Wikipedia

Hymn

"Hymns" and "hymnus" redirect here. For other uses, seeHymn (disambiguation).

Ahymnis a type ofsong,and partially synonymous withdevotional song,specifically written for the purpose of adoration orprayer,and typically addressed to adeityor deities, or to a prominent figure orpersonification.[1]The wordhymnderives fromGreekὕμνος(hymnos), which means "a song of praise".[2]A writer of hymns is known as ahymnist.The singing or composition of hymns is calledhymnody.Collections of hymns are known ashymnalsor hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment.Polyhymniais the Greco/Roman goddess of hymns.[3]

Arvid Liljelund[de;fi;sv]'sMan Singing Hymn(1884)

Although most familiar to speakers of English in the context ofChristianity,hymns are also a fixture of otherworld religions,especially on the Indian subcontinent (stotras).[4]Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures. Some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts.[5]

Origins

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Ancient Eastern hymns include the EgyptianGreat Hymn to the Aten,composed byPharaohAkhenaten;[6]the HurrianHymn to Nikkal;[7]theRigveda,an Indian collection of Vedic hymns;[8]hymns from theClassic of Poetry(Shijing), a collection of Chinese poems from 11th to 7th centuries BC;[9]theGathas—Avestan hymns believed to have been composed byZoroaster;[10]and the BiblicalBook of Psalms.[11]

The Western tradition of hymnody begins with theHomeric Hymns,a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BC, praising deities of theancient Greek religions.[12]Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns (Ὕμνοι) by theAlexandrianpoetCallimachus.[13]TheOrphic hymnsare a collection of 87 short poems in Greek religion.[14]

Patristicwriters began applying the termὕμνος,orhymnusinLatin,toChristiansongs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for "psalm".[15]

Christian hymnody

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In Christianity, church congregations often sing hymns together as part of their worship (Pictured: worshippers atUffingtonParish Church in England, 1944)
Further information:Church music

Originally modelled on theBook of Psalmsand other poetic passages (commonly referred to as "canticles") in the Scriptures, Christian hymns are generally directed as praise to theChristian God.Many refer toJesus Christeither directly or indirectly.

In the New Testament,Saint Paulwrote to the Ephesian and Colossian churches, enjoining the singing of psalms and hymns for "mutual encouragement and edification."[16]This was demonstrated when he joinedSilasin singing hymns in the Phillipian jail, even during unfortunate circumstances.[16]Psalms 30:4andRevelation 14:3,among other Scriptural verses, encourage Christians to sing hymns to praise God.[16]As such, since the earliest times, Christians have sung "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs", both in private devotions and in corporate worship.[17][18]Non-scriptural hymns (i.e. not psalms or canticles) from the Early Church still sung today include 'Phos Hilaron', 'Sub tuum praesidium', and 'Te Deum'.[19][20][21]

One definition of a hymn is "...a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung and which expresses the worshipper's attitude toward God or God's purposes in human life. It should be simple and metrical in form, genuinely emotional, poetic and literary in style, spiritual in quality, and in its ideas so direct and so immediately apparent as to unify a congregation while singing it."[22]

Christian hymns are often written with special or seasonal themes and these are used on holy days such asChristmas,Easterand the Feast ofAll Saints,or during particular seasons such asAdventandLent.Others are used to encourage reverence for theBibleor to celebrate Christian practices such as theeucharistorbaptism.Some hymns praise or address individualsaints,particularly theBlessed Virgin Mary;such hymns are particularly prevalent inCatholicism,Eastern Orthodoxyand to some extentHigh ChurchAnglicanism.[citation needed]

A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is calledhymnody;the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. "nineteenth century Methodist hymnody" would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the 19th century).[23]A collection of hymns is called ahymnal,hymn bookorhymnary.These may or may not include music; among the hymnals without printed music, some include names of hymn tunes suggested for use with each text, in case readers already know the tunes or would like to find them elsewhere. A student of hymnody is called ahymnologist,and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody ishymnology.The music to which a hymn may be sung is ahymn tune.[24]

In many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the radical shift of style and devotional thinking that began with theJesus movementandJesus music.In recent years, Christian traditional hymnshaveseen a revival in some churches, usually more Reformed orCalvinisticin nature, as modern hymn writers such asKeith & Kristyn Getty[25]andSovereign GraceMusic have reset old lyrics to new melodies, revised old hymns and republished them, or simply written a song in a hymn-like fashion such as "In Christ Alone".[26]

Music and accompaniment

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In ancient and medieval times,string instrumentssuch as theharp,lyreandlutewere used with psalms and hymns.

Since there is a lack ofmusical notationin early writings,[27]the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form ofGregorian chantor plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eightchurch modes,and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally inLatin,many have been translated; a familiar example is the 4th centuryOf the Father's Heart Begottensung to the 11th century plainsongDivinum Mysterium.[28]

Western church

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Hymns are often accompanied byorganmusic

Later hymnody in theWestern churchintroduced four-part vocalharmonyas the norm, adopting major and minor keys, and came to be led byorganand choir. It shares many elements withclassical music.[29]

Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations anda cappellacongregations, hymns are typically sung in unison. In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others organists and other accompanists are expected to adapt the available setting, or extemporise one, on their instrument of choice.

In traditionalAnglicanpractice, hymns are sung (often accompanied by an organ) during theprocessionalto the altar,[30]during the receiving of communion, during therecessional,and sometimes at other points during the service. TheDoxologyis also sung after the tithes and offerings are brought up to the altar.

Contemporary Christian worship,as often found inEvangelicalismandPentecostalism,may include the use ofcontemporary worship musicplayed withelectric guitarsand thedrum kit,sharing many elements withrock music.[28]

Other groups of Christians have historically excluded instrumental accompaniment, citing the absence of instruments in worship by the church in the first several centuries of its existence, and adhere to an unaccompanieda cappellacongregational singing of hymns.[31]These groups include the 'Brethren' (often both 'Open' and 'Exclusive'), theChurches of Christ,Mennonites,several Anabaptist-based denominations—such as theApostolic Christian Church of America—Primitive Baptists,[32][33]and certain Reformed churches, although during the last century or so, several of these, such as theFree Church of Scotlandhave abandoned this stance.[34]

Eastern church

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Eastern Christianity(theEastern Orthodox,Oriental OrthodoxandEastern Catholicchurches) has a variety of ancient hymnographical traditions. In theByzantine Rite,chant is used for all forms of liturgical worship: if it is not sunga cappella,the only accompaniment is usually anison,ordrone.Organs and other instruments were excluded from church use, although they were employed in imperial ceremonies.[35]However, instruments are common in some other Oriental traditions. TheCoptictradition makes use of thecymbalsand thetriangleonly.[36]TheIndian Orthodox(Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church) use theorgan.TheTewahedo Churchesusedrums,cymbalsand other instruments on certain occasions.

Development of Christian hymnody

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Further information:Hymnody of continental Europe

Thomas Aquinas,in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: "Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem."(" A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice. ")[37]

TheProtestant Reformationresulted in two conflicting attitudes towards hymns. One approach, theregulative principle of worship,favoured by many Zwinglians, Calvinists and some radical reformers, considered anything that was not directly authorised by the Bible to be a novel and Catholic introduction to worship, which was to be rejected. All hymns that were not direct quotations from the Bible fell into this category. Such hymns were banned, along with any form of instrumental musical accompaniment, and organs were removed from churches.[38]Instead of hymns, biblical psalms were chanted, most often without accompaniment, to very basic melodies. This was known asexclusive psalmody.[39]Examples of this may still be found in various places, including in some of thePresbyterian churches of western Scotland.[40]

"Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"
Luther's paraphrase ofPsalm 46is a popularLutheran hymn
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The other Reformation approach, thenormative principle of worship,produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing.[41]Martin Lutheris notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of hymns including "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ( "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God"),"Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ"(" Praise be to You, Jesus Christ "), andmany others.[42]Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The first Protestant hymnal was published in Bohemia in 1532 by theUnitas Fratrum.[43]

CountZinzendorf,the Lutheran leader of theMoravian Churchin the 18th century wrote some 2,000 hymns.[44]

The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase biblical texts, particularlyPsalms;Isaac Wattsfollowed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture.[45]Watts (1674–1748), whose father was an Elder of a dissenter congregation, complained at age 16, that when allowed only psalms to sing, the faithful could not even sing about their Lord, Christ Jesus. His father invited him to see what he could do about it; the result was Watts' first hymn, "Behold the glories of the Lamb".[46] Found in few hymnals today, the hymn has eight stanzas in common metre and is based on Revelation 5:6, 8, 9, 10, 12.[47]

Relying heavily on Scripture, Watts wrote metered texts based on New Testament passages that brought the Christian faith into the songs of the church. Isaac Watts has been called "the father of English hymnody", but Erik Routley sees him more as "the liberator of English hymnody", because his hymns, and hymns like them, moved worshippers beyond singing only Old Testament psalms, inspiring congregations and revitalizing worship.[48]

Later writers took even more freedom, some even includingallegoryandmetaphorin their texts.

"Love Divine All Loves Excelling"
"Love Divine, All Loves Excelling",one ofCharles Wesley's most popular hymns, is commonly sung to the tuneBlaenwerncomposed by W.P.Rowlands
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Charles Wesley's hymns spread Methodisttheology,not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus: expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns.[39]

Battle Hymn of the Republic
The Battle Hymn of the Republic, performed byFrank C. Stanley,Elise Stevenson,and a mixed quartet in 1908.
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Wesley's contribution, along with theSecond Great AwakeninginAmericaled to a new style calledgospel,and a new explosion of sacred music writing withFanny Crosby,Lina Sandell,Philip Bliss,Ira D. Sankey,and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings, and evangelistic crusades.[39]The tune style or form is technically designated "gospel songs" as distinct from hymns. Gospel songs generally include a refrain (or chorus) and usually (though not always) a faster tempo than the hymns. As examples of the distinction, "Amazing Grace"is a hymn (no refrain), but"How Great Thou Art"is a gospel song.[49]During the 19th century, the gospel-song genre spread rapidly in Protestantism and to a lesser but still definite extent, in Roman Catholicism;[50]the gospel-song genre is unknown in the worshipper seby Eastern Orthodox churches, which rely exclusively on traditional chants (a type of hymn).

TheMethodist Revivalof the 18th century created an explosion of hymn-writing inWelsh,which continued into the first half of the 19th century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers areWilliam Williams PantycelynandAnn Griffiths.The second half of the 19th century witnessed an explosion of hymn tune composition and congregational four-part singing inWales.[51]

Along with the more classical sacred music of composers ranging fromCharpentier(19Hymns,H.53 - H.71) toMozarttoMonteverdi,theCatholic Churchcontinued to produce many popular hymns such asLead, Kindly Light,Silent Night,O Sacrament Most Holy, andFaith of Our Fathers.

In some radical Protestant movements, their own sacred hymns completely replaced the written Bible. An example of this, theBook of Life(Russian: "Zhivotnaya kniga" ) is the name of all oral hymns of theDoukhobors,the Russian denomination, similar to westernQuakers.The Book of Life of the Doukhobors(1909) is firstly printed hymnal containing songs, which to have been composed as an oral piece to be sung aloud.[52]

Many churches today use contemporary worship music which includes a range of styles often influenced bypopular music.This often leads to some conflict between older and younger congregants (seecontemporary worship).[53][54]This is not new; the Christianpop musicstyle began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation.[55]

This long tradition has resulted in a wide variety of hymns. Some modern churches include within hymnody the traditional hymn (usually describing God), contemporary worship music (often directed to God) andgospel music(expressions of one's personal experience of God). This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements.

Swedish composer and musicologistElisabet Wentz-Janacekmapped 20,000 melody variants for Swedish hymns and helped create the Swedish Choral Registrar, which displays the wide variety of hymns today.[56]

In modern times, hymn use has not been limited to strictly religious settings, including secular occasions such asRemembrance Day,and this "secularization" also includes use as sources of musical entertainment or even vehicles for mass emotion.[57]

American developments

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Hymn writing, composition, performance and the publishing of Christian hymnals were prolific in the 19th-century and were often linked to the abolitionist movement by many hymn writers.[58][59]Stephen Fosterwrote a number of hymns that were used during church services during this era of publishing.[60]

Thomas Symmes, a clergyman of the third generation ofPuritansin New England, spread throughout churches a new idea of how to sing hymns, in which anyone could sing a hymn any way they felt led to;[61]this idea was opposed by a writer of the time, Rev. Thomas Walter, who felt it was "like Five Hundred different Tunes roared out at the same time".[62]William Billings,asinging schoolteacher, created the first tune book with only American born compositions. Within his books, Billings did not put as much emphasis on "common measure"- aquatrainthat rhymes ABAB and alternates four-stress and three-stress iambic lines[63]- which was the typical way hymns were sung. Noting in his preface the fondness of other compilers for tunes in common measure, Billings promised his subscribers a well-balanced collection, with "a Sufficiency in eachmeasure".[64]And indeedThe Singing Master's Assistanthas many tunes whose declamation is based on thedactylinduple time.[65]Boston'sHandel and Haydn Societyaimed at raising the level of church music in America, publishing their "Collection of Church Music" in 1822.[66]In the late 19th centuryIra D. SankeyandDwight L. Moodydeveloped the relatively new subcategory ofgospel hymns.[67]

Earlier in the 19th century, the use of musical notation, especiallyshape notes,exploded in America, and professional singing masters went from town to town teaching the population how tosing from sight,[68]instead of the more commonlining outthat had been used before that.[69]During this period hundreds of tune books were published, includingB.F. White'sSacred Harp,and earlier works like theMissouri Harmony,Kentucky Harmony,Hesperian Harp,D.H. Mansfield'sThe American Vocalist,The Social Harp,theSouthern Harmony,William Walker'sChristian Harmony,Jeremiah Ingalls'Christian Harmony,and literally many dozens of others. Shape notes were important in the spread of (then) more modern singing styles, with tenor-led 4-part harmony (based on older EnglishWest Gallery music),fugingsections,anthemsand other more complex features. During this period, hymns were incredibly popular in the United States, and one or more of the above-mentioned tunebooks could be found in almost every household. It is not uncommon to hear accounts of young people and teenagers gathering together to spend an afternoon singing hymns and anthems from tune books, which was considered great fun, and there are surviving accounts ofAbraham Lincolnand his sweetheart singing together from theMissouri Harmonyduring his youth.[70]

By the 1860s musical reformers likeLowell Mason(the so-called "better music boys" ) were actively campaigning for the introduction of more "refined" and modern singing styles,[71][page needed]and eventually these American tune books were replaced in many churches, starting in the Northeast and urban areas, and spreading out into the countryside as people adopted the gentler, more soothing tones ofVictorianhymnody, and even adopted dedicated, trainedchoirsto do their church's singing, rather than having the entire congregation participate. But in many rural areas the old traditions lived on, not in churches, but in weekly, monthly or annual conventions were people would meet to sing from their favorite tunebooks. The most popular one, and the only one that survived continuously in print, was theSacred Harp,which could be found in the typical rural Southern home right up until the living tradition was "re-discovered" byAlan Lomaxin the 1960s (although it had been well-documented bymusicologistGeorge Pullen Jacksonprior to this). Since then there has been a renaissance in "Sacred Harp singing", with annual conventions popping up inall 50 statesand in a number of European countries recently, including theUK,Germany,IrelandandPoland,as well as inAustralia.[72][73][74]

Black America's hymns

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African-Americansdeveloped a rich hymnody fromspiritualsduring times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style. The first influences ofAfrican-American cultureinto hymns came from slave songs of the United States a collection of slave hymns, compiled by William Francis Allen, who had difficulty pinning them down from the oral tradition, and though he succeeded, he points out the awe-inspiring effect of the hymns when sung in by their originators.[75]Some of the first hymns in theblack churchwere renderings of Isaac Watts hymns written in the African-American vernacular English of the time.[76]

Hymn meters

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Main article:Meter (hymn)
Further information:Trochaic septenarius

The meter indicates the number of syllables for the lines in eachstanzaof a hymn.[77]This provides a means of marrying the hymn's text with an appropriatehymn tunefor singing. In practice many hymns conform to one of a relatively small number of meters (syllable count and stress patterns). Care must be taken, however, to ensure that not only the metre of words and tune match, but also the stresses on the words in each line.[78]Technically speaking an iambic tune, for instance, cannot be used with words of, say, trochaic metre.

The meter is often denoted by a row of figures besides the name of the tune, such as "87.87.87", which would inform the reader that each verse has six lines, and that the first line has eight syllables, the second has seven, the third line eight, etc. The meter can also be described by initials; L.M. indicates long meter, which is 88.88 (four lines, each eight syllables long); S.M. is short meter (66.86); C.M. is common metre (86.86), while D.L.M., D.S.M. and D.C.M. (the "D" stands for double) are similar to their respective single meters except that they have eight lines in a verse instead of four.[79]

Also, if the number of syllables in one verse differ from another verse in the same hymn (e.g., the hymn "I Sing a Song of the Saints of God" ), the meter is called Irregular.[80]

Hindu hymnody

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Sanskrit manuscript page from the "Vivaha sukta"Rigveda,dated 1500–1200 BCE
Samaveda
Recitation of a Gaaram melody of Samaveda fromTheRigveda
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Further information:Stotra,Rigveda,andList of suktas and stutis
See also:Vedic Chant,Bhajan,andArti (Hinduism)

TheRigvedais the earliest and foundational Indian collection of over a thousand liturgical hymns inVedic Sanskrit.[81]

Between other notableHinduhymns (stotrasand others) or their collections there are:

A hymnody acquired tremendous importance during the medieval era of thebhakti movements.When the chanting (bhajanandkirtan) of thedevotional songsof the poet-sants(Basava,Chandidas,Dadu Dayal,Haridas,Hith Harivansh,Kabir,Meera Bai,Namdev,Nanak,Ramprasad Sen,Ravidas,Sankardev,Surdas,Vidyapati) in local languages in a number of groups, namely Dadu panth,Kabir panth,Lingayatism,Radha-vallabha,Sikhism,completely or significantly replaced all previousSanskrit literature.The same and with the songs ofBaulmovement. That is, the new hymns themselves received the status of holy scripture. An example of a hymnist, both lyricist and composer is the 15th–16th centuriesAssamesereformer guruSankardevwith hisborgeet-songs.[82][83]

Sikh hymnody

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TheSikhholy book, theGuru Granth Sahib(Punjabi:ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬPunjabi pronunciation:[ɡʊɾuɡɾəntʰsɑhɪb]), is a collection of hymns (Shabad) orGurbanidescribing the qualities of God[84]and why one should meditate on God's name. TheGuru Granth Sahibis divided by their musical setting in differentragas[85]into fourteen hundred and thirty pages known asAngs(limbs) in Sikh tradition.Guru Gobind Singh(1666–1708), the tenth guru, after addingGuru Tegh Bahadur'sbanito theAdi Granth[86][87]affirmed the sacred text as his successor, elevating it toGuru Granth Sahib.[88]The text remains the holy scripture of the Sikhs, regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus.[89]The role of Guru Granth Sahib, as a source or guide of prayer,[90]is pivotal inSikhworship.

In other religions

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Buddhism

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Further information:Buddhist chant

Sutrachanting is a religious action recommended forShin Buddhistfollowers to carry out in their daily lives. Temple service chanting may include: dedications to the Three Treasures (Buddha,Dharma,Sangha) common to all Buddhist traditions; selections fromThe Three Pure Land Sutras,which record the teachings of the Buddha; compositions of Pure Land Buddhist teachers such asNagarjunaandShandao.[91]

StotrasareSanskrithymns or eulogies sung in praise of the divine and the transcendent. Usually associated with theHinduandJaintraditions, stotras are melodic expressions of devotion and inspiration found in other Sanskrit religious movements as well.[92]

In theBuddhistworld, the practice of singing these hymns is still alive today inNepal.Min Bahadur Shakya, former director of the Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods in Lalitpur, Nepal, writes:[92]

In prosperity or distress, the Nepalese people worship and pray to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas for protection, good health, prosperity, and family welfare and also for liberation from cyclic existence. The stotras or hymns throw light on various aspects of Buddhist doctrines. The stotras are sung by sadhakas during their meditation or act of devotion. The contents of these strotras are of varied nature ranging from simple act of confession, qualities of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, praises of deities of both mundane and supra-mundane [nature], iconographic data of various tantric deities and also explanation of Buddha’s teachings themselves in the form of verses. These stotras can be sung with melodious music and can imprint the devotees significantly even in this modern world through the multimedia device.

— Min Bahadur Shakya

Confucianism

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Further information:Classic of Poetry

The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection ofChinese poetry,theClassic of Poetry(Shijing), were initiallylyrics.[93]TheShijing,with its collection of poems and folk songs, was heavily valued by the philosopherConfuciusand is considered to be one of the officialConfucian classics.His remarks on the subject have become an invaluable source inancient music theory.[94]

Islam

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Further information:Nasheed,Sufi music,andQawwali

During the time of the Prophet Mohammed,Islamic musicwas originally defined by what it didn't contain: no strings, brass, or wind instruments and no female vocals. The only instrument initially allowed was minimal percussion by an Arabic drum called thedaf.[95]This minimal form remains widely practiced in the Gulf and some other parts of theArab world.[96]

However, in places such as Turkey and Southeast Asia, several new styles of spiritual songs have developed. In Turkey,Sufiadherents incorporate music into worship. The most popular are services undertaken by Mevlevi Sufis, which include chanting and thewhirling dervishes.[97]

In Pakistan and Southeast Asia, the most recognized form of devotional music isqawwali.[98]Performed by up to nine men, aqawwaligroup would often use instruments such as theharmonium(a type of keyboard) and percussion instruments including atablaanddholak.[99]The songs often run from 15 to 30 minutes and include instrumental preludes, repeated refrains and vocal improvisation. In recent times,nasheedartists from the Gulf have found innovative ways to overcome the no-instrument rule.[96]

Albums by Sharjah'sAhmed Bukhatirand Kuwait'sMishary Rashid Al Afasyuse studio trickery and manipulate backing vocals to sound like a synth piano or string section. In the West, groups such as America'sNative Deenand Australia's The Brothahood use hip-hop music to get their spiritual message across to a new generation of young Muslims.[100]The nasheeds in English by South Africa's Zain Bhikha secured him a large following in Europe and the Middle East.[96]

Jainism

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Further information:Bhaktamara Stotra

Known asstavanor, inHindi,bhajan,Jainhymns are composed and performed to praise the Jinas. Written in every language Jains have used, the predominant pada form reflects Jain involvement in Indian poetics and in thebhaktidevotional movement more commonly associated withHinduism.[101]

Musically, Jain hymns can be grouped into the folk genres of devotional music in western India, such as Gujarāti rās-garbā andRājasthānifolk music.

There are six obligatory acts that are expected to be performed by Jains sequentially as a single act twice daily. The second one of these is showing reverence to theford-makers,which is done by reciting a twenty-four-verse hymn of praise to theTirthankaras.[102]

One of the most popular devotional hymns of the Jains is theBhaktāmara-stotra–Devoted Godshymn. Both main sects ofŚvetāmbarasandDigambarasaccept it, counting 44 and 48 stanzas respectively. It is dedicated to the first Jina, Ṛṣabhanātha or Lord Ṛṣabha, frequently known asĀdinātha,meaning ‘First Lord’. The title comes from the first verse, which says that ‘his feet enhance the lustre of the jewels set in the crowns lowered by the devoted gods’.[103]

Judaism

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Further information:PiyyutandPsalms

TheHebrewwordZemirotmeans literally 'songs' or 'hymns' but is used to refer to two specific repertories: The first, according to the Sephardic tradition, refers to the preliminary section of psalms and biblical verses recited during theShacharit(morning) prayers: theAshkenazicterminology refers to these Psalms asPsukeydezimra.The second repertory is well defined in Neil Levin's Overview of hisZ'mirot Anthology.[104]

In Ashkenazic tradition the term refers toz'mirot shel Shabbat(Sabbath hymns) translated variously as table songs, domestic songs and home songs. These are a specific set of religious poems in Hebrew or Aramaic written mostly between the 10th and 17th centuries, which are sung during and directly after Sabbath meals. The musical versions are numerous and heterogeneous reflecting a wealth of different styles and geographic origins, and comprising an ever expanding body of folk material.

— [105]

Over many centuries the Jews of Spain and Portugal–the originalSephardim– developed their own form of religious worship. Their services were enhanced by the addition of poetry for special occasions such as the major festivals (Shalosh r’galim) and theYamim nora’im(High Holidays). Most of these poetic insertions are rhymed, metrical hymns (piyyutim) and were the products of great literary figures during theGolden Age of the Jewsin Spain (c. 950–1150). Among these were Solomon ibn Gabriol, Judah Halevi and the two Ibn Ezras—Abraham and Moshe.[106]

One of the main features of devotional music and hymns in Judaism, especially when utilized in synagogue ritual on theSabbathand other holy days, is that it is almost entirely vocal. Though today, accompanying instruments such as the organ might be utilized in worship, the emphasis on congregational song and the art of theHazzanhas always been, and still is, paramount.[107]

The one salient exception to this is an instrument called theShofar,a ram's horn which is sounded on the High Holidays (theJewish New YearandDay of Atonement- Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, respectively), as a special call to prayer andrepentance.[107]

Shinto

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Further information:Kojiki,Engishiki,andMan'yōshū

According to Japanese mythology, Shinto music stems from the time of the gods when there was no earth and sea. InShintoism,sacral music is calledMi-kagura.The wordkagurameans "the gods' delight". The prefix "Mi"raises the value of the subject intensely. It should be translated" the sublime greatest of great gods ". In praxis there are two kinds ofkagura,Mi-kaguraand ruralkagura.Mi-kagurais strictly reserved and dedicated to the Imperial house and the highest nobility and clergy; ruralkagurais a most colourful and vivid presentation of the popular feats of supramortal and mortal heroes.[108]

Zoroastrianism

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Further information:Gatha (Zoroaster)

The sacred songs attributed to Zoroaster (Zarathustra), the poet-priest and founder of Zoroastrianism, are calledGathas.The Gathas, consist of seventeen hymns composed by the great poet-prophetZarathushtraaround 1200 BC. They are arranged into five groups based on their meter:[109]

  • Ahunavaiti Gatha (Y28 - Y34)
  • Ushtavaiti Gatha (Y43 - Y46)
  • Spentamainyush Gatha (Y47 - Y50)
  • Vohukhshathra Gatha (Y51)
  • Vahishtoishti Gatha (Y53)

The Gathas are also filled with word plays and deliberate ambiguities, and they were likely intended to be used by initiates as meditative instruments to enlightenment.[109]Only occasionally do the Gathas give an exact and clear picture of Zoroaster's actual teachings, but in general they reflect them in a modified and elaborated form, many times marked by complexity and ornateness of style, the prophet demonstrating his poetical skill in order to stimulate Ahura Mazdā to fulfil his requests or to answer his questions.[110]

Appreciations

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According toNissim Ezekiel,views on hymns can be divided:

...poets who have mystical experiences and project them in verse have occasionally been successful but mystics who write poetry do it badly. Religious hymns, however notable the religious sentiment they express are not notably poetic. Great religious poetry undoubtedly exists but the greatness is unequally divided between the poetry and religion, while perfect integration between the two is rare.[111]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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  • Bradley, Ian.Abide with Me: the World of Victorian Hymns.London: S.C.M. Press, 1997.ISBN0-334-02703-9
  • Hughes, Charles, Albert Christ Janer, and Carleton Sprague Smith, eds.American Hymns, Old and New.New York: Columbia University Press, 1989. 2 vols.N.B.: Vol. l, [the music, harmonized, with words, of the selected hymns of various Christian denominations, sects, and cults]; vol. 2,Notes on the Hymns and Biographies of the Authors and Composers.ISBN0-231-05148-4set comprising both volumes.
  • Weddle, Franklyn S.How to Use the Hymnal.Independence, Mo.: Herald House, 1956.
  • Wren, Brian."Praying Twice: The Music and Words of Congregational Song". Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000.ISBN0-664-25670-8
  • H. A. Hodges(ed. E. Wyn James),Flame in the Mountains: Williams Pantycelyn, Ann Griffiths and the Welsh Hymn(Tal-y-bont: Y Lolfa, 2017), 320 pp.ISBN978-1-78461-454-6.
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