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Energy poverty and cooking

(Redirected fromImproved cookstoves)

One aspect ofenergy povertyis lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies forcooking.As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people indeveloping countriesroutinely cook with fuels such as wood,animal dung,coal,orkerosene.Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmfulhousehold air pollution,resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to theWorld Health Organization(WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.[1]

a 3-stone stove
A traditional wood-fired 3-stone stove in Guatemala, which causesindoor air pollution

A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity,liquid petroleum gas(LPG),piped natural gas(PNG),biogas,alcohol, and solar heat meet WHO guidelines for clean cooking. Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and forgender equality.

Stoves that burn wood and othersolid fuelsmore efficiently than traditional stoves are known as "improved cookstoves" or "clean cookstoves". With very few exceptions, these stoves deliver fewer health benefits than stoves that use liquid or gaseous fuels. However, they reduce fuel usage and thus help to preventenvironmental degradation.Improved cookstoves are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible.

Initiatives to encourage cleaner cooking practices have yielded limited success. For various practical, cultural, and economic reasons, it is common for families who adopt clean stoves and fuels to continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves.

Issues with traditional cooking fuels

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Traditionalwood-burning stoves

Health impacts

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Further information:Household air pollution § Health impacts

As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people[2]in developing countries rely on burning pollutingbiomass fuelssuch as wood,dry dung,coal,orkerosenefor cooking, which causes harmfulhousehold air pollutionand also contributes significantly to outdoorair pollution.[3]TheWorld Health Organization(WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths.[4]TheGlobal Burden of Diseasestudy estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million,[5]and the death rate is highest in Africa.[6]

In traditional cooking facilities, smoke is typically vented into the home rather than out through a chimney. Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances arecarbon monoxide(CO); smallparticulate matter;nitrous oxide;sulfur oxides;a range ofvolatile organic compounds,includingformaldehyde,benzeneand1,3-butadiene;andpolycyclic aromatic compounds,such asbenzo-a-pyrene,which are thought to have both short and long-term health consequences.[7]

Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhoodpneumoniaand is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor forcataracts,the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight.[8]Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause ofburnsamong women and children in developing countries.[9]

Impacts on women and girls

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Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.[3]The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work.[3]Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence.[10]Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.[10]

Environmental impacts

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Traditional cooking facilities are highly inefficient, allowing heat to escape into the open air. The inefficiency of fuel burning results in more wood needing to be harvested and also causes emissions ofblack carbon,a contributor to climate change.[11]Serious local environmental damage, includingdesertification,can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material.[12]

While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due toagricultural expansionand land conversion.[13]Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results onsoil qualityand agricultural and livestock productivity as it means these materials are not available as soil conditioners,organic fertilizer,and livestockfodder.[14]

Terminology

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The term "clean cookstove" has often been used without defining what the term means.[15]Organizations vary in how they define "clean":

  • According to the WHO, cooking facilities are "clean" if their emissions ofcarbon monoxideandfine particulate matterare below certain levels.[16]
  • TheClean Cooking Allianceuses the term "clean cooking" more broadly.[17]Its definition includes what the WHO refers to as "improved cookstoves", i.e. stoves that burn biomass fuel more efficiently than traditional stoves. As of 2020, the vast majority of stoves that burn biomass fuel do not qualify as clean under WHO standards even if they are more efficient than traditional stoves.[18]

The WHO has criticized the marketing of biomass cookstoves as "improved" when they have not been tested against standards and their health benefits are unclear.[16]

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Solar cookersare nonpolluting and free to use, but require favourable weather and longer cooking times.[19]

A high priority in globalsustainable developmentis to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.[20]

According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity,liquid petroleum gas(LPG), pipednatural gas(PNG),biogas,alcohol, and solar heat are "clean".[19]Best-in-classfan gasifierstoves that burnbiomass pelletscan be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.[21]

Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers,rice cookers,and highly efficientinduction stoves,in addition to standard electric stoves.Electric induction stovesare so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper.[22]For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted toelectric pressure cookers,the savings are even greater.[23][better source needed].As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity,[24]and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Becauseaccess to electricityis also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind ofintegrated resource planningfor electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.[25][26]

Natural gas stoves,which are widely used in richer countries, are not without health risks. They emit high levels ofnitrogen dioxide,an atmospheric pollutant that is linked tooxidative stressand acute reduction in lung function.[27]Studies on the effects of indoor cooking with natural gas have yielded inconsistent results.[27]According to a 2010 meta-analysis, the evidence suggests that the practice leads to small reductions in lung function in children, and that children with allergies may be more susceptible.[27]

Biogasdigesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.[28]

Solar cookerscollect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.[19]

Improved cook stoves

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"Biomass cooking stove" redirects here. For a kitchen cooker, stove, range, oven, or stove top, seeKitchen stove.
Improved cook stoves, such as the ones shown here, burn biomass relatively efficiently but usually still emit toxic levels of pollutants.
A traditional three-stone fire in Nigeria. This is the cheapest stove to produce, requiring only three suitable stones of the same height on which acooking potcan be balanced over a fire.

Improved cook stoves (ICS), often marketed as "clean cookstoves",[29]are biomass stoves that generally burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves and open fires.

Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke.[30]They reduce fuel needs by 20-75% and drastically cut dangerous smoke and fumes.[31]: 42 As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO.[32]A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.[18]

Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully clean solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible.[33]As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.[34]

Benefits and limitations

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Improved cookstoves are more efficient, meaning that the stove's users spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, while reducing deforestation and air pollution. However, a closed stove may result in production of moresootand ultra-fine particles than an open fire would.[35]Some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires.

The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks[36]because for certain conditions, such as childhoodpneumonia,the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to benon-linear.This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk.[21]A 2020systematic reviewfound that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health.[37]

Substantial variations in emissions and fuel consumption have been observed across ranges of cookstove designs and between laboratory and field test conditions. At present, a standard testing mechanism does not exist to establish the true impact of alternative cookstove designs as well as descriptive language for exposure. Stove testing studies are not always consistent depending largely on the discipline of investigators and their scientific specialization.[38][30]

The World Health Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.[32]

Non-technological interventions

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Behavioral change interventions have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20–98%. Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open while cooking, avoiding leaning over the fire while attending to meal preparation, staying away from cooking while carrying children, and keeping children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.[39]

Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.[40]

Challenges

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Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking.[41]

Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking".[42]For instance, a recent study inKenyafound that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as muchcharcoalas households that are primary charcoal users.[42]

When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes.[19]There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.[19][43]

Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.[2]

2023 Reports on Clean Cooking Access

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IRENA's Findings

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The International Renewable Energy Agency(IRENA) released a series in 2023 indicating slow progress toward universal clean cooking, with 2.3 billion lacking access in 2021 and 1.9 billion potentially still without it by 2030. The series emphasizes the need for more investment and policy support for renewable-based clean cooking technologies—like biogas andbioethanol—which are crucial for health, environment, and climate but are often neglected in favor of fossil fuel options likeLPG.Sharing experiences fromSub-Saharan AfricaandAsia,the series calls for a strategic shift in approach to meet growing demand and align with sustainable development goals, underscoring the importance of scaling up renewable clean cooking solutions through targeted actions.[44]

IEA Report

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The International Energy Agency(IEA), in its 2023 report, emphasizes the critical urgency of achieving universal access to clean cooking by 2030—a goal integral to health, equity, and environmental sustainability. The IEA estimates that an annual investment of US$8 billion is required to overcome funding gaps and enhance the adoption of cleaner cooking technologies, including electric and improved cookstoves, especially in high-need areas such as sub-Saharan Africa. The report suggests that such an investment shift has the potential to avert 2.5 million premature deaths, create 1.5 million jobs, and markedly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The IEA affirms the right to clean cooking as a fundamental human right and argues that meeting this target is essential for steering the world towards a more sustainable and equitable future.[45]

Environmental and sustainable development effects

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A woman cooks with electricity, a clean energy source, inEthiopia.

Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raisegreenhouse gas emissionsor decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emitsmethaneandblack carbon.[46]The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions.[47]The shift to clean cooking solutions reduces methane and other greenhouse gas emissions emitted by incomplete combustion in basic stoves by 0.9 Gt of CO2-eq, anddeforestationis also reduced, saving 0.7 Gt in 2030.[48]: 15 TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Changestated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."[49]

Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UNSustainable Development Goal 7,whose first target is: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services".[50]Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty (Goal 1), good health and well-being (Goal 3), gender equality (Goal 5), and climate action (Goal 13).[20]An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of "clean".[51]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Memon, Shebaz A.; Jaiswal, Meet S.; Jain, Yuvan; Acharya, Vaibhav; Upadhyay, Darshit S. (2020-09-01)."A comprehensive review and a systematic approach to enhance the performance of improved cookstove (ICS)".Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry.141(6): 2253–2263.doi:10.1007/s10973-020-09736-2.ISSN1588-2926.
  2. ^ab"Access to clean cooking – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis".IEA.October 2020.Retrieved2021-03-31.
  3. ^abcWorld Health Organization 2016,pp. VII–XIV.
  4. ^"Household air pollution and health: fact sheet".WHO.8 May 2018.Retrieved2020-11-21.
  5. ^Ritchie, Hannah;Roser, Max(2019)."Access to Energy".Our World in Data.Retrieved1 April2021.According to the Global Burden of Disease study 1.6 million people died prematurely in 2017 as a result of indoor air pollution... But it's worth noting that the WHO publishes a substantially larger number of indoor air pollution deaths..
  6. ^"Why cooking causes 4m premature deaths a year".The Economist.ISSN0013-0613.Retrieved2024-07-13.
  7. ^Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J.,... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2), 86-95.
  8. ^ESMAP 2020,p. 17.
  9. ^"Burns".World Health Organization.September 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 21 July 2017.Retrieved1 August2017.
  10. ^abESMAP 2020,p. 20.
  11. ^Timilsina, Govinda R.; Malla, Sunil (2021-01-01)."Clean Cooking: Why is Adoption Slow Despite Large Health and Environmental Benefits?".Economics of Energy & Environmental Policy.10(1).doi:10.5547/2160-5890.9.1.gtim.ISSN2160-5882.S2CID219660388.
  12. ^Tester 2012,p. 504.
  13. ^Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment,Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007.
  14. ^Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, KenyaArchived13 June 2007 at theWayback Machine,UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.
  15. ^Vaidyanathan, Gayathri."Most of the world's poor continue to use unhealthy and polluting traditional cookstoves".Scroll.in.Retrieved2021-09-26.
  16. ^abWorld Health Organization 2016,p. 11.
  17. ^Onakomaiya, Deborah; Gyamfi, Joyce; Iwelunmor, Juliet; Opeyemi, Jumoke; Oluwasanmi, Mofetoluwa; Obiezu-Umeh, Chisom; Dalton, Milena; Nwaozuru, Ucheoma; Ojo, Temitope; Vieira, Dorice; Ogedegbe, Gbenga; Olopade, Christopher (2019-05-14)."Implementation of clean cookstove interventions and its effects on blood pressure in low-income and middle-income countries: systematic review".BMJ Open.9(5): e026517.doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026517.ISSN2044-6055.PMC6530298.PMID31092656.
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  19. ^abcdeWorld Health Organization 2016,pp. 25–29.
  20. ^abUnited Nations (2018)."Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services"(PDF).UN.org.RetrievedApril 5,2021.
  21. ^abESMAP 2020,p. 19.
  22. ^Nugent, R; Mock, CN; Kobusingye, O (2017)."Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health".Injury Prevention and Environmental Health. 3rd Edition.International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.
  23. ^"eCookbooks".MECS Plus.Retrieved2022-10-28.
  24. ^"Access to electricity – SDG7: Data and Projections – Analysis".IEA.Retrieved2021-05-05.
  25. ^ESMAP.2020."The State of Access to Modern Energy Cooking Services (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group".World Bank.Retrieved2022-10-28.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  26. ^"Electric cooking can improve health, reduce climate impacts, and boost business models for universal electrification".EarthSpark International.Retrieved2022-10-28.
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  32. ^abWorld Health Organization 2016,p. 88.
  33. ^World Health Organization 2016,p. 12.
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  39. ^Indoor air pollution and health-World Health Organizationfact sheet.
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  42. ^abESMAP 2020,p. 42.
  43. ^Rhodes, Evelyn; Dreibelbis, Robert; Klasen, Elizabeth; Naithani, Neha; Baliddawa, Joyce; Menya, Diana; Khatry, Subarna; Levy, Stephanie; Tielsch, James; Miranda, J.; Kennedy, Caitlin; Checkley, William (3 October 2014)."Behavioral Attitudes and Preferences in Cooking Practices with Traditional Open-Fire Stoves in Peru, Nepal, and Kenya: Implications for Improved Cookstove Interventions".International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.11(10): 10310–10326.doi:10.3390/ijerph111010310.PMC4210980.PMID25286166.
  44. ^"Advancing renewables-based clean cooking solutions: Key messages and outcomes".irena.org.2024-03-07.Retrieved2024-04-06.
  45. ^"A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All – Analysis".IEA.2023-07-26.Retrieved2024-04-07.
  46. ^World Health Organization 2016,p. 75.
  47. ^ESMAP 2020,p. 22.
  48. ^IEA, International Energy Agency (July 2023)."A Vision for Clean Cooking Access for All"(PDF).iea.org.Retrieved11 May2024.
  49. ^IPCC SR15 Ch5 2018,SPM.5.1.
  50. ^United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017,Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development(A/RES/71/313)
  51. ^UN Statistics (2016)Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all(Updated on 30 March 2016)

Book sources

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