Wikipedia

Iceberg

For other uses, seeIceberg (disambiguation).

Anicebergis a piece offreshwatericemore than 15 meters (16 yards) long[1]that has broken off aglacieror anice shelfand is floating freely in open water.[2][3]Smaller chunks of floating glacially derived ice are called "growlers" or "bergy bits".[4][5]Much of an iceberg is below the water's surface, which led to the expression "tip of the iceberg"to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen issue. Icebergs are considered aserious maritime hazard.

An iceberg in theArctic Ocean
Icebergs inGreenlandas filmed byNASAin 2015

Icebergs vary considerably in size and shape. Icebergs thatcalvefrom glaciers inGreenlandare often irregularly shaped whileAntarcticice shelves often produce large tabular (table top) icebergs. The largest iceberg in recent history, namedB-15,was measured at nearly 300 by 40 kilometres (186 by 25 mi) in 2000.[6]The largest iceberg on record was an Antarctic tabular iceberg measuring 335 by 97 kilometres (208 by 60 mi) sighted 240 kilometres (150 mi) west ofScott Island,in the South Pacific Ocean, by theUSSGlacieron November 12, 1956. This iceberg was larger thanBelgium.[7]

Etymology

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The wordicebergis a partialloan translationfrom theDutchwordijsberg,literally meaningice mountain,[8]cognate toDanishisbjerg,GermanEisberg,Low SaxonIesbargandSwedishisberg.

Overview

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Typically about one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water, which follows fromArchimedes's Principle of buoyancy;thedensityof pure ice is about 920kg/m3(57 lb/cu ft), and that ofseawaterabout 1,025 kg/m3(64 lb/cu ft). The contour of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface.

Northern edge ofIceberg B-15A in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, 29 January 2001
Iceberg size classifications according to the International Ice Patrol[1]
Size class Height (m) Length (m)
Growler <1 <5
Bergy bit 1–5 5–15
Small 5–15 15–60
Medium 15–45 60–122
Large 45–75 122–213
Very large >75 >213

The largest icebergs recorded have beencalved,or broken off, from theRoss Ice ShelfofAntarctica.Icebergs may reach a height of more than 100 metres (300 ft) above the sea surface and have mass ranging from about 100,000 tonnes up to more than 10 million tonnes. Icebergs or pieces of floating ice smaller than 5 meters above the sea surface are classified as "bergy bits"; smaller than 1 meter— "growlers".[9]The largest known iceberg in theNorth Atlanticwas 168 metres (551 ft) above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreakerEastwindin 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have interior temperatures of −15 to −20 °C (5 to −4 °F).[10]

Grottoin an iceberg, photographed during theBritish Antarctic Expeditionof 1911–1913, 5 Jan 1911

Drift

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A given iceberg's trajectory through the ocean can be modelled by integrating the equation

wheremis the iceberg mass,vthe drift velocity, and the variablesf,k,andFcorrespond to theCoriolis force,the vertical unit vector, and a given force. The subscripts a, w, r, s, and p correspond to the air drag, water drag, wave radiation force, sea ice drag, and the horizontal pressure gradient force.[11][12]

Icebergs deteriorate through melting and fracturing, which changes the massm,as well as the surface area, volume, and stability of the iceberg.[12][13]Iceberg deterioration and drift, therefore, are interconnected ie. iceberg thermodynamics, and fracturing must be considered when modelling iceberg drift.[12]

Winds and currents may move icebergs close to coastlines, where they can become frozen intopack ice(one form ofsea ice), or drift into shallow waters, where they can come into contact with the seabed, a phenomenon calledseabed gouging.

Mass loss

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Icebergs lose mass due to melting, andcalving.Melting can be due to solar radiation, or heat and salt transport from the ocean. Iceberg calving is generally enhanced by waves impacting the iceberg.

Melting tends to be driven by the ocean, rather than solar radiation. Ocean driven melting is often modelled as

whereis the melt rate in m/day,is the relative velocity between the iceberg and the ocean,is the temperature difference between the ocean and the iceberg, andis the length of the iceberg.is a constant based on properties of the iceberg and the ocean and is approximatelyin the polar ocean.[14]

The influence of the shape of an iceberg[15]and of the Coriolis force[16]on iceberg melting rates has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments.

Wave erosion is more poorly constrained but can be estimated by

whereis the wave erosion rate in m/day,,describes the sea state,is the sea surface temperature, andis thesea iceconcentration.[14]

Bubbles

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Air trapped in snow forms bubbles as the snow is compressed to form firn and then glacial ice.[17]Icebergs can contain up to 10% air bubbles by volume.[17][failed verification]These bubbles are released during melting, producing a fizzing sound that some may call "BergieSeltzer".This sound results when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air bubbles trapped in the ice. As each bubble bursts it makes a" popping "sound[10]and the acoustic properties of these bubbles can be used to study iceberg melt.[18]

Stability

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An iceberg may flip, or capsize, as it melts and breaks apart, changing thecenter of gravity.Capsizing can occur shortly after calving when the iceberg is young and establishing balance.[19]Icebergs are unpredictable and can capsize anytime and without warning. Large icebergs that break off from a glacier front and flip onto the glacier face can push the entire glacier backwards momentarily, producing 'glacial earthquakes' that generate as much energy as an atomic bomb.[20][21]

Color

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Icebergs are generally white because they are covered in snow, but can be green, blue, yellow, black, striped, or evenrainbow-colored.[22]Seawater, algae and lack of air bubbles in the ice can create diverse colors. Sediment can create the dirty black coloration present in some icebergs.[23]

Shape

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Different shapes of icebergs
Tabular iceberg, nearBrown Bluffin theAntarctic SoundoffTabarin Peninsula

In addition to size classification (Table 1), icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shapes. The two basic types of iceberg forms aretabularandnon-tabular.Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a flat top, much like aplateau,with a length-to-height ratio of more than 5:1.[24]

This type of iceberg, also known as anice island,[25]can be quite large, as in the case ofPobeda Ice Island.Antarcticicebergs formed by breaking off from anice shelf,such as theRoss Ice ShelforFilchner–Ronne Ice Shelf,are typically tabular. The largest icebergs in the world are formed this way.

Non-tabular icebergs have different shapes and include:[26]

  • Dome:An iceberg with a rounded top.
  • Pinnacle:An iceberg with one or morespires.
  • Wedge:An iceberg with a steep edge on one side and a slope on the opposite side.
  • Dry-dock:An iceberg that haserodedto form a slot orchannel.
  • Blocky:An iceberg with steep, vertical sides and a flat top. It differs from tabular icebergs in that itsaspect ratio,the ratio between its width and height, is small, more like that of a block than a flat sheet.

Monitoring and control

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History

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Theiceberg suspected of sinkingtheRMSTitanic;a smudge of red paint much like theTitanic'sred hull stripe runs along its base at the waterline.

Prior to 1914 there was no system in place to track icebergs to guard ships against collisions[citation needed]despitefatal sinkingsof ships by icebergs. In 1907,SS Kronprinz Wilhelm,a German liner, rammed an iceberg and suffered a crushed bow, but she was still able to complete her voyage. The advent ofwatertight compartmentalizationin ship construction led designers to declare their ships "unsinkable".

During the1912 sinking of theTitanic,theiceberg that sank the Titanickilled more than 1,500 of its estimated 2,224 passengers and crew, seriously damaging the 'unsinkable' claim. For the remainder of the ice season of that year, theUnited States Navypatrolled the waters and monitored ice movements. In November 1913, theInternational Conference on the Safety of Life at Seamet inLondonto devise a more permanent system of observing icebergs. Within three months the participating maritime nations had formed theInternational Ice Patrol(IIP). The goal of the IIP was to collect data onmeteorologyandoceanographyto measure currents, ice-flow,ocean temperature,and salinity levels. They monitored iceberg dangers near theGrand Banksof Newfoundland and provided the "limits of all known ice" in that vicinity to the maritime community. The IIP published their first records in 1921, which allowed for a year-by-year comparison of iceberg movement.

Technological development

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An iceberg being pushed by threeU.S. Navyships inMcMurdo Sound,Antarctica

Aerial surveillance of the seas in the early 1930s allowed for the development of charter systems that could accurately detail the ocean currents and iceberg locations. In 1945, experiments tested the effectiveness ofradarin detecting icebergs. A decade later, oceanographic monitoring outposts were established for the purpose of collecting data; these outposts continue to serve in environmental study. A computer was first installed on a ship for the purpose of oceanographic monitoring in 1964, which allowed for a faster evaluation of data. By the 1970s,ice-breakingships were equipped with automatic transmissions ofsatellitephotographs of ice in Antarctica. Systems for optical satellites had been developed but were still limited by weather conditions. In the 1980s, driftingbuoyswere used in Antarctic waters for oceanographic andclimate research.They are equipped with sensors that measure ocean temperature and currents.

Acoustic monitoring of an iceberg

Side looking airborne radar(SLAR) made it possible to acquire images regardless of weather conditions. On November 4, 1995,CanadalaunchedRADARSAT-1.Developed by theCanadian Space Agency,it provides images of Earth for scientific and commercial purposes. This system was the first to usesynthetic aperture radar(SAR), which sendsmicrowaveenergy to the ocean surface and records the reflections to track icebergs. TheEuropean Space AgencylaunchedENVISAT(an observation satellite that orbits the Earth's poles)[27]on March 1, 2002. ENVISAT employs advanced synthetic aperture radar (ASAR) technology, which can detect changes in surface height accurately. The Canadian Space Agency launchedRADARSAT-2in December 2007, which uses SAR and multi-polarization modes and follows the sameorbitpath as RADARSAT-1.[28]

Modern monitoring

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Iceberg concentrations and size distributions are monitored worldwide by the U.S.National Ice Center(NIC), established in 1995, which produces analyses and forecasts ofArctic,Antarctic,Great LakesandChesapeake Bayice conditions. More than 95% of the data used in its sea ice analyses are derived from the remote sensors on polar-orbiting satellites that survey these remote regions of the Earth.

Iceberg A22A in the SouthAtlantic Ocean

The NIC is the only organization that names and tracks all Antarctic Icebergs. It assigns each iceberg larger than 10 nautical miles (19 km) along at least one axis a name composed of a letter indicating its point of origin and a running number. The letters used are as follows:[29]

A–longitude0° to 90° W (Bellingshausen Sea,Weddell Sea)
B– longitude 90° W to 180° (Amundsen Sea,EasternRoss Sea)
C– longitude 90° E to 180° (Western Ross Sea,Wilkes Land)
D– longitude 0° to 90° E (Amery Ice Shelf,Eastern Weddell Sea)

TheDanish Meteorological Institutemonitorsiceberg populations around Greenlandusing data collected by thesynthetic aperture radar(SAR) on theSentinel-1 satellites.

Iceberg management

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In Labrador and Newfoundland, iceberg management plans have been developed to protect offshore installations from impacts with icebergs.[30]

Commercial use

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The idea of towing large icebergs to other regions as a source of water has been raised since at least the 1950s, without having been put into practice.[31]In 2017, a business from theUAEannounced plans to tow an iceberg from Antarctica to the Middle East; in 2019 salvage engineerNick Sloaneannounced a plan to move one to South Africa[32]at an estimated cost of $200 million.[31]In 2019, a German company, Polewater, announced plans to tow Antarctic icebergs to places like South Africa.[33][34]

Companies have used iceberg water in products such asbottled water,fizzy ice cubes and alcoholic drinks.[33]For example, Iceberg Beer byQuidi Vidi Brewing Companyis made from icebergs found aroundSt. John's, Newfoundland.[35]Although annual iceberg supply inNewfoundland and Labradorexceeds the total freshwater consumption of the United States, in 2016 the province introduced a tax on iceberg harvesting and imposed a limit on how much fresh water can be exported yearly.[33]

Oceanography and ecology

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Icebergs inDisko Bay

The freshwater injected into the ocean by melting icebergs can change the density of the seawater in the vicinity of the iceberg.[36][37]Fresh melt water released at depth is lighter, and therefore more buoyant, than the surrounding seawater causing it to rise towards the surface.[36][37]Icebergs can also act as floatingbreakwaters,impacting ocean waves.[38]

Icebergs contain variable concentrations of nutrients and minerals that are released into the ocean during melting.[39][40]Iceberg-derived nutrients, particularly the iron contained in sediments, can fuel blooms of phytoplankton.[39][41]Samples collected from icebergs in Antarctica, Patagonia, Greenland, Svalbard, and Iceland, however, show that iron concentrations vary significantly,[40]complicating efforts to generalize the impacts of icebergs on marine ecosystems.

Recent large icebergs

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Thecalvingof Iceberg A-38 offFilchner-Ronne Ice Shelf

Iceberg B15calved from theRoss Ice Shelfin 2000 and initially had an area of 11,000 square kilometres (4,200 sq mi). It broke apart in November 2002. The largest remaining piece of it,Iceberg B-15A,with an area of 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi), was still the largest iceberg on Earth until it ran aground and split into several pieces October 27, 2005, an event that was observed by seismographs both on the iceberg and across Antarctica.[42]It has been hypothesized that this breakup may also have been abetted by ocean swell generated by anAlaskanstorm 6 days earlier and 13,500 kilometres (8,400 mi) away.[43][44]

In culture

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One of the most infamous icebergs in history is theiceberg that sank theTitanic.The catastrophe led to the establishment of anInternational Ice Patrolshortly after. Icebergs in both the northern and southern hemispheres have often been compared in size to multiples of the 59.1 square kilometres (22.8 sq mi)-area ofManhattan Island.[57][58][59][60][61]

William Bradford,Fishing Boats and Icebergs
Albert Bierstadt's paintingThe Iceberg

Artists have used icebergs as the subject matter for their paintings.Frederic Edwin Church,The Icebergs,1861 was painted from sketches Church completed on a boat trip off Newfoundland and Labrador.[62]Caspar David Friedrich,The Sea of Ice,1823–1824 is polar landscape with an iceberg and ship wreck depicting the dangers of such conditions.[63]William Bradfordcreated detailed paintings of sailing ships set in arctic coasts and was fascinated by icebergs.[64]Albert Bierstadtmade studies on arctic trips aboard steamships in 1883 and 1884 that were the basis of his paintings of arctic scenes with colossal icebergs made in the studio.[65]

American poet,Lydia Sigourney,wrote the poem"Icebergs".While on a return journey from Europe in 1841, her steamship encountered a field of icebergs overnight, during anAurora Borealis.The ship made it through unscathed to the next morning, when the sun rose and "touched the crowns, Of all those arctic kings."[66]

See also

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Iceberg pictured in the coat of arms ofIlulissat,a name meaning "Iceberg"

References

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