Human rights in Australia

"Human rights Australia" redirects here. For the Human rights institution of the Australian Government, seeAustralian Human Rights Commission.

Human rights in Australiahave largely been developed by the democratically electedAustralian Parliamentthrough laws in specific contexts (rather than a stand-alone, abstractbill of rights) and safeguarded by such institutions as theindependent judiciaryand theHigh Court,which implementcommon law,theAustralian Constitution,and various otherlaws of Australiaand itsstates and territories.Australiaalso has an independent statutory human rights body, theAustralian Human Rights Commission,which investigates and conciliates complaints, and more generally promotes human rights through education, discussion and reporting.

Universal voting rightsand rights tofreedom of association,freedom of, and from, religionand freedom fromdiscriminationare protected in Australia. TheAustralian colonieswere among the first political entities in the world to grantuniversal manhood suffrage(1850s) andfemale suffrage(1890s). Ever since the gradual dismantling of theWhite Australiapolicy throughout the late 20th century, contemporary Australia is aliberal democracyand heir to a large post-World War IImulticulturalprogram of immigration in which forms ofracial discrimination have been prohibitedsince 1975.

As a founding member of theUnited Nations,Australia has assisted in the drafting of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsand it is signatory to various other international treaties on the subject ofhuman rights.However, Australia is the only democratic country in the world without a national bill of rights of some kind.Racism in Australiatraces both historical and contemporary racist community attitudes, as well as political non-compliance and alleged governmental negligence on United Nations human rights standardand incidents in Australia.

Ongoing human rights issues in Australia largely stems from the legacy of mistreatment ofIndigenous Australians,who are disproportionately of disadvantaged socioeconomic standing, have shorter life spans, and make up a disproportionately high number of imprisoned persons, thus receiving disproportionately high levels of social welfare payment as well as preferential employment and tertiary educational placement in state sectors.De jure,these rights are protected by the Australian Constitution and the constitutions of the states and territories bodies created to advance the promotion and protection of Human Rights Commission, in addition to a number of federal laws that exist to protect people from discrimination and nature breaches to human rights. The usage ofimmigration detention facilitiesremains a contentious issue especially among critics and human rights groups. In 2017, theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) has cited these facilities as a "damning indictment of a policy meant to avoid Australia's international human rights obligations".

Sources of rights

Most human rights are not constitutionally protected at the federal level. However, certain rights are protected via statute both federally and in the states (often called charters of rights).For example, in Queensland,in Victoria,and in the ACT.As such, other sources of rights exist to protect rights in Australia (the Constitution, through statutes, common law, and through implementation of international treaties).

Australian Constitution

Human rights are protected under theAustralian Constitutionin several ways:

• Self-determinationis protected by the creation of a system of responsible government chosen by the people in the form of theAustralian Parliament;
• Section 41provides a right to vote;
• Section 51(xxiii)prohibits civil conscription in relation to medical and dental services;
• section 51(xxxi)empowers the Commonwealth to acquire property only "on just terms";
• Section 80provides a right to a jury trial for indictable offences;
• Section 92protects freedom of interstate trade, commerce and communication among the States;
• Section 116prohibits the Commonwealth from passing laws establishing religion, imposing religious observance, or requiring a religious test for qualification for public office;
• Section 117prohibits discrimination on the basis of State residence.

In addition, as a result of certain structural implications and principles, the Constitution protects human rights indirectly through several means, including:

• Animplied freedom of political communicationon government and political matters;
• A requirement that punishment (and, with some exceptions, imprisonment) only occur pursuant a court order, arising from theseparation of powers;
• A requirement that courts be independent and impartial from the executive and legislature;
• The right to challenge the legality of government action forjurisdictional error,even where legislation purports to preclude judicial review.

Statutes

Human rights are protected through various statutory enactments in a broad variety of specific contexts. For example, there are statutes which prescribe and regulate police powers,use of personal information,secret recording of conversations,equal treatment when buying goods and services,consumer rights,and many other statutes.

Common law

The common law of Australia protects rights indirectly through various causes of action (such as in contract, tort, and property rights). The common law also protects human rights through principles of statutory interpretation. One example is found in Gleeson CJ's statement that it is presumed that it is not Parliament's intention to remove a fundamental human right(s) or freedom(s) unless such an intention is outlined and manifested by clear language.This is known as theprinciple of legalitywhich acts as an extra layer of protection for human rights against vague or ambiguous legislation. Furthermore, FormerChief Justice of New South Wales,James Spigelman,has compiled a list of a number of rights-depriving acts which the common law presumes the legislature does not intend without clear wording, including retrospectively changing rights and obligations, infringing personal liberty, interfering with freedom of movement or speech, restricting access to the courts, interfering with vested property rights, and denying procedural fairness.

In addition, there are various common law principles which afford certain protections, such as legal professional privilege, and the privilege against self-incrimination.

International Human Rights Laws in Australia

Australia has signed various international treaties and conventions regarding human rights. Australia has agreed to be bound by the following treaties:

• Universal Declaration on Human Rights
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
• Convention on the Political Rights of Women
• International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination
• Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women
• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment
• Convention on the Rights of the Child
• Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness
• Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons
• Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
• 1926 Slavery Convention
• Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

Although Australia is a signatory to these, the rights given in the treaties are only applicable in Australia if domestic legislation is established.For example, theRacial Discrimination Act1975 (Cth),implements the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and theSex Discrimination Act1984 (Cth),provides some of the rights outlined in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.

However, another way the rights provided in a treaty can be seen in Australian law is where provisions of a treaty are already a part of domestic legislation (for example, the Convention of the Rights of People of Disabilities can be seen as incorporated into domestic law through similar provisions in theDisability Discrimination Act1992 (Cth)).

Australian Human Rights Commission

Main article:Australian Human Rights Commission

The Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) (previously known as the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission) is a national independent statutory body of theAustralian government.Established under theAustralian Human Rights Commission Act 1986(Cth),it has responsibility for the investigation of alleged infringements under Australia's anti-discrimination legislation.

Matters that can be investigated by the Commission include discrimination on the grounds ofage,race,colour orethnicorigin,racial vilification,sex,sexual harassment,sexual orientation,gender identity,intersex status,marital or relationship status, actual or potentialpregnancy,breastfeedingordisability.

However, the protection of human rights has several significant limitations. For instance, human rights will often trump other public goods as it enjoys aprima facie;human rights may be violated in some circumstances or reasons like national emergency or security;human rights are protected in various States (ACT and Victoria) through legislation. However, it cannot be implemented nor enforceable at the Federal level.

Civil and political rights

Freedom of expression

Main article:Australian constitutional law

Further information:Censorship in Australia

Under the Australian Constitution, there is animplied freedom of political communicationon government and political matters.

Some restrictions on political expression exist in Australia, including laws ondefamation,racial vilification,and contempt of Parliament.

In 2015, Tasmania's Anti Discrimination Commissioner found that the Catholic Church and the Archbishop of Hobart had a "case to answer" under Tasmanian Anti-Discrimination legislation for promoting the Catholic view of marriage.Australian GreenscandidateMartine Delaneybrought the matter to the commission. The ABC reported that case has "raised concerns about freedom of speech ahead of a national debate on same-sex marriage."

In 2007, ParliamentarianLee Rhiannonof theAustralian Greensreferred remarks made by an Australian Catholic Cardinal opposingembryonic stem cellresearch to the New South Wales parliamentary privileges committee for allegedly being in "contempt of parliament". The Cardinal was cleared of the charge and described the move as a "clumsy attempt to curb religious freedom and freedom of speech".

In 2022,Reporters Without Bordersraised concerns over eroding press freedom in Australia, citing the 'ultra-concentration of media ownership' and 'growing official pressure.'

Voting rights

Main article:Suffrage in Australia

TheNew South Wales ParliamentisAustralia's oldest parliament. First elections were held in 1843.

Australians achieved voting rights decades before most otherWestern nations.TheAustralian coloniesgranted universal manhood suffrage from the 1850s and in 1895 the women ofSouth Australiaachieved theright to both vote and stand for Parliament,enablingCatherine Helen Spenceto be the first to stand as a political candidate in 1897.Afterfederationof the colonies in 1901, theFranchise Act 1902was passed, granting the right to vote to men and women.However, the Act also restricted votes for 'natives' unless they were already enrolled. These restrictions were unevenly applied and were relaxed after World War II, with full rights restored by theCommonwealth Electoral Act 1962.

In 1856, an innovativesecret ballotwas introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, in which the government supplied voting paper containing the names of candidates and voters could select in private. This system was adopted around the world, becoming known as the "Australian Ballot".The use ofproportional representationviaSingle Transferable Vote(STV) andmajoritarianInstant Runoff Voting(IRV) in many state/territory upper and lower houses as well as the federalSenateandHouse of Representativesrespectively. Thesedemocraticfeatures are upheld by rankings inV-Dem Democracy indices,Democracy Index (The Economist)andPolity IVas well as processes, proceedings and conduct being regulated by federal and stateElectoral Commissions.

In South Australia, PremierDon Dunstanprogressively introduced the Age of Majority (Reduction) Bill in October 1970, the voting age in South Australia was lowered to 18 years old in 1973.

Women's rights

See also:Women in Australia,Gender inequality in Australia,andGender pay gap in Australia

As mentioned above Women's suffrage was granted in 1902 and property rights in 1897.The first woman elected to any Australian Parliament wasEdith Cowan,to the West Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921. DameEnid Lyons,in theAustralian House of Representativesand SenatorDorothy Tangneybecame the first women in the Federal Parliament in 1943. In 1971,SenatorNeville Bonnerbecame the firstAboriginal Australianto sit in thefederal Parliament.Rosemary Follettwas electedChief Minister of the Australian Capital Territoryin 1989, becoming the first woman elected to lead a state or territory. In 2010,Julia Gillardbecame the first femalePrime Minister of Australia.

South AustraliansuffragetteCatherine Helen Spence(1825–1910).

By 2010, the people of Australia's oldest city,Sydney,had female leaders occupying every major political office above them, withClover Mooreas Lord Mayor,Kristina Keneallyas Premier of New South Wales,Marie Bashiras Governor of New South Wales,Julia Gillardas Prime Minister,Quentin BryceasGovernor General of AustraliaandElizabeth IIasQueen of Australia.

Australia has laws banning gender, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, breastfeeding and pregnancy discrimination,providing for equal access to services (such as parental leave, education and child care), advancingreproductive rights(through universal healthcare and laws surrounding reproductive rights), outlawing ofsexual harassment,marital rape,female genital mutilation,child marriageand legalisation ofno-fault divorce.

The first Australian state to deal with marital rape wasSouth Australia,under the progressive initiatives of PremierDon Dunstan,which in 1976 partially removed the exemption. Section 73 of theCriminal Law Consolidation Act Amendment Act 1976(SA) read: "No person shall, by reason only of the fact that he is married to some other person, be presumed to have consented to sexual intercourse with that other person".

The role ofwomen in the Australian militarybegan to change in the 1970s. In 1975, which was the International Year of Women, the service chiefs established a committee to explore opportunities for increased female participation in the military. This led to reforms which allowed women to deploy on active service in support roles, pregnancy no longer being grounds for automatic termination of employment and changes to leave provisions.

Despite being integrated into the military, there were still restrictions on female service. The ADF was granted an exemption from theSexual Discrimination Actwhen it was introduced in 1984 so that it could maintain gender-based restrictions against women serving in combat or combat-related positions, which limited women to 40 percent of positions in the ADF. As a result of personnel shortages in the late 1980s the restriction against women in combat-related positions was dropped in 1990, and women were for the first time allowed to serve in warships, RAAF combat squadrons and many positions in the Army. Women were banned from positions involving physical combat, however, and were unable to serve in infantry, armoured, artillery and engineering units in the Army and clearance diving and ground defence positions in the RAN and RAAF respectively.

On 27 September 2011, Defence Minister Stephen Smith announced that women will be allowed to serve in frontline combat roles by 2016. Women became able to apply for all positions other than special forces roles in the Army on 1 January 2013; it is planned that this remaining restriction will be removed in 2014 once the physical standards required for service in these units are determined. Women will be directly recruited into all frontline combat positions from late 2016.

Capital punishment

Main article:Capital punishment in Australia

Further information:Punishment in Australia

The last use of the death penalty in Australia was in Victoria in 1967.Ronald Joseph Ryanwas hanged at Pentridge Prison on 3 February 1967 for the murder of a prison guard, George Hodson. However, Australian criminologist,Gordon Hawkins,director of Sydney University's Institute of Criminology, doubts that Ryan was guilty.

Capital punishment was officially abolished for federal offences by theDeath Penalty Abolition Act 1973.The various states abolished capital punishment at various times, starting with Queensland in 1922 and ending with New South Wales in 1985.

In South Australia, under the premiership of then-PremierDon Dunstan,theCriminal Law Consolidation Act1935(SA) was modified so that the death sentence was changed to life imprisonment in 1976.

People with a disability

Discrimination against persons with disabilities in various contexts is prohibited under theDisability Discrimination Act 1992(Cth) (DDA). The Act makes it unlawful to treat a disabled person less favorably, or to fail to make reasonable adjustments for the person, in the contexts of employment, education, publicly available premises, provision of goods and services, accommodation, clubs and associations, and other contexts. Complaints made under the DDA are made to theAustralian Human Rights Commission.

The Australian Government requested theProductivity Commissionto evaluate the effectiveness of the DDA, and the Commission published its findings in 2004.The Commission found that while there is still room for improvement, particularly in reducing discrimination in employment, overall the DDA has been reasonably effective. The Commission found that people with a disability were less likely to finish school, to have a TAFE or university qualification and to be employed. They are more likely to have a below average income, be on a pension, live in public housing and in prison. The average personal income for people with a disability is 44 per cent of the income of other Australians.

TheNational Disability Insurance Scheme,is ahealthcare programinitiated by theAustralian government.The bill was introduced into parliament in November 2012.In July 2013 the first stage of National Disability Insurance Scheme (which was at the time called DisabilityCare Australia) commenced in South Australia, Tasmania, theHunter Regionin New South Wales and the Barwon area of Victoria, while the Australian Capital Territory commenced in July 2014.

On 15 September 2020, theHuman Rights Watchreleased a report examining the serious risk of self-harm and death for prisoners with mental health conditions. Media reports between 2010 and 2020 found that about 60 per cent of adults, who died in prisons in Western Australia, had disabilities, including mental health conditions. Of the 60 per cent, 58 per cent died due to lack of support, suicide, or after becoming a target of violence, where half of these deaths were ofAboriginalandTorres Strait Islanderprisoners.

Child detention

The age for criminal responsibility in Australia is currently 10 years, well below the international standard of 14 years, leading the United Nations to call upon the Australian government to raise its age threshold.

The state of Queensland routinely detains young minors in youth detention centers, and in September 2023, thegovernment of Queenslandsuspended its Human Rights Act for the second time in the year in order to detain children as young as 10 due in police holding cells due to a lack of space in its youth detention centers.The issue of child detention in Queensland disproportionately affects indigenous children, who make up nearly 63% of those in detention, despite being only 4.6% of the state's population.

The lack of an upper house in Queensland's parliament has allowed the ruling party to pass laws suspending the state's human rights legislation without adequate scrutiny.The suspension in September coincided with federal campaigning for an Indigenous rights referendum, leading to accusations of hypocrisy.

Treatment of particular groups and minorities

Indigenous Australians

See also:History of Indigenous Australians,Closing the Gap,andIndigenous Australians' health

The wellbeing ofIndigenous Australiansis an ongoing issue in Australia.

There is significant disparity in health between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. In 2010–2012, the estimated life expectancy at birth forAboriginal and Torres Strait Islandermales was 69.1 years, and for females 73.7 years. This was 10.6 years lower than the life expectancy of non-Indigenous males, and 9.5 years lower than that of non-Indigenous females.A 2006 study by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare showed that 70% of the Aboriginal population die before the age of 65, compared with 20% of non-Indigenous Australians.Additionally, the suicide rate among Aboriginal Australians is almost three times higher (at 4.2%) than the national average (1.5%).

TheAboriginal Tent Embassyset up inCanberraby activist agitating for the rights of Indigenous Australians.

The roots of the present condition can be traced to the historical treatment of Aboriginal people and the dispossession of land that occurred followingEuropean colonisation of Australia,where a combination of disease, loss of land (and thus food resources) and violence decimated the Aboriginal population. Later, from the 1830s, colonial governments established the now controversial offices of theProtector of Aboriginesin an effort to avoid mistreatment of Indigenous peoples and conduct government policy towards them.Christian churches in Australiasought to convert Aboriginal people, and were often used by government to carry out welfare andassimilationpolicies.

TheCaledon Bay crisisof 1932–4 saw one of the last incidents offrontier violence,which began when the spearing of Japanese poachers who had been molestingYolnguwomen was followed by the killing of a policeman. As the crisis unfolded, national opinion swung behind the Aboriginal people involved, and the first appeal on behalf of an Indigenous Australian to theHigh Court of Australiawas launched. Elsewhere around this time, activists like SirDouglas Nichollswere commencing their campaigns for Aboriginal rights within the established Australian political system and the age of frontier conflict closed.

In 1962, theMenzies government'sCommonwealth Electoral Actprovided that allIndigenous Australiansshould have the right to enrol and vote at federal elections (prior to this, Indigenous people in Queensland, Western Australia and some in the Northern Territory had been excluded from voting unless they were ex-servicemen).The successorHolt governmentcalled the1967 Referendumwhich removed the discriminatory clause in theAustralian Constitutionwhich excludedAboriginal Australiansfrom being counted in the census – the referendum was one of the few to be overwhelmingly endorsed by the Australian electorate (over 90% voted "yes" ).

From the 1960s, Australian writers began to re-assess European assumptions about Aboriginal Australia – with works includingGeoffrey Blainey's landmark historyTriumph of the Nomads(1975) and the books of historianHenry Reynolds.

Statue of Aboriginal rights campaigner SirDoug Nicholls,Parliament Gardens,Fitzroy, Victoria

From the late 1960s a movement forAboriginal land rightsdeveloped, especially in South Australia under the Premiership ofDon Dunstan.This era saw vast reformation in regards to land rights, anti-discrimination and personal rights.

In the mid-1960s, one of the earliest Aboriginal graduates from theUniversity of Sydney,Charles Perkins,helped organisefreedom ridesinto parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, theGurindjipeople of Wave Hill station (owned by theVestey Group) commenced strike action led byVincent Lingiariin a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights.

TheWhitlam LaborandFraser Liberal governmentsinstigated theAboriginal Land Rights Act 1976,which, while limited to theNorthern Territory,affirmed "inalienable"native titleto some traditional lands.In 1985, theHawke governmentreturned ownership ofUluru(formerly known as Ayers Rock) to the local Pitjantjatjara Aboriginal people.

Indigenous Australians began to take up representation in Australian parliaments during the 1970s. In 1971Neville Bonnerof theLiberal Partywas appointed by the Queensland Parliament to replace a retiring senator, becoming the first Aboriginal in Federal Parliament. Bonner was returned as a Senator at the 1972 election and remained until 1983.Hyacinth Tungutalumof theCountry Liberal Partyin theNorthern TerritoryandEric Deeralof theNational Partyof Queensland, became the first Indigenous people elected to territory and state legislatures in 1974. In 1976, under the recommendation of PremierDon Dunstan,SirDouglas Nichollswas appointedGovernor of South Australia,becoming the first Aboriginal to hold vice-regal office in Australia.Aden Ridgewayof theAustralian Democratsserved as a senator during the 1990s, but no Indigenous person was elected to the House of Representatives, until West AustralianLiberalKen Wyatt,in August 2010.

Lawyer and rights activist,Noel PearsonofCape York.

In 1992, theHigh Court of Australiahanded down its decision in theMabo Case,recognisingnative title.That same year, Prime MinisterPaul Keatingsaid in hisRedfern Park Speechthat European settlers were responsible for the difficulties Australian Aboriginal communities continued to face. In 1999 Parliament passed aMotion of Reconciliationdrafted by Prime MinisterJohn Howardand Aboriginal SenatorAden Ridgewaynaming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most "blemished chapter in our national history".

Prior to the calling of a2007 federal election,the then Prime Minister, John Howard, revisited the idea of bringing a referendum to seek recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution (his government first sought to include recognition of Aboriginal peoples in the Preamble to the Constitution in a 1999 referendum). The Labor opposition initially supported the idea; however,Kevin Ruddwithdrew this support just prior to the election.

In 2007, Prime MinisterJohn Howardand Indigenous Affairs MinisterMal Broughlaunched theNorthern Territory National Emergency Response.In response to theLittle Children are SacredReport into allegations of child abuse among Indigenous communities in the Territory, the government banned alcohol in prescribed communities in the Northern Territory; quarantined a percentage of welfare payments for essential goods purchasing; despatched additional police and medical personnel to the region; and suspended the permit system for access to Indigenous communities.The policy was largely maintained under theRuddandGillard governments.

Notable contemporary Indigenous rights campaigners have included: federal politicians Ridgeway and Wyatt, lawyerNoel Pearson;academicMarcia Langton;andAustralians of the YearLowitja O'Donoghue(1984),Mandawuy Yunupingu(1992),Cathy Freeman(1998) andMick Dodson(2009).As of 2016, there were five Indigenous people serving in theFederal Parliament of Australia.

In 2016–17, the estimated direct expenditure per person was $44,886 for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, which was around twice the rate for non-Indigenous Australians ($22,356).

An annual report called "Closing the Gap"is presented to the parliament by the office of Prime Minister and Cabinetand it details the gap in multiple facets of life disproportionately affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people compared to non-Indigenous including education, life expectancy, infant mortality, employment, housing and criminal justice. Despite a decade of action though, the life expectancy gap continues to widen with only marginal if any improvements in other sectors of Indigenous affairs and according to Oxfam "they are still denied the same access to these services that non-Indigenous people take for granted".

On 30 October 2019, Ken Wyatt,Minister for Indigenous Australiansin theMorrison government,announced the commencement of a "co-design process" aimed at providing an Indigenous voice to government. The Senior Advisory Group (SAG) is co-chaired by ProfessorTom CalmaAO,Chancellor of theUniversity of Canberra,and Professor DrMarcia Langton,Associate Provost at theUniversity of Melbourne,and comprises a total of 20 leaders and experts from across the country.There was some skepticism about the process from the beginning, with the criticism that it did not honour theUluru Statement from the Heart's plea to "walk with us in a movement of the Australian people for a better future".According toMichelle Grattan,"...it is notable that it is calling it a 'voice to government' rather than a 'voice to parliament'". Prime MinisterScott Morrisonrejected the proposal in theUluru Statementfor a voice to parliament to be put into theAustralian constitution;instead, the voice will be enshrined in legislation. The government also said it would run a referendum during its present term about recognising Indigenous people in the constitution "should a consensus be reached and should it be likely to succeed”.

Jurisdiction	Land rights	De jureequal treatment	De factoequal treatment	Right to self determination	Reparations	Treaty
Australia						(currently underway in a number of states)

Immigrants and asylum seekers

See also:Asylum in Australia,Immigration to Australia,andImmigration detention in Australia

Australia is an immigrant nation with a large and longstanding multi-ethnic migration program.

Historically, from the 1890s to the 1950s the country adhered to theWhite Australia Policy,which effectively barred or impeded people of non-European descent fromimmigrating to Australia.The policy was dismantled by successive governments afterWorld War II,and from the 1970s successive governments officially supportedmulticulturalism.

The entrance of the former Woomera IRPC.

Australia is a signatory to theRefugee Conventionand a component of the Australian immigration program is devoted to providing protection forrefugees.The majority of refugees received by Australia are identified and referred by theUNHCR.The Special Humanitarian Program further offers refuge to people subject to "substantial discrimination amounting to gross violation of human rights in their home country" and who are supported by a proposer within Australia. In 2009–10 a total of 13,770 visas were granted under these categories. The annual figure remained roughly stable for the years between 2004–2010 and accepted applicants from such nations as Myanmar, Iraq, Bhutan, Afghanistan and six African countries.

To varying degrees of success, recent Australian governments have sought to discourage unauthorised arrivals by people seeking refugee status in Australia by maintaining a system ofmandatory detentionfor processing of people who arrive without a visa. In 1992, Australia adopted a policy of under which the Australian government coulddetainany person in the country without a validvisa.In 1994 the detention of 'unlawful non-citizens' was made mandatory.During the late 1990s and early 2000s, these unauthorised arrivals, popularly referred to as "boat people",were transferred to one of theAustralian immigration detention facilitieson the Australian mainland, or toManus IslandorNauruas part of thePacific Solution.These offshore processing and mandatory detention policies have attracted criticism. In 2014, theAustralian Human Rights Commissionpublished a report, which found that many basic rights outlined in theConvention on the Rights of the Childwere denied to children living in immigration detention.

Australia's immigration regime has attracted the ire of theUnited Nations Human Rights Councilfor "massive abuse [...] of irregular migrants", by suspendinghabeas corpus,separating families,indefinite detention of irregular migrantsand inadequate reception/medical centres.and whilst Australia "remains in active discussions"with the Refugees and Safe, Orderly & Regular Migration components of theGlobal Compacts on Migration,Prime MinisterMorrisonstated that the compact will "fundamentally weaken Australia's strong border protection" and will not sign it.Medical evacuation(Medevac) laws have since been passed by parliament.However, Medevac laws have become a point of contention as the local Medevac centre inKangaroo Point,Brisbanehas sparked mass protests after becoming adetention centrethat has detained refugees in Brisbane for more than seven years.

Human Rights Watch’s annual human rights report outlined issues in Australia spanning refugee policy, the treatment of Indigenous people and climate change action. The federal government's failure to address the cruel treatment of asylum seekers despite international pressure tarnishes the country's global standing.

LGBTI people

Main articles:LGBT rights in Australia,Transgender rights in Australia,andAustralian Marriage Law Postal Survey

Historical persecution

Prior to European contact, there were no known legal or social punishments for engaging in homosexual activity. Sex seems to have been a very open topic among theIndigenous people.Among theArrernte people,sex plays were particularly ubiquitous, even among young children who would play "mothers and fathers" in a very literal sense. They would typically mimic the sex acts they saw their parents and other adults perform. These acts seem to have been performed regardless of sex. Traditions of "boy-wives" also existed where young boys, typically 14 years of age, would serve as intimate servants of older men until they reached the age of initiation, at which point the young man would have his penissubincised.The Indigenous people did not have the typical Western view of heterosexuality and homosexuality.

As part of theBritish Empire,Australian colonies inherited anti-homosexuality laws such as theBuggery Act 1533.These provisions were maintained in criminalsodomy lawspassed by 19th century colonial parliaments, and subsequently by state parliaments afterFederation.Same-sex sexual activity between men was considered acapital crime,resulting in the execution of people convicted ofsodomyuntil 1890.

Different jurisdictions gradually began to reduce thedeath penaltyfor sodomy tolife imprisonment,with Victoria the last state to reduce the penalty in 1949.Community debate about decriminalising homosexual activity began in the 1960s, with the first lobby groupsDaughters of Bilitis,Homosexual Law Reform Society and the Campaign Against Moral Persecution formed in 1969 and 1970.

Decriminalisation

In October 1973, former Prime MinisterJohn Gortonput forward a motion in the federalHouse of Representativesthat "in the opinion of this House homosexual acts between consenting adults in private should not be subject to the criminal law". All three major parties were given aconscience vote,and the motion was passed by 64 votes to 40:

However, Gorton's motion had no legal effect as the legality of homosexuality was a matter for state and territory governments. Over a 22-year span between 1975 and 1997, the states and territories gradually repealed their sodomy laws as support for gay law reform grew.

November 1978: Gay Solidarity Group supporters march in theSydney CBDto protest theBriggs Initiative,which would have effectively banned gay and lesbian teachers in the U.S. state ofCalifornia.

Nonetheless, under the premiership of PremierDon Dunstan,LGBT rights in South Australiaexpanded, andSouth Australiabecame the first jurisdiction to decriminalise male homosexual activity on 17 September 1975, with theAustralian Capital Territory's decriminalisation, first proposed in 1973, approved by theFraserFederal Government with effect from 4 November 1976.Victoriafollowed on 23 December 1980, although a "soliciting for immoral purposes" provision added by conservatives saw police harassment continue in that state for some years.

Other jurisdictions to decriminalise male homosexuality were theNorthern Territory(effective 4 October 1983),New South Wales(22 May 1984) and (after four failed attempts)Western Australia(7 December 1989).In exchange for decriminalisation, Western Australian conservatives required a higher age of consent and an anti-proselytising provision similar to the United Kingdom'ssection 28,both since repealed.

Queenslandlegalised male same-sex activity with effect from 19 January 1991 after the long-standing Nationals government had lost power.

The TasmanianGovernmentrefused to repeal its sodomy law, which led to the case ofToonen v Australia,in which theUnited Nations Human Rights Committeeruled that sodomy laws violated theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.Tasmania's continued refusal to repeal the offending law led theKeating governmentto pass theHuman Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994,which legalised sexual activity between consenting adults throughout Australia and prohibited laws that arbitrarily interfered with the sexual conduct of adults in private.

In the 1997 case ofCroome v Tasmania,Rodney Croomeapplied to theHigh Court of Australiato strike down the Tasmanian anti-gay law as inconsistent with federal law; after having failed to have the matter thrown out, the Tasmanian Government decriminalised homosexuality on 1 May 1997, becoming the final Australian jurisdiction to do so.

In late 2010, theGillard Labor governmentannounced that it was undertaking a review of federal anti-discrimination laws, with the aim of introducing a single equality act that would include sexual orientation and gender identity.In 2011, the government introduced new guidelines which would enable sex- and gender-diverse people to record their preferred gender in their passports.

In March 2013,Mark Dreyfusintroduced the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Bill,and on 25 June 2013, theAustralian Federal Parliamentpassed it with overwhelming support in both houses. TheSex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013became law fromRoyal Assentthree days later by theGovernor-General.It became effective from 1 August 2013, making discrimination againstlesbian,gay,bisexual,transgenderand for the first time in the world,intersexpeople, illegal at a national level. Aged care providers who are owned by religious groups would no longer be able to exclude people from aged care services based on theirLGBTIor same-sex relationship status. However, religion-based private schools and hospitals are exempt from gender identity and sexual orientation provisions.No religious exemptions exist on the basis of intersex status.

The content of laws relating to the equality ofLGBTpeople is summarised in the following table:

Jurisdiction	Same-sex marriage	De facto relationships status	Registered relationships status	Equal age of consent	Anti-discrimination legislation	Adoption and foster parenting	Recognition of parents on birth certificate	Access to fertility (i.e. IVF and/or Surrogacy)	Right to change legal gender withoutsex reassignment surgery
Australia	(since 2017)	(family law)	(Covered by state/territory law;available non-marriage relationship registration schemes vary)	(covered by state/territory law)	(Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013)	(family law)	(family law)	/(family law) WA bans surrogacy for same-sex couples.	(2013 under theAustralian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender;otherwisecovered by state/territory law)

Jurisdiction	Expungement scheme implemented	Gay panic defence abolished	Conversion therapy banned	Hate crime laws include sexual orientation	Anti-vilification law	Right to change legal gender withoutsex reassignment surgery
ACT	(2015)	(2004)
NSW	(2014)	(2014)	(effective from 2025)			(sex reassignment surgeryno longer required from 2025)
NT	(2018)	(2006)
QLD	(2018)	(2017)	(Since 2020)
SA	/(2013; can apply to have recorded asspent conviction,not expunged)	(2020)	(effective from 2025)
TAS	(2018)	(2003)	(Proposed)
VIC	(2015)	(2005)			(Bill pending)
WA	(2018)	(2008)	(Proposed)

Intersex people

Main article:Intersex rights in Australia

Australia was the first country to conduct a parliamentary inquiry into involuntary or coerced medical interventions on intersex people in October 2013, but the report has not been implemented.

A 2016Family Courtcase authorising agonadectomyand consequential surgery on a young childattracted public commentary for disclosing those medical interventions, their rationales, and a priorclitorectomyandlabiaplasty.

In March 2017, Australian andNew Zealandcommunity organisations issued a joint call for legal reform, including the criminalisation of deferrableintersex medical interventionson children, an end to legal classification of sex, and improved access to peer support.

Jurisdiction	Physical integrity and bodily autonomy	Reparations	Anti-discrimination protection	Access to identification documents	Access to same rights as other men and women	Changing M/F identification documents	Third gender or sex classifications
Australia			(2013 for federal protection)	(Federal)	(Exemptions regarding sport)	(Policies vary depending on jurisdiction)	(Opt in at the federal level, state/territory policies vary)

See also

• Human rights in Asia

External links

• The Australian Human Rights Commission website
• NSW Council for Civil Liberties
• National Human Rights Consultation
• The Equality Campaign(Same-sex marriage advocacy group)
• Privacy in Australian law