hollow Earth: The Long and Curious History of Imagining Strange Lands, Fantastical Creatures, Advanced Civilizations, and Marvelous Machines Below the Earth's Surface.Da Capo Press, 2006.
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