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Muslim world

(Redirected fromIslamic World)

The termsMuslim worldandIslamic world(Arabic:العالم الإسلامي,romanized:Al-ʿĀlam al-ʾIslāmī) commonly refer to theIslamiccommunity, which is also known as theUmmah.This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs, politics, and laws of Islam[1]or to societies in which Islam is practiced.[2][3]In a moderngeopoliticalsense, these terms refer tocountries in which Islam is widespread,although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3]The termMuslim-majority countriesis an alternative often used for the latter sense.[5]

Muslimsas populationpercentageinadministrative divisionestimated for 2022

Thehistory of the Muslim worldspans about 1,400 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, science, medicine, philosophy, law, economics and technology during theIslamic Golden Age.Muslimslook for guidance to theQuranand believe in the prophetic mission of theIslamic prophetMuhammad,but disagreements on other matters have led to the appearance of different religiousschools of thoughtandsectswithin Islam.[6]TheIslamic conquests,which culminated in theCaliphatebeing established across three continents (Asia,Africa,andEurope), enriched the Muslim world, achieving the economic preconditions for the emergence of this institution owing to the emphasis attached to Islamic teachings.[7]In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under Europeancolonial domination.The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular as well as religious trends.[8]

As of 2013,the combinedGDP (nominal)of 50 Muslim majority countries was US$5.7 trillion.[9]As of 2016,they contributed 8% of the world's total.[10]In 2020, theEconomy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperationwhich consists of 57 member states had a combined GDP(PPP) of US$ 24 trillion which is equal to about 18% of world's GDP or US$ 30 trillion with 5 OIC observer states which is equal to about 22% of the world's GDP. Some OIC member countries -Ivory Coast,Guyana,Gabon,Mozambique,Nigeria,Suriname,TogoandUgandaare not Muslim-majority.[11]

As of 2020, 1.8 billion or more than 25% of the world population are Muslims.[12][13]By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in theMiddle East-North Africa(MENA),[14]89% inCentral Asia,[15]40% inSoutheast Asia,[16]31% inSouth Asia,[17][18]30% inSub-Saharan Africa,[19]25% inAsia,1.4% inOceania,[20][21]6% inEurope,[22]and 1% inthe Americas.[23][24][25][26]

Most Muslims are of one of twodenominations:Sunni Islam(87–90%)[27]andShia(10–13%).[28]However, other denominations exist in pockets, such asIbadi(primarily inOman). Muslims who do not belong to, do not self-identify with, or cannot be readily classified under one of the identifiableIslamic schools and branchesare known asnon-denominational Muslims.[29][30][31][32]About 13% of Muslims live inIndonesia,the largest Muslim-majority country;[33]31% of Muslims live in South Asia,[34]the largest population of Muslims in the world;[35]20% in the Middle East–North Africa,[36]where it is the dominant religion;[37]and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa andWest Africa(primarily inNigeria).[38]Muslims are the overwhelming majority in Central Asia,[39]the majority in theCaucasus,[40][41]and widespread in Southeast Asia.[42]Indiahas the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.[43]Pakistan,Bangladesh,Iran,andEgyptare home to the world’s second, fourth, sixth and seventh largest Muslim populations respectively. SizeableMuslim communitiesare also found in theAmericas,Russia,India,China,andEurope.[44][45][46]Islam is thefastest-growing major religion in the worldpartially due to their high birth rate,[47][48][49][50][51]according to the same study,religious switchinghas no impact on Muslim population, since the number of people whoembrace Islamand those wholeave Islamare roughly equal.[52]China has the third largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries, while Russia has the fifth largest Muslim population. Nigeria has the largest Muslim population in Africa, while Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in Asia.

Terminology

The term has been documented as early as 1912 to encompass the influence of perceived pan-Islamicpropaganda.The TimesdescribedPan-Islamismas a movement with power, importance, and cohesion born in Paris, where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The correspondent's focus was on India: it would take too long to consider the progress made in various parts of the Muslim world. The article considered the position of the Amir, the effect of theTripoli Campaign,Anglo-Russianaction in Persia, and "Afghan Ambitions".[53]

In a moderngeopoliticalsense, the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' refer tocountries in which Islam is widespread,although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[54][3]Some scholars and commentators have criticised the term 'Muslim/Islamic world' and its derivative terms 'Muslim/Islamic country' as "simplistic" and "binary", since no state has a religiously homogeneous population (e.g.Egypt's citizens are c. 10% Christians), and in absolute numbers, there are sometimes fewer Muslims living in countries in which they make up the majority than in countries in which they form a minority.[55][56][57]Hence, the term 'Muslim-majority countries' is often preferred in literature.[5]

History

Main articles:History of Islam,Spread of Islam,andTimeline of Islamic history
TheTabula Rogeriana,drawn byAl-IdrisiofSicilyin 1154, one of the most advancedancient world maps.Al-Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim communities found in various lands. Note: the map is here shown upside-down from the original to match current North/Up, South/Down map design

Thehistory of the Islamic faithas a religion and social institution begins with its inception around 610CE,when theIslamic prophetMuhammad,a native ofMecca,is believed by Muslims to have received the first revelation of the Quran, and began to preach his message.[58]In 622 CE, facing opposition in Mecca, he and his followers migrated to Yathrib (nowMedina), where he was invited to establish anew constitutionfor the city under his leadership.[58]This migration, called theHijra,marks the first year of theIslamic calendar.By the time of his death, Muhammad had become the political and spiritual leader of Medina, Mecca, the surrounding region, and numerous other tribes in theArabian Peninsula.[58]

After Muhammad died in 632, his successors (theCaliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first four successors to be 'rightly guided' orRashidun.[citation needed]Theconquestsof theRashidun Caliphatehelped tospread Islambeyond the Arabian Peninsula, stretching from northwest India, across Central Asia, theNear East,North Africa, southern Italy, and theIberian Peninsula,to thePyrenees.The Arab Muslims were unable to conquer the entire ChristianByzantine EmpireinAsia Minorduring theArab–Byzantine wars,however. The succeedingUmayyad Caliphateattempted two failed sieges ofConstantinoplein674–678and717–718.Meanwhile, the Muslim community tore itself apart into the rivallingSunniandShia sectssince thekilling of caliph Uthmanin 656, resulting in asuccession crisisthat has never been resolved.[59]The followingFirst,SecondandThird Fitnasand finally theAbbasid Revolution(746–750) also definitively destroyed the political unity of the Muslims, who have been inhabiting multiple states ever since.[60]Ghaznavids' rule was succeeded by theGhurid EmpireofMuhammad of GhorandGhiyath al-Din Muhammad,whose reigns under the leadership ofMuhammad Bakhtiyar Khaljiextended until theBengal,where South AsianIslamic missionariesachieved their greatest success in terms ofdawahand number of converts toIslam.[61][62][page needed]Qutb ud-Din Aibakconquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of theDelhi Sultanate,[63]a successive series of dynasties that synthesized Indian civilization with the wider commercial and cultural networks of Africa and Eurasia, greatly increased demographic and economic growth in India and deterred Mongol incursion into the prosperousIndo-Gangetic Plainand enthroned one of the few female Muslim rulers,Razia Sultana.[citation needed] Notable major empires dominated by Muslims, such as those of theAbbasids,Fatimids,Almoravids,Gao Empire,Seljukids,largest contiguousSonghai Empire(15th-16th centuries) ofSahel,West Africa,southernNorth Africaand westernCentral Africawhich dominated the centers of Islamic knowledge ofTimbuktu,Djenne,OualataandGao,Ajuran,Adaland Warsangali inSomalia,Mughalsin the Indian subcontinent (India,Bangladesh,Pakistan,etc.),SafavidsinPersiaandOttomansinAnatolia,Massina Empire,Sokoto Caliphateof northernNigeria,Toucouleur Empire,were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.[citation needed]19th-century colonialism and 20th-century decolonisation have resulted in several independent Muslim-majority states around the world, with vastly differing attitudes towards and political influences granted to, or restricted for, Islam from country to country.[citation needed]These have revolved around the question of Islam's compatibility with other ideological concepts such assecularism,nationalism(especiallyArab nationalismandPan-Arabism,as opposed toPan-Islamism),socialism(see alsoArab socialismandsocialism in Iran), democracy (seeIslamic democracy),republicanism(see alsoIslamic republic),liberalism and progressivism,feminism,capitalismand more.[citation needed]

Gunpowder empires

Main article:Gunpowder empires

Scholars often use the termAge of the Islamic Gunpowdersto describe period theSafavid,OttomanandMughalstates. Each of these three empires had considerable military exploits using the newly developedfirearms,especiallycannonand small arms, to create their empires.[64]They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.[65]During the 17th–18th centuries, when theIndian subcontinentwas ruled byMughal Empire's sixth rulerMuhammad AuranzgebthroughshariaandIslamic economics,[66][67]India became the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP.[68]

Great Divergence

Main article:Great Divergence

"Why do the Christian nations, which were so weak in the past compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"... "Because they have laws and rules invented by reason."

Ibrahim Muteferrika,Rational basis for the Politics of Nations(1731)[70]

The Great Divergence was the reason why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like theMughal Empire,starting from the wealthyBengal Subah,Tipu Sultan'sKingdom of Mysore,theOttoman Empireand many smaller states in the pre-modernGreater Middle East,and initiated a period known as 'colonialism'.[70]

Colonialism

Main articles:Colonial empireandColonialism
Map of colonial powers throughout the world in the year 1914 (note colonial powers in the pre-modern Muslim world).

Beginning with the 15th century,colonialismby European powers profoundly affected Muslim-majority societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim-dominated societies.[71]

A number of Muslim-majority societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise ofPan-Islamism;or affirmed more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[72][71]

The only Muslim-majority regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan.[73]Turkey was one of the first colonial powers of the world with the Ottoman empire ruling several states for over 6 centuries.

Postcolonial era

Further information:Decolonization

In the 20th century, the end of the European colonial domination has led to creation of a number of nation states with significant Muslim populations. These states drew on Islamic traditions to varying degree and in various ways in organizing their legal, educational and economic systems.[71]The Times first documented the term "Muslim world" in 1912 when describingPan-Islamismas a movement with power importance and cohesion born in Paris where Turks, Arabs and Persians congregated. The article considered The position of the Amir; the effect of theTripoli Campaign;Anglo-Russian action in Persia;and "Afghan Ambitions".[53]

A significant change in the Muslim world was thedefeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire(1908–1922), to which the Ottoman officer andTurkish revolutionarystatesmanMustafa Kemal Atatürkhad an instrumental role in ending and replacing it with theRepublic of Turkey,amodern,secular democracy[74](seeAbolition of the Ottoman sultanate).[74]Thesecular valuesofKemalistTurkey, whichseparated religion from the statewith theabolition of the Caliphatein 1924,[74]have sometimes been seen as the result of Western influence.[citation needed]

In the 21st century, after theSeptember 11 attacks(2001) coordinated by theWahhabiIslamist[75]terrorist group[76]Al-Qaeda[76][77][78][79]against the United States, scholars considered the ramifications of seeking to understand Muslim experience through the framework of secularEnlightenmentprinciples.Muhammad Atta,one of the11 September hijackers,reportedly quoted from theQuranto allay his fears: "Fight them, and God will chastise them at your hands/And degrade them, and He will help you/Against them, and bring healing to the breasts of a people who believe", referring to theummah,the community of Muslim believers, and invoking the imagery of the early warriors of Islam who lead the faithful from the darkness ofjahiliyyah.[80]

BySayyid Qutb's definition ofIslam,the faith is "a complete divorce from jahiliyyah". He complained that American churches served as centers of community social life that were "very hard [to] distinguish from places of fun and amusement". For Qutb, Western society was the modernjahliliyyah.His understanding of the "Muslim world" and its "social order" was that, presented to the Western world as the result of practicing Islamic teachings, would impress "by the beauty and charm of true Islamic ideology". He argued that the values of the Enlightenment and its related precursor, theScientific Revolution,"denies or suspends God's sovereignty on earth" and argued that strengthening "Islamic character" was needed "to abolish the negative influences ofjahililife. "[80]

Islam by country

Main article:Islam by country
Further information:Political aspects of IslamandIslam and secularism

As the Muslim world came into contact withsecularideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim-majority countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[81][82][83][failed verification]Turkey has been governed as asecular statesince the reforms ofMustafa Kemal Atatürk.[84]By contrast, the 1979Iranian Revolutionreplaced a monarchial semi-secular regime with anIslamic republicled by theAyatollah,Ruhollah Khomeini.[citation needed][85]

Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed bySharialaw.[86]In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, calledschools of jurisprudence.TheAmman Message,which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized fourSunnischools (Hanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbali), twoShiaschools (Ja'fari,Zaidi), theIbadischool, and theZahirischool.[87]

Government and religion

Islamic states

EightIslamic stateshave adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.

State religion

The following nineteenMuslim-majoritystateshave endorsed Islam as theirstate religion,and though they may guarantee freedom of religion for citizens, do not declare a separation of state and religion:

Secular states

Twenty-twoSecular statesin the Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.

Others

Muslim-minority states

According to thePew Research Centerin 2015 there were 50Muslim-majoritycountries, which are shown in the Government and religion section above in the article.[140][141]Apart from these, large Muslim populations exist in some countries where Muslims are a minority, and their Muslim communities are larger than many Muslim-majority nations:[142]

Politics

Further information:Islamic revivalandLiberalism and progressivism within Islam
Benazir Bhutto,the formerprime minister of Pakistanbecame the first woman elected to lead a Muslim-majority country.[150]

During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts andglobalizationhave changed the influence of Islam on the world incontemporary history.[151]

Islamism

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromIslamism.[edit]

Islamismrefers toreligiousandpoliticalideological movements that believeIslamshould influence political systems, and generallyoppose secularism.[152]Its proponents believe Islam is innately political, and that Islam as a political system is superior to communism, liberal democracy, capitalism, and other alternatives in achieving a just, successful society.[153]

Islamism is generally considered anti-Zionist, anti-capitalist, anti-colonialist and anti-communist; Islamists support family values, sharia, reformation of interest-based finance, and the broad Quranic command of 'enjoining goodness and forbidding evil.'[154][155]

The advocates of Islamism, also known as "al-Islamiyyun", are dedicated to realizing their ideological interpretation ofIslamwithin the context of the state or society. The majority of them are affiliated with Islamic institutions or social mobilization movements.[156]Islamists emphasize the implementation ofsharia,[157]pan-Islamicpolitical unity,[157]and the creation ofIslamic states.[158]

In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory,[159]purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into "social and political as well as personal life";[160]and in particular "reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam" (i.e. Sharia).[161][162][163][164]According to at least one observer (authorRobin Wright), Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders".[165]

Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism includeSayyid Rashid Riḍā,[166]Hassan al-Banna(founder of theMuslim Brotherhood),Sayyid Qutb,Abul A'la Maududi,[167]Ruhollah Khomeini(founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran),Hassan Al-Turabi.[168]SyrianSunniclericMuhammad Rashid Riḍā, a fervent opponent ofWesternization,Zionismandnationalism,advocated Sunni internationalism through revolutionary restoration of apan-IslamicCaliphateto politically unite the Muslim world.[169][170]Riḍā was a strong exponent of Islamic vanguardism, the belief thatMuslim communityshould be guided by clerical elites (ulema) who steered the efforts for religious education andIslamic revival.[171]Riḍā'sSalafi-Arabistsynthesis and Islamist ideals greatly influenced his disciples like Hasan al-Banna,[172][173]anEgyptianschoolteacher who founded theMuslim Brotherhoodmovement, andHajji Amin al-Husayni,theanti-ZionistGrand Mufti of Jerusalem.[174]

Al-Banna and Maududi called for a "reformist"strategy to re-Islamizing society throughgrassrootssocial and political activism.[175][176]Other Islamists (Al-Turabi) are proponents of a "revolutionary"strategy ofIslamizingsociety through exercise of state power,[175]or (Sayyid Qutb) for combining grassroots Islamization with armed revolution. The term has been applied to non-state reform movements, political parties, militias and revolutionary groups.[177]

At least one author (Graham E. Fuller) has argued for a broader notion of Islamism as a form ofidentity politics,involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community."[178] Islamists themselves prefer terms such as "Islamic movement",[179]or "Islamic activism" to "Islamism", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived.[180]In public and academic contexts,[181]the term "Islamism" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.[182]

Following theArab Spring,manypost-Islamistcurrents became heavily involved in democratic politics,[165][183]while others spawned "the most aggressive and ambitious Islamistmilitia"to date, such as theIslamic Stateof Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).[165]ISIL has been rejected as blasphemous by the majority of Islamists.[184]

Demographics

See also:Muslim population growth

More than 24.1% of the world's population is Muslim, with an estimated total of approximately 1.9 billion.[185][186][187][188][189]Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[190][191]they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. The city ofKarachihas the largest Muslim population in the world.[192][193]

Geography

Main article:Islam by country
Indonesiais currently the most populous Muslim-majority country.

Because the terms 'Muslim world' and 'Islamic world' are disputed, since no country is homogeneously Muslim, and there is no way to determine at what point a Muslim minority in a country is to be considered 'significant' enough, there is no consensus on how to define the Muslim world geographically.[55][56][5]The only rule of thumb for inclusion which has some support, is that countries need to have a Muslim population of more than 50%.[55][5]

In 2010, 73% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the majority, while 27% of the world's Muslim population lived in countries where Muslims are in the minority.India's Muslim populationis the world's largest Muslim-minority population in the world (11% of the world's Muslim population).[191]Jones (2005) defines a "large minority" as being between 30% and 50%, which described nine countries in 2000, namelyEritrea,Ethiopia,Guinea-Bissau,Ivory Coast,Nigeria,North Macedonia,andTanzania.[5]As of 2024, however, Nigeria has become a Muslim-majority country.[194]

Religion

Islam

The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia sects. They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah ( "faithful" ) should be governed, and the role of theimam.Sunnis believe that the true political successor of Muhammad according to the Sunnah should be selected based on ٍShura(consultation), as was done atthe Saqifahwhich selectedAbu Bakr,Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-lawAli ibn Abi Talibas his true political as well as religious successor.[195]

The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87 and 90%, are Sunni.[196]Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 89%,[197]Azerbaijan – 65%,[198]Iraq – 60%,[199]Bahrain – 60%, Yemen – 35%,[200]Turkey – 10%,[201][202]Lebanon – 27%, Syria – 13%, Afghanistan – 10%, Pakistan – 10%,[203][204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211]and India – 10%.[212]

Non-denominational Muslimsmake up a majority of the Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others):Albania(65%),Kyrgyzstan(64%),Kosovo(58%),Indonesia(56%),Mali(55%),Bosnia and Herzegovina(54%),Uzbekistan(54%),Azerbaijan(45%),Russia(45%), andNigeria(42%).[213]They are found primarily inCentral Asia.[213]Kazakhstanhas the largest number of non-denominational Muslims, who constitute about 74% of the population.[213]Southeastern Europealso has a large number of non-denominational Muslims.[213]

TheKharijiteMuslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[214]

Islamic schools and branches
Main article:Islamic schools and branches
Islamic schools of lawacross the Muslim world

The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three majorsects:Sunnis,Shi'asandKharijites.Each sect developed distinctjurisprudence schools(madhhab) reflecting different methodologies of jurisprudence (fiqh).

The major Sunni madhhabs areHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,andHanbali.[215]

The majorShi'abranches areTwelver(Imami),Ismaili(Sevener) andZaidi(Fiver).Isma'ilismlater split intoNizari IsmailiandMusta’li Ismaili,and thenMustaaliwas divided intoHafiziandTaiyabi Ismailis.[216]It also gave rise to theQarmatianmovement and theDruzefaith, although Druzes do not identify as Muslims.[217][218]Twelver Shiism developedJa'fari jurisprudencewhose branches areAkhbarismandUsulism,and other movements such asAlawites,Shaykism[219]andAlevism.[220][221]

Similarly,Kharijiteswere initially divided into five major branches:Sufris,Azariqa,Najdat,Adjarites andIbadis.

Among these numerous branches, onlyHanafi,Maliki,Shafi'i,Hanbali,Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-Usuli,Nizārī Ismā'īlī,Alevi,[222]Zaydi,Ibadi,Zahiri,Alawite,[citation needed]DruzeandTaiyabicommunities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements likeQuranist MuslimsandAhmadi Muslimslater emerged independently.

  • Children read Qur'an in Indonesia.
  • Muslim beggars stalk a car in Nigeria.
  • People pray together in the mosque in Russia.
  • People move close to the Muslim food corner in China.

Other religions

There are sizeable non-Muslim minorities in many Muslim-majority countries, includes,Christians,Jews,Hindus,Buddhists,Baháʼís,Druzes,Yazidis,Mandaeans,YarsanisandZoroastrians.

Church and Mosque inIstanbul,Turkey.

The Muslim world is home to some of the world's mostancient Christian communities,[223]and some of the most important cities of theChristian world—including three of its five great patriarchates (Alexandria,Antioch,andConstantinople).[224]Scholars and intellectuals agreeChristians have made significant contributionsto Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction ofIslam,[225][226]and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of theMiddle East and North Africaand other areas.[227][228][229]Pew Research Centerestimates indicate that in 2010, more than 64 millionChristianslived in countries with Muslim majorities (excluding Nigeria). The Pew Forum study finds that Indonesia (21.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the Muslim world, followed by Egypt, Chad and Kazakhstan.[230]While according to Adly A. Youssef and Martyn Thomas, in 2004, there were around 30 million Christians who lived in countries with Muslim majorities, with the largest Christian population number lived in Indonesia, followed by Egypt.[231]Nigeriais divided almost evenly between Muslims and Christians, with more than 80 million Christians and Muslims.[232]

In 2018, theJewish Agencyestimated that around 27,000Jewslive in Arab and Muslim countries.[233][234]Jewish communitieshave existed across theMiddle EastandNorth Africasince the rise of Islam. Today, Jews residing in Muslim countries have beenreduced to a small fractionof theirformer sizes,[235]with the largest communities ofJews in Muslim countriesexist in the non-Arab countries of Iran (9,500) and Turkey (14,500);[236]both, however, are much smaller than they historically have been.[237]Among Arab countries, the largest Jewish community now exists in Morocco with about 2,000 Jews and in Tunisia with about 1,000.[238]The number ofDruzeworldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in theLevant(primarily in Syria and Lebanon).[239]

In 2010, the Pew Forum study finds that Bangladesh (13.5 million), Indonesia (4 million), Pakistan (3.3 million) and Malaysia (1.7 million) has a sizeableHinduminorities. Malaysia (5 million) has the largestBuddhistpopulation in the Muslim world.[191]Zoroastriansare the oldest remaining religious community inIran.[240]

  • Egypt has one of thelargest Christian populationin the Muslim world[241]
  • Bangladesh has the largest Hindu population in the Muslim world
  • Turkey has the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world[242]

Literacy and education

The literacy rate in the Muslim world varies.Azerbaijanis in second place in the Index of Literacy of World Countries. Some members such as Iran, Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest inMali,Afghanistan,Chadand other parts of Africa. Several Muslim-majority countries, such asTurkey,IranandEgypthave a high rate of citable scientific publications.[243][244]

In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.[245]In Egypt, the largest Muslim-majority Arab country, the youth female literacy rate exceeds that for males.[246]Lower literacy rates are more prevalent in South Asian countries such as in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but are rapidly increasing.[247]In the Eastern Middle East, Iran has a high level of youth literacy at 98%,[248]but Iraq's youth literacy rate has sharply declined from 85% to 57% during the American-led war and subsequent occupation.[249]Indonesia, the largest Muslim-majority country in the world, has a 99% youth literacy rate.[250]

A 2011Pew Research Centershowed that at the time about 36% of all Muslims had no formal schooling, with only 8% havinggraduateand post-graduate degrees.[251] The highest of years of schooling among Muslim-majority countries found inUzbekistan(11.5),Kuwait(11.0) andKazakhstan(10.7).[251]In addition, the average of years of schooling in countries in which Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (7.7 years of schooling).[251]In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling).[251]The study found thatMuslimshave a significant amount ofgender inequalityin educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling, compared to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men.[251]

Refugees

MuslimRohingya refugeesinCox's Bazar,Bangladesh.

According to theUNHCR,Muslim-majority countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.[citation needed]

Since then Muslim-majority countries have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, includingthe uprising in Syria.[252]In July 2013, the UN stated that the number ofSyrian refugeeshad exceeded 1.8 million.[253] In Asia, an estimated 625,000 refugees from Rakhine, Myanmar, mostly Muslim, had crossed the border intoBangladeshsince August 2017.[254]

Culture

Throughout history, Muslim cultures have been diverse ethnically, linguistically and regionally.[255]According toM. M. Knight,this diversity includes diversity in beliefs, interpretations and practices and communities and interests. Knight says perception of Muslim world among non-Muslims is usually supported through introductory literature about Islam, mostly present a version as per scriptural view which would include someprescriptive literatureand abstracts of history as per authors own point of views, to which even many Muslims might agree, but that necessarily would not reflect Islam as lived on the ground, 'in the experience of real human bodies'.[256]

Classical culture

Main articles:History of Islam,Islamic Golden Age,Islamization,andSpread of Islam

The term "Islamic Golden Age"has been attributed to a period in history during whichscience,economic development and cultural works in most of the Muslim-dominated world flourished.[257][258]The age is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of theAbbasidcaliphHarun al-Rashid(786–809) with the inauguration of theHouse of WisdominBaghdad,where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into Arabic,[259][260]and to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due toMongol invasionsand theSiege of Baghdadin 1258.[261]The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadiths, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad,Cairo,andCórdobabecame the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.[262]During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancientGreek,Roman,Persian,Chinese,Vedic,Egyptian,andPhoeniciancivilizations.[263]

Ceramics

Further information:Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world
ASeljuq,shatranj(chess) set, glazedfritware,12th century.

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use ofceramic glazewas prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaboratepottery.[264]Tin-opacified glazingwas one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware inBasra,dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development offritware,originating from 9th-century Iraq.[265]Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world includedFustat(from 975 to 1075),Damascus(from 1100 to around 1600) andTabriz(from 1470 to 1550).[266]

Literature

Main article:Islamic literature
Further information:Islamic poetry

The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world isOne Thousand and One Nights,a compilation offolk talesfromSanskrit,Persian, and later Arabianfables.The concept had been influenced by a pre-Islamic Persian prototypeHezār Afsān(Thousand Fables) that relied on particularIndian elements.[268]It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[269]This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first byAntoine Galland.[270]Imitations were written, especially in France.[271]Various characters from this epic have themselves becomecultural iconsinWestern culture,such asAladdin,Sinbad the SailorandAli Baba.[citation needed]

An example ofArabic poetryandPersian poetryonromanceisLayla and Majnun,dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is atragicstory of undying love.Ferdowsi'sShahnameh,the national epic ofGreater Iran,is a mythical and heroic retelling ofPersian history.Amir Arsalanwas also a popular mythical Persian story.

Ibn Tufayl(Abubacer) andIbn al-Nafiswere pioneers of thephilosophical novel.[citation needed]Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novelHayy ibn Yaqdhan(Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response toAl-Ghazali'sThe Incoherence of the Philosophers,and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novelTheologus Autodidactusas a response to Ibn Tufail'sPhilosophus Autodidactus.[citation needed]Both of these narratives hadprotagonists(Hayy inPhilosophus Autodidactusand Kamil inTheologus Autodidactus) who wereautodidacticferal childrenliving in seclusion on adesert island,both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story inPhilosophus Autodidactus,the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting inTheologus Autodidactus,developing into the earliest knowncoming of ageplot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[272][273]

Theologus Autodidactus,[274][275]written by theArabianpolymathIbn al-Nafis (1213–1288),[276]deals with various science fiction elements such asspontaneous generation,futurology,theend of the world and doomsday,resurrection,and theafterlife.Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using thescientific knowledgeofbiology,astronomy,cosmologyandgeologyknown in his time. Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science andIslamic philosophy.[277]Translations of Ibn Tufail'sPhilosophus Autodidactusappeared in Latin (1671), English (1708), German, and Dutch. These European-language translations may have later inspiredDaniel Defoe'sRobinson Crusoe[278]andRobert Boyle'sThe Aspiring Naturalist.[279]

Philosophy

Main article:Contemporary Islamic philosophy
Further information:Logic in Islamic philosophyandKalam
Ibn Rushd (Averroes),MuslimpolymathfromAl-Andalus.

One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework ofIslamic culture."[280]Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[280]ThePersianscholarIbn Sina(Avicenna) (980–1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbookThe Canon of Medicinewas used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wroteThe Book of Healing,an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.[citation needed]

Another figure from theIslamic Golden Age,Avicenna, also founded his own Avicennism school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands.[281]

Yet another influential philosopher who had an influence onmodern philosophywasIbn Tufail.His philosophical novel,Hayy ibn Yaqdhan,translated into Latin asPhilosophus Autodidactusin 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa,nature versus nurture,[282]condition of possibility,materialism,[283]andMolyneux's problem.[284]European scholars and writers influenced by this novel includeJohn Locke,[285]Gottfried Leibniz,[286]Melchisédech Thévenot,John Wallis,Christiaan Huygens,[287]George Keith,Robert Barclay,theQuakers,[288]andSamuel Hartlib.[279]

Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, whenMulla Sadrafounded his school ofTranscendent theosophyand developed the concept ofexistentialism.[289]

Other influential Muslim philosophers includeIbn al-Haytham(Alhazen), a pioneer ofphenomenologyand thephilosophy of scienceand a critic ofAristotelian natural philosophyand Aristotle's concept ofplace(topos);Al-Biruni,a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al-Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel;Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi,founder ofIlluminationist philosophy;Fakhr al-Din al-Razi,a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer ofinductive logic;andIbn Khaldun,a pioneer in thephilosophy of history.[290]

Sciences

Main article:Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world
See also:Physics in the medieval Islamic world,Psychology in the medieval Islamic world,Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world,Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world,andAlchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world

Sciences

  • An illustration fromal-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of themoon.
  • TheElephant Clockwas one of the most famous inventions of Al-Jazari.

Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of theintromission theoryof light.Jim Al-Khalilistated in 2009 that Ibn al-Haytham is 'often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".'[291]al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in trigonometry as well as limits.[292]Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanceddecagonalquasicrystalgeometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[293]

Muslim physicians contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects ofanatomyandphysiology:such as in the 15th-century Persian work byMansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih IlyasentitledTashrih al-badan(Anatomy of the body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural,nervousandcirculatory systems;or in the work of the Egyptian physician Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory ofpulmonary circulation.Avicenna'sThe Canon of Medicineremained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century.Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi(also known asAbulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical surgery with hisKitab al-Tasrif( "Book of Concessions" ), a medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields ofpharmacologyandpharmacy.[294]

Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world includeJābir ibn Hayyān,al-Farabi,Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi,Ibn al-Haytham,Al-Biruni,Avicenna,Nasir al-Din al-Tusi,andIbn Khaldun.[citation needed]

Technology

TheSpinning wheelis believed to have been invented in the medieval era (of what is now theGreater Middle East), it is considered to be an important device that contributed greatly to the advancement of theIndustrial Revolution.(scene fromAl-Maqamat,painted byal-Wasiti1237)
Main articles:List of inventions in the medieval Islamic worldandArab Agricultural Revolution

In technology, the Muslim world adoptedpapermakingfrom China.[295]The knowledge ofgunpowderwas also transmitted from China via predominantly Islamic countries,[296]where formulas for purepotassium nitrate[297][298]were developed.

Advances were made inirrigationand farming, using new technology such as thewindmill.Crops such asalmondsandcitrusfruit were brought to Europe throughal-Andalus,and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century.Hormuzwas an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network oftrade routesin theMediterranean,along which Muslim-majority countries traded with each other and with European powers such asVenice,GenoaandCatalonia(see also:Indo-Mediterranean). TheSilk Roadcrossing Central Asia passed through Islamic states between China and Europe. The emergence of major economic empires with technological resources after the conquests ofTimur(Tamerlane) and the resurgence of theTimurid Renaissanceinclude theMali Empireand theBengal Sultanatein particular, a major global trading nation in the world, described by the Europeans to be the "richest country to trade with".[299]

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses ofhydropower,and early industrial uses oftidal powerandwind power.[300]The industrial uses ofwatermillsin the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeledand vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including earlyfullingmills,gristmills,paper mills,hullers,sawmills,ship mills,stamp mills,steel mills,sugar mills,tide millsand windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[295]Muslim engineers also inventedcrankshaftsandwater turbines,employedgearsin mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[301]Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously driven bymanual labourinancient timesto bemechanizedand driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on theIndustrial Revolution,particularly from theproto-industrialisedMughal BengalandTipu Sultan's Kingdom, through the conquests of theEast India Company.[302]

Arts

The term "Islamic artandarchitecture"denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[303][304]

Architecture

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromIslamic architecture.[edit]

Islamic architecturecomprises thearchitectural stylesofbuildingsassociated withIslam.It encompasses bothsecularand religious styles from the earlyhistory of Islamto the present day. The Islamic world encompasses a wide geographic area historically ranging from western Africa and Europe to eastern Asia. Certain commonalities are shared by Islamic architectural styles across all these regions, but over time different regions developed their own styles according to local materials and techniques, local dynasties and patrons, different regional centers of artistic production, and sometimesdifferent religious affiliations.[305][306]

Early Islamic architecture was influenced byRoman,Byzantine,Iranian,andMesopotamianarchitecture and all other lands which theearly Muslim conquestsconquered in the seventh and eighth centuries.[307][308][309][310][311]Later it developed distinct characteristics in the form of buildings and in thedecorationof surfaces withIslamic calligraphy,arabesques,andgeometric motifs.[312]New architectural elements likeminarets,muqarnas,andmultifoil archeswere invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture includemosques,madrasas,tombs,palaces,hammams(public baths),Sufihospices (e.g.khanqahsorzawiyas),fountainsandsabils,commercial buildings (e.g.caravanseraisandbazaars), and militaryfortifications.[306]

Islamic architecture

Aniconism

Main article:Aniconism in Islam

No Islamic visual images or depictions ofGodare meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead toidolatry.Muslims describe God by thenames and attributesthat, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but onesuraof the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful".Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Suchaniconismandiconoclasm[313]can also be found in Jewish and some Christian theology.

Arabesque

Main article:Arabesque

Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known asarabesque.Such designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found inpre-Islamic pagan religions.Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably theminiaturestyle made famous inPersiaand under theOttoman Empirewhich featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[314]Islamic calligraphyis an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolickuficandnaskhscripts, which can be found adorning the walls and domes of mosques, the sides ofminbars,and so on.[314]

Distinguishingmotifsof Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect,fractalgeometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns,piersand arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[315]The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of theDome of the Rockmosque, and recurring even up until the 17th century with theTaj Mahal.And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[316]

  • Example of an Arabesque
  • Example of an Arabesque
  • Example of an Arabesque

Girih

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromGirih.[edit]

Girih(Persian:گره,"knot", also writtengereh[317]) are decorativeIslamic geometric patternsused inarchitectureand handicraft objects, consisting of angled lines that form aninterlacedstrapworkpattern.

Girihdecoration is believed to have been inspired bySyrian Romanknotwork patterns from the second century. The earliestgirihdates from around 1000 CE, and the artform flourished until the 15th century.Girihpatterns can be created in a variety of ways, including the traditionalstraightedge and compass construction;the construction of a grid of polygons; and the use of a set ofgirihtileswith lines drawn on them: the lines form the pattern. Patterns may be elaborated by the use of two levels of design, as at the 1453Darb-e Imamshrine. Square repeating units of known patterns can be copied astemplates,and historic pattern books may have been intended for use in this way.

The 15th centuryTopkapı Scrollexplicitly shows girih patterns together with the tilings used to create them. A set of tiles consisting of a dart and a kite shape can be used to create aperiodicPenrose tilings,though there is no evidence that such a set was used in medieval times. Girih patterns have been used to decorate varied materials including stone screens, as atFatehpur Sikri;plasterwork, as atmosquesandmadrasassuch as theHunat Hatun ComplexinKayseri;metal, as atMosque-Madrassa of Sultan HassaninCairo;and in wood, as at theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.

Islamic calligraphy

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromIslamic calligraphy.[edit]

Islamic calligraphyis the artistic practice ofhandwritingandcalligraphy,in the languages which useArabic Alpha betor theAlpha bets derived from it.It includesArabic,Persian,Ottoman,andUrducalligraphy.[318][319]It is known inArabicaskhatt Arabi(خط عربي), which translates into Arabic line, design, or construction.[320]

The development of Islamic calligraphy is strongly tied to theQur'an;chapters and excerpts from the Qur'an are a common and almost universal text upon which Islamic calligraphy is based. Although artistic depictions of people and animals are not explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an, pictures have traditionally been limited in Islamic books in order to avoididolatry.Although some scholars dispute this, Kufic script was supposedly developed around the end of the 7th century inKufa,Iraq, from which it takes its name. The style later developed into several varieties, including floral, foliated, plaited or interlaced, bordered, and square kufic. In the ancient world, though, artists would often get around theaniconicprohibition by using strands of tiny writing to construct lines and images. Calligraphy was a valued art form, even as a moral good. An ancient Arabic proverb illustrates this point by emphatically stating that "Purity of writing is purity of the soul."[321]

However, Islamic calligraphy is not limited to strictly religious subjects, objects, or spaces. Like allIslamic art,it encompasses a diverse array of works created in a wide variety of contexts.[322]The prevalence of calligraphy in Islamic art is not directly related to its non-figural tradition; rather, it reflects the centrality of the notion of writing and written text in Islam.[323]

Islamic calligraphy developed from two major styles:KuficandNaskh.There are several variations of each, as well as regionally specific styles. Arabic or Persian calligraphy has also been incorporated intomodern art,beginning with the post-colonial period in the Middle East, as well as the more recent style ofcalligraffiti.[324]

Calendar

Two calendars are used all over the Muslim world. One is alunar calendarthat is most widely used among Muslims. The other one is asolar calendarofficially used inIranandAfghanistan.

Islamic lunar calendar

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromIslamic calendar.[edit]

The Hijri calendar (Arabic:ٱلتَّقْوِيم ٱلْهِجْرِيّ,romanized:al-taqwīm al-hijrī), or Arabic calendar, also known in English as the Muslim calendar andIslamic calendar,is alunar calendarconsisting of 12lunar monthsin a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to determine the proper days ofIslamic holidaysand rituals, such as theannual fastingand the annual season for thegreat pilgrimage.In almost all countries where the predominant religion is Islam, thecivil calendaris theGregorian calendar,withSyriac month-namesused in theLevant and Mesopotamia(Iraq,Syria,Jordan,LebanonandPalestine), but the religious calendar is the Hijri one.

This calendar enumerates theHijri era,whoseepochwas established as theIslamic New Yearin 622CE.[325]During that year,Muhammadand his followers migrated fromMeccatoMedinaand established the first Muslim community (ummah), an event commemorated as theHijrah.In the West, dates in this era are usually denoted AH (Latin:Anno Hegirae,lit. 'In the year of the Hijrah').[a]In Muslim countries, it is also sometimes denoted as H[326]from its Arabic form (سَنَة هِجْرِيَّة,abbreviatedھ). In English, years prior to the Hijra are denoted as BH ( "Before the Hijra" ).[327]

Since 7 July 2024 CE, the current Islamic year is 1446 AH. In theGregorian calendarreckoning, 1446 AH runs from 7 July 2024 to approximately 26 June 2025.[328][329][b]

Solar Hijri calendar

These paragraphs are an excerpt fromSolar Hijri calendar.[edit]

TheSolar Hijri calendar[c]is the official calendar ofIran.It is asolar calendarand is the oneIranian calendarthat is the most similar to the Gregorian calendar, being based on the Earth's orbit around the Sun. It begins on theMarch equinoxas determined by theastronomicalcalculation for theIran Standard Timemeridian(52.5°E,UTC+03:30) and has years of 365 or 366 days. It is sometimes also called the Shamsi calendar and Khorshidi calendar. It is abbreviated as SH, HS or, sometimes as AHSh, while thelunar Hijri calendar(commonly known in the West as the 'Islamic calendar', although both calendars are Islamic) is usually abbreviated as AH. The solar Hijri calendar predominates inShia Islamwhereas the lunar Hijri calendar predominates inSunni Islam.

The first day of the Solar Hijri calendar was the day of the spring equinox, March 18, 622CE.The calendar is named the "Hijri calendar" because that was the year that Mohammed is believed to have left from Mecca to Medina, which event is referred to as theHijrah.This year is generally considered by Muslims as the first year ofIslam.

The ancient Iranian Solar calendar is one of the oldest calendars in the world, as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining thevernal equinox,it has no intrinsic error.[331][332][333][334]It is older than the lunar Hijri calendar used by the majority ofMuslims(known in the West as theIslamic calendar); though they both count from the Hijrah.[335][336]The solar Hijri calendar usessolar yearsand is calculated based on the "year of the Hijrah," and the lunar Hijri calendar is based onlunar months,and dates from the presumed actual "day of the Hijrah".

Each of the twelve months of the Hijri calendar corresponds with azodiac sign,and inAfghanistanthe names of the zodiacal signs were used for the months;[d]elsewhere the month names are the same as in theZoroastrian calendar.The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in common years but 30 days inleap years.

The ancient Iranian New Year's Day, which is calledNowruz,always falls on the March equinox. Nowruz is celebrated by communities in a wide range of countries from theBalkanstoMongolia.Currently the Solar Hijri calendar is officially used only in Iran.

Women

See also:Women in IslamandMusawah

According toRiada Asimovic Akyolwhile Muslim women's experiences differs a lot by location and personal situations such as family upbringing, class and education;[338]the difference between culture and religions is often ignored by community and state leaders in many of the Muslim majority countries,[338]the key issue in the Muslim world regarding gender issues is that religious texts constructed in highly patriarchal environments and based on biologicalessentialismare still valued highly in Islam; hence views emphasizing on men's superiority in unequalgender rolesare widespread among many conservative Muslims (men and women).[338]Orthodox Muslims often believe that rights and responsibilities of women in Islam are different from that of men and sacrosanct since assigned by the God.[338]According toAsma Barlaspatriarchal behaviour among Muslims is based in an ideology which jumbles sexual and biological differences with gender dualisms and inequality.Modernist discourseofliberal progressive movementslikeIslamic feminismhave been revisitinghermeneutics of feminism in Islamin terms of respect for Muslim women's lives and rights.[338]Riada Asimovic Akyolfurther says that equality for Muslim women needs to be achieved through self-criticism.[338]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^This notation is similar to that ofADfor theChristian era,CEfor theCommon EraandAMfor theJewish era.
  2. ^exact dates depend on which variant of the Islamic calendar is followed.
  3. ^Persian:گاهشماری خورشیدی,romanized:Gâhšomâri-ye Xoršidi;Pashto:لمريز لېږدیز کلیز,romanized:lmaríz legdíz kalíz;Kurdish:ڕۆژژمێری کۆچیی ھەتاوی,romanized:Salnameya Koçberiyê;also called in some English sources as the Iranian Solar calendar[330]
  4. ^Since 1 Muharam 1444AH(30 July 2022CE), this calendar is no longer used by the government ofAfghanistan,after its switch to the Lunar Hijri calendar.[337]

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