Iznik pottery

Iznik pottery,orIznik ware,named after the town ofİznikinAnatoliawhere it was made, is a decoratedceramicthat was produced from the last quarter of the 15th century until the end of the 17th century. Turkish stylization is a reflection ofChinese porcelain.

Two tiles, circa 1560,fritware,painted in blue, turquoise, red, green, and black under a transparent glaze,Art Institute of Chicago(Chicago,US)

Dish with foliate rim decorated with flowers and a cypress tree, with adollar patternborder,c. 1575

İznik was an established centre for the production of simpleearthenwarepottery with anunderglazedecoration when, in the last quarter of the 15th century, craftsmen in the town began to manufacture high quality pottery with afritwarebody painted withcobalt blueunder a colourless transparentleadglaze.The designs combined traditional Ottomanarabesquepatterns with Chinese elements. The change was almost certainly a result of active intervention and patronage by the recently establishedOttomancourt inIstanbulwho greatly valuedChinese blue-and-white porcelain.

During the 16th century the decoration of the pottery gradually changed in style, becoming looser and more flowing. Additional colours were introduced. Initially turquoise was combined with the dark shade of cobalt blue and then the shades of piney green and pale purple were added. From the middle of the century the potters in Iznik produced large quantities of underglazed tiles to decorate the imperial buildings designed by the architectMimar Sinan.Associated with the production of tiles was the introduction of a very characteristic bole red to replace the purple and a bright emerald green to replace the sage green. From the last decade of the century there was a marked deterioration in quality and although production continued during the 17th century the designs were poor. The last important building to be decorated with tiles from Iznik was theSultan Ahmed Mosque(Blue Mosque) in Istanbul that was completed in 1616.

Theceramic collection of the Topkapı Palaceincludes over ten thousand pieces of Chinese porcelain but almost no Iznik pottery. Most of the surviving Iznik vessels are in museums outside Turkey, but examples of the city's tile production exist in numerous cities throughout Turkey, such asIstanbul,Bursa,EdirneandAdana.In Istanbul examples of Iznik tiling can be seen in mosques, tombs, libraries, and palace buildings, such as theRüstem Pasha Mosque,theSokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque,the tomb of Selim II in theHagia Sophiacomplex, and certain buildings of the Topkapı Palace complex such as theCircumcision roomand theBaghdad Kiosk.

Overview: role of Chinese porcelain

Left: Ming dynasty porcelain dish with grape design,Jingdezhen,China, 1403–1424.
Right:Fritwaredish with grape design,Iznik,Turkey, 1550–1570.

Following the establishment of theOttoman Empirein the early 14th century, Iznik pottery initially followedSeljuk Empireantecedents.

After this initial period, Iznik vessels were inspired byChinese porcelain,which was highly prized by theOttomansultans. As the potters were unable to makeporcelain,the vessels produced werefritware,a low-fired body comprising mainlysilicaandglass.

The originality of the potters was such that their use of Chinese originals has been described as adaptation rather than imitation.Chinese ceramics had long been admired, collected and emulated in the Islamic world. This was especially so in the Ottoman court and theSafavidcourt inPersiawhich had important collections of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain. Such Chinese porcelains influenced the style of Safavid pottery and had a strong impact on the development of Iznik ware.By the mid-16th century, Iznik had its own vocabulary ofTurkishfloral and abstract motifs in tight designs making use of a limited palette. Decoration progressed from pure symmetry to subtle rhythms.

Provenance

From the second half of the 19th century until the 1930s European collectors were confused by the different styles of Iznik pottery and assumed that they originated from different pottery producing centres. Although it is now believed that all the pottery was produced in Iznik (orKütahya,see below) the earlier names associated with the different styles are still often used. In the 19th century until the 1860s all Islamic pottery was normally known as 'Persian' ware.However, between 1865 and 1872 theMusée de Clunyin Paris acquired a collection of polychrome fritware pottery with a design that included a bright 'sealing-wax red'.As all the items in the collection had been obtained on the island ofRhodesit was assumed, erroneously, that the pottery had been manufactured on the island and the term 'Rhodian' ware was adopted for this style. European collectors also purchased a number of pieces decorated in blue, turquoise, sage green and pale purple which were believed to originate from the town ofDamascusin Syria and became known as 'Damascus' ware. Blue and white fritware pottery became known as 'Abraham of Kutahia ware' as the decoration was similar to that on a small ewer that once formed part of the collection ofFrederick Du Cane Godmanand is now in the British Museum.The ewer has an inscription inArmenian scriptunder the glaze on its base stating that the vessel was "in commemoration of Abraham, servant of God, of K'ot'ay [Kütahya]. In this year 959 [AD 1510]".In 1905–1907, during the construction of a new post office in theSirkecidistrict of Istanbul near the shore of theGolden Horn,pottery fragments were unearthed that were decorated with spiral designs on a white background. As a result, pottery with similar spiral patterns became known as 'Golden Horn ware'.

It was not until the 1930s that art historians fully realised that the different styles of pottery were probably all produced in Iznik.In 1957 Arthur Lane, keeper of ceramics at theVictoria and Albert Museum,published an influential article in which he reviewed the history of pottery production in the region and proposed a series of dates.He suggested that 'Abraham of Kütahya' ware was produced from 1490 until around 1525, 'Damascus' and 'Golden Horn ware' were produced from 1525 until 1555 and 'Rhodian' ware from around 1555 until the demise of the Iznik pottery industry at the beginning of the 18th century. This chronology has been generally accepted.

İznik and Kütahya

'Abraham of Kutahia' ewer, probably made in Kütahya, dated 1510

The 'Abraham of Kutahia' ewer of 1510 is not the only vessel with a possibleKütahyaorigin. A damaged water bottle decorated in the 'Golden Horn' style has twounderglazeinscriptions inArmenian script;one, dated 1529, refers to the commissioner of the vessel, Bishop Ter Martiros, the other refers to the vessel as being sent as "an object of K'ot'ays" for a monastery.Lane argued that it was unlikely that either the 'Abraham of Kutahia' ewer or the water bottle had been made in Kütahya.However, subsequent archaeological excavations in Kütahya have unearthed fragments of pots in the blue and white Iznik style that had been damaged during manufacture ('wasters') providing evidence that fritware pottery was produced in the town.The designs, materials and manufacturing technique appear to have been similar to that used in İznik. Kütahya is further from Istanbul with less easy access to the capital and was probably only a small pottery producing centre in the 16th century.Nevertheless, it is likely that some of the pottery that is currently labelled as 'Iznik' was manufactured in Kütahya. The art historian Julian Raby has written: "For the moment we have no choice but to call all Ottoman glazed pottery of the 16th and 17th centuries by the generic label 'Iznik', and to hope that in time we can learn to recognise the diagnostic features of contemporary 'Kütahya ware'."

Imperial workshops in Istanbul

During the first half of the 16th century underglaze painted blue-and-white ceramics were also produced in Istanbul. A surviving account book for 1526 that records wages paid to craftsmen employed by the Ottoman court, lists a tilemaker fromTabrizwith ten assistants.The tilemaker was probably one of the craftsmen brought to Istanbul afterSelim Ihad temporary captured Tabriz in 1514. The tile workshops were located in the Tekfur Sarayı neighbourhood of the city near thePalace of the Porphyrogenitus.The craftsmen are believed to have been responsible for all the tiles on the imperial buildings until the construction of theSüleymaniye Mosquein the 1550s.Most of the tiles were decorated with coloured glazes using thecuerda seca(dry cord) technique, but in a few cases the tiles were underglaze painted in cobalt blue and turquoise. The cuerda seca technique created a new way to glaze these tiles while not requiring the intense labor previous techniques had.These underglaze tiles were used on the revetments of the facade of the Holy Mantle Pavilion (Privy Chamber) in the grounds of theTopkapı Palaceand within the mausoleum ofÇoban Mustafa Pasha(d. 1529) inGebze.The most striking examples are five extremely large rectangular tiles, 1.25 m (4.1 ft) in length, that form part of the façade of theCircumcision Room (Sünnet Odası)of the Topkapı Palace. Although the building dates from 1641, the tiles are believed to come from an earlier structure on the same site that was erected in 1527–1528. These large tiles are decorated with very elaborate designs that suggests the close involvement of the court designers.

Although there are no surviving records detailing the output of the imperial workshops, it is likely that the potters manufacturing the blue-and-white underglaze painted tiles also made other items for the court. The art historianGülru Necipoğluhas suggested that an unusual gilded mosque lamp and a decorative ball that come from theYavuz Selim Mosqueshould be attributed to the imperial workshop.The lamp and ball have underglaze inscriptional bands in cobalt blue but the mosque itself is decorated only withcuerda secatiles.The number of tilemakers employed by the imperial workshops dwindled so that by 1566 only three remained. With the construction of the Süleymaniye Mosque, Iznik became a major center for the manufacture of underglaze tiles.

Miletus ware (15th century)

Fragmentary blue and white Miletus ware bowl

Main article:Miletus ware

Archaeological excavations in İznik conducted by Oktay Aslanapa in the early 1960s revealed that the town had been an important centre for the production of simple earthenware pottery well before the introduction of the blue-and-white fritware.The excavations uncovered fragments of what is confusingly known as 'Miletus ware'. The discovery of kiln-wasters confirmed that the pottery was manufactured locally. The name originated from the discovery ofsherdsduring excavations by the German archaeologistFriedrich SarreatMiletuson the western coast ofAnatoliain the early 1930s. As Miletus had a long history as a pottery producing centre, it was erroneously assumed that the pottery was produced locally and it became known as 'Miletus ware'. It is now believed that İznik was the main centre for the production of 'Miletus ware' with smaller quantities being produced atKütahyaand Akçaalan.The excavations have not provided a clear date for the pottery but it is assumed to belong to the 15th century. The archaeological evidence from other sites in Turkey suggests that Miletus ware was produced in large quantities and widely distributed.

Miletus ware used a red clay body covered with a white slip which was painted with simple designs under a transparent alkaline lead glaze. The designs were usually in dark cobalt blue but also sometimes in turquoise, purple and green. Many dishes have a central rosette surrounded by concentric bands ofgadroons.

Fritware

Large dish (charger) with foliate rim. Design reserved on a dark cobalt ground, c. 1480

From the late 15th century, potters in Iznik began producing wares that were decorated incobalt blueon a whitefritwarebody under a clear glaze. Both the manufacturing technique and theunderglazedesigns were very different from that used in the production of Miletus ware. Fritware had been made in theNear Eastfrom the 13th century, but Iznik fritware, achieving a white surface, was a major innovation.

Fritware (also calledstonepaste) is a composite material made from quartz sand mixed with small amounts of finely ground glass (calledfrit) and some clay. When fired, the glass frit melts and binds the other components together. In the 13th century the town ofKashanin Iran was an important centre for the production of fritware.Abū'l-Qāsim, who came from a family of tilemakers in the city, wrote a treatise on precious stones in 1301 that included a chapter on the manufacture of fritware.His recipe specified a fritware body containing a mixture of 10 partssilicato 1 part glass frit and 1 part clay. There is no equivalent treatise on the manufacture of Iznik pottery, but analysis of the surviving pieces indicates that the potters in İznik used roughly similar proportions. In Kashan the frit was prepared by mi xing powdered quartz withsodawhich acted as aflux.The mixture was then heated in a kiln. In İznik, as well as quartz and soda,lead oxidewas added to the frit.

As the fritware paste lacked plasticity and was difficult to work on the wheel, vessels were seldom made in one piece. Instead they were formed in separate sections that were allowed to dry and then stuck together using the fritware paste. This additive technique meant that there was a tendency for the final vessels to have slightly angular shapes.Dishes were almost certainly made using a mould attached to a potter's wheel. A lump of fritware paste would have been rolled out into a sheet much like when a cook rolls out pastry. The sheet would have been placed on the mould to form the inside of the dish. The underside of the dish would have been shaped using a template as the mould was rotated on the wheel. When the paste was partly dry the foliate rim would have been sculptured by hand.

Large dish (charger), 1500–1510

The fritware body was coated with a thin layer of white slip. This had a similar composition to the fritware paste used for the body, but the components were more finely ground and more carefully selected to avoid iron impurities that would discolour the white surface. It is likely that an organic binder was also added such astragacanth gum.Although in his treatise Abū'l-Qāsim recommended that fritware vessels were allowed to dry in the sun before being decorated, it is probable that Iznik ceramics was given abiscuitfiring.The pottery was painted with pigments that had been mixed with glass frit and ground in a wetquern.For some designs the outlines were pounced through a stencil.

In the early period only cobalt blue was used for decoration. The cobalt ore was probably obtained from the village ofQamsarnear the town ofKashanin central Iran.Qamsar had long been an important source of cobalt and is mentioned by Abū'l-Qāsim Qamsarin in his treatise.From around 1520 turquoise (copper oxide) was added to the palette. This was followed by purple (manganese oxide), green, grey and black. The distinctive bright bole red was introduced in around 1560.The red slip containingiron oxidewas applied in a thick layer under the glaze. Even after the introduction of a range of different pigments, vessels were sometimes still produced with a restricted palette.

The wares were glazed with a lead-alkaline-tin glaze, whose composition has been found from analysis to belead oxide25-30 percent,silica45–55 percent,sodium oxide8–14 percent andtin oxide4–7 percent.Tin oxide is often employed to render glaze opaque but in İznik glazes, it remains in solution and is transparent.

Abū'l-Qāsim described the use of earthenwaresaggarswith a fitting lid.Although Miletus ware bowls were stacked in the kiln one on top of the other separated byspurs,the lack of spur marks on Iznik fritware suggests that saggars were used. Firing was done in an updraft kiln, to about 900 °C.

Blue-and-white ware (1480–1520)

Mosque lampwith lotuses c. 1510, similar to four lamps that hung in the mausoleum ofBayezid IIin Istanbul

Further information:Blue and white porcelain

In the final decades of the 15th century, potters in Iznik began producing blue-and-white fritware ceramics with designs that were clearly influenced by the Ottoman court in Istanbul. There are no surviving written documents that provide details on how this came about. The earliest specific mention of Iznik pottery is in the accounts for the Imperial kitchens of the Tokapi palace for 1489–1490 where the purchase of 97 vessels is recorded.The earliest datable objects are blue-and-white border tiles that decorate the mausoleum (türbe) inBursaof Şehzade Mahmud, one of the sons ofBayezid II,who died in 1506–1507.

The term 'Abraham of Kütahya ware' has been applied to all the early blue-and-white Iznik pottery as the 'Abraham of Kütahya' ewer, dating from 1510, is the only documented vessel. The art historian Julian Raby has argued that the term is misleading as the ewer is atypical and has instead proposed the term 'Baba Nakkaş ware' after the name of the leading designer attached to the Imperial court in Istanbul.The earliest surviving Iznik fritware objects, dating from probably around 1480, are believed to be a group of vessels painted in a dark cobalt blue in which much of the dense decoration is in white on a blue background. The vessels have separate areas of Ottoman arabesque and Chinese floral designs. The combination of these two styles is referred to asRumi-HatayiwhereRumidenotes the Ottoman arabesque patterns andHatayithe Chinese inspired floral patterns.Many of the meticulously painted arabesque motifs of this early period are believed to be influenced by Ottoman metalwork.

Although both the use of cobalt blue on a white background and the shape of large dishes were clearly influenced by Chinese porcelain from theYuanandMingdynasties, the early Iznik fritware dishes were far from being direct copies of Chinese designs. In some pieces, such as the front of a large charger with a foliate rim in theÇinili Koşk Museumin Istanbul, the decoration used only OttomanRumidesigns.

During the first two decades of the 16th century there was a gradual shift in style with the introduction of a brighter blue, more use of a white background and a greater use of floral motifs.Dating from this period are fourmosque lampsfrom the mausoleum of SultanBayezid IIin Istanbul which was constructed in 1512–13.A fifth lamp that probably also came from the mausoleum is now in the British Museum.These potterymosque lampsare of a similar shape toMamlukglass lamps. There was a tradition of hanging pottery lamps in mosques dating back at least to the 13th century. The opaque pottery lamps would have been completely useless for lighting and they instead served a symbolic and decorative function.The lamps from Bayezid II's mausoleum are decorated with bands of geometric motifs andkuficinscriptions but around the centre they have a very prominent broad band containing large rosettes and stylized lotus blossoms.

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  Jar with reserved decoration on a dark cobalt ground, c. 1480
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  Fragmentary tile similar to those in mausoleum of Şehzade Mahmud inBursa,1506–1507
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  Mosque lamp,c. 1510
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  Candlestick, c. 1525
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  Rimless deep bowl, c. 1525–1530

Form

The two most prevalent colors on the dish are white and blue, which is a direct influence of Chinese art. The base of the ceramic is white color so that the blue intricate designs will display great contrast. The blue color used on the dish is striking, allowing the delicate vegetal designs to power through and shine.

Patronage by the Ottoman court: Süleyman the Magnificent

Fruit sellers carrying ceramic jars in front of SultanMurad III,c. 1582

After the conquest ofConstantinoplein 1453, theOttomansultans started a huge building programme. In these buildings, especially those commissioned by Süleyman, his wifeHürrem(Roxelana) and his Grand VizierRüstem Pasha,large quantities of tiles were used. TheSultan Ahmed Mosquein Istanbul (the "Blue Mosque" ) alone contains 20,000 tiles. TheRüstem Pasha Mosqueis more densely tiled and tiles were used extensively in theTopkapı Palace.As a result of this demand, tiles dominated the output of the Iznik potteries.

UnderSüleyman the Magnificent(1520–1566), demand for Iznik wares increased. Jugs, hanging lamps, cups, bowls and dishes were produced, inspired by metalwork and illuminated books as well as Chinese ceramics. Many large dishes were made with looser designs, incorporating ships, animals, trees and flowers. The dishes appear to have been made for display, as most have pierced footrings so that they can be hung up, but they have been observed also to be scratched from use.Designs in the 1520s include thesazstylein which a long, serratedsaz(reed) leaf, dynamically arranged, is balanced by static rosette forms. In the second half of the sixteenth century the more naturalquatre fleursstyle was also introduced. This used a repertoire of stylised tulips, carnations, roses and hyacinths. It was promoted by Kara Memi (Kara Mehmed Çelebi) who by 1557/8 was the chief artist of Sultan Süleyman's court.

'Golden Horn ware' (c. 1530 – c. 1550)

The so-called 'Golden Horn ware' was a variation on the blue-and-white decoration that was popular from the late 1520s to 1550s.Golden Horn ware was so named because sherds in this style were excavated in theGolden Hornarea of Istanbul.It was later realized that the pottery was made in İznik as some motifs on the vessels closely resembled those used on other blue-and-white Iznik pottery.The decoration consists of a series of thin spirals adorned with small leaves. The narrow rims of dishes are painted with a meandering pattern. The design is similar to the illuminated spiral scrolls used as a background to SultanSuleyman'sTuğra,or imperial monogram. Julian Raby has used the term 'Tuğrakeşspiral ware' as thetuğrakeşwere the specialist calligraphers in the Ottoman court.The earlier vessels were painted in cobalt blue while later vessels often include turquoise, olive-green and black.A number of dishes dating from this period show the influence of Italian pottery. The small bowls and a large flat rims are similar in shape tomaiolicatondinodishes that were popular in Italy between 1500 and 1530.

The 1520s was a period which saw the spiral-decorated ‘Golden Horn’ wares with their close link to imperial manuscript illumination, and the close relationship between imperial architecture and pottery vessels produced at Iznik, and an adaptation of Chinese porcelain designs represented by the collections of theTopkapi Saray

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  Cut down water bottle, probably made inKütahya,dated 1529
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  Deep dish with foliate rim, c. 1530
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  Water bottle, c. 1530–1535
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  Tondinodish, c. 1530–1540
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  Deep dish with foliate rim, c. 1530–1540
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  Ewer, c. 1530–1540

'Damascus ware' (c. 1540 – c. 1555)

Mosque lamp, probably made for theDome of the Rockin Jerusalem, dated 1549

The so-called 'Damascus ware' was popular underSüleyman the Magnificentfrom 1540 to 1555. Vessels were decorated for the first time with sage green and pale purple, in addition tocobalt blueandturquoise,and form a transition towards full-fledged polychrome ceramics.They were mistakenly believed to have originated from Damascus by art collectors in the second half of the 19th century.The name is particular misleading as tiles with a similar palette of pastel colours and floral designs were made inDamascusfrom the second half of the 16th century.

A key object from this period is a ceramic vessel in the form of a mosque lamp with an inscribed date that is now in theBritish Museum.It is the best documented surviving piece of Iznik pottery and enables scholars to fix the dates and provenance of other objects. The lamp was discovered on theTemple MountinJerusalemin the middle of the 19th century and is believed to have been associated with the refurbishment of theDome of the Rockinitiated bySuleiman the Magnificent.Around the base of the lamp are a series of inscribed cartouches giving the name of the decorator (Musli), a dedication to the İznikSufisaint Eşrefzâde Rumi, and the date of AH 956 in the month ofJumada'l-Ula(AD 1549). The lamp is decorated in green, black and two shades of blue. The design includes pale blue cloud-banks, small-scale arabesques on a green ground and a row of tulip buds in dark-blue cartouches. The lamp can be used to date a group of other vessels including some large footed basins. Although the basins are quite different from the lamp in overall style, each basin shares motifs present on the lamp.

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  Dish with cloud scrolls that are similar to those on the lamp, and arock and waveborder, c. 1550
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  Dish withsazleaves and flowers, c. 1545–1550
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  Dish covered with rosettes,sazleaves and a peacock, c. 1540–1555
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  Dish covered with rosettes andsazleaves, c. 1545–1550
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  Rimless shallow dish with flowers and a cypress, c. 1525–1550

There are only two surviving buildings with tiles that use the purple colour scheme. The earliest is the Yeni Kaplıca bathhouse inBursawhere the walls are covered with hexagonal tiles set on their points. The tiles are decorated with arabesques and floral motifs painted in blue, turquoise, olive green and purple. There are nine different designs. The tiles were originally installed in a different building but were transferred to the Yeni Kaplıca bathhouse when it was restored by the grand vizierRüstem Pashain 1552–1553. The tiles probably date from the late 1540s.

The other building is theHadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosqueat Silivrikapı in Istanbul which was designed by the imperial architectMimar Sinanand completed in 1551. Under the portico on the north façade are three tiled lunette panels and two roundels. The panels have whitethuluthlettering reserved on a dark cobalt blue background. Between the letters are flowers in purple and turquoise. Within the mosque above themihrabis a large lunette panel with tiles painted in cobalt blue, turquoise and dark olive green.

Polychrome ceramics (1560–1600)

Tiles

See also:Ottoman architectural decoration

Tiledlunettepanel decorated with bole red on theSüleymaniye Mosque,Istanbul, c. 1557

Beginning in the middle of the 16th century, the potters in Iznik began producing coloured fritware tiles to decorate the imperial buildings designed by the head architectMimar Sinan.Exactly how this was organised is not known, but Sinan as architect was almost certainly involved in coordinating the design of the tilework with the architecture of the buildings.

Tiled panel under the portico of theRüstem Pasha Mosquein Istanbul, c. 1561

Large quantities of tiles were required. In the 1550s and early 1560s the potters in Iznik made tiles for theSüleymaniye Mosquein Istanbul,the mausoleum ofHurrem Sultan (Roxelana)(completed in 1558),theGreat MosqueinAdana(in around 1560),theRüstem Pasha Mosquein Istanbul (completed in around 1563),and the mausoleum of Süleyman I (completed in 1567).The mausoleums of Süleyman I and that of his wife Hurrem Sultan are both located in the grounds of the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul.

Associated with this switch to tile production were important changes in the aesthetics.A bright red colour was introduced by the use of an iron containing bole applied as slip under the glaze. The red colour would become a common feature of Iznik tiles and pottery.The first building to have tiles with red was theSüleymaniye Mosquein Istanbul which was designed by the imperial architectMimar Sinanand completed in 1557.The tile decoration inside the mosque is restricted to around themihrabon theqiblawall. The repeating rectangular tiles have a stencil-like floral pattern on a white ground. The flowers are mainly blue but there is also turquoise, black and red.Outside the mosque on the north facade within the courtyard the windows have rectangular Iznik tile lunettes panels with text from the Quran. The white letters are written inthuluthscript on a dark blue ground. The decoration on these tiles also includes the bole red.

The next major monument designed by Sinan was theRüstem Pasha Mosquewhich was completed in 1563. In contrast to the restrained use of tiles in theSüleymaniye Mosque,the surfaces in the interior and the façade under the portico at the entrance are all lavishly decorated with tiles.More than 80 different designs are used. Most of the tiles are in panels of repetitive patterns where each tile is identical to the others. The mosque is the first with the Kara Memi inspired red tulips and carnations. Themihrabis decorated with tiles painted with a thin brownish red but in other parts of the mosque there are tiles with the thick sealing-wax red relief.The purple used on 'Damascus ware' did not combine well the red bole and only a few monuments use both colours. Purple is used with red in the tiled panel depicting flowering prunus under the portico to the left of the entrance ofRüstem Pasha Mosquein Istanbul.

'Damascus ware' used a sage-green - a green with a greyish tone. This colour was used sparingly on the tiles of the mausoleum ofHurrem Sultan (Roxelana)(1558) but no green was used on the tiles of theGreat MosqueinAdana(c. 1560) nor on the mausoleum ofRüstem Pasha(1562).With the exception of a tiled panel above an external doorway which was added at later date, none of the tiles in the Rustem Pasha Mosque include green in their decoration.The bright emerald green was introduced for the first time on the portico panels of Süleyman's mausoleum in the funerary garden of theSüleymaniye complex,which was completed in 1567.

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  Iznik tiles in the Neo-classical Enderûn Library in theTopkapı Palace
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  Two tiles, c. 1560
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  Tile withsazleaves, tulips and prunus flowers, third quarter 16th century
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  Tile panel, second half 16th century
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  Tiled panel with a centralmandorla,c. 1580
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  Detail of a tile in theRüstem Pasha Mosque,c. 1563
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  Wall tile in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque, c. 1563
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  Tile in the Mihrab of theGreat Mosque of Adana,c. 1560

Pottery

Lamp from theSüleymaniye Mosquec. 1557

An important object in the study of Iznik pottery is a mosque lamp that is now in theVictoria and Albert Museumin London.The lamp is believed to have made for theSüleymaniye Mosquein Istanbul which was completed in 1557. The lamp is the earliest object of a known date with thebole-red decoration that was to become a characteristic feature of Iznik tiles and pottery.The red on the lamp is thin, brownish and uneven. A few surviving dishes that use a similar thin red colouring are believed to date from the same period.

There are no surviving vessels with a date between that of theDome of the Rockmosque lamp of 1549 until 1606/7.Many Iznik tiles survive on buildings of known date and although the designs generally differs from those used on pottery, it is often possible to determine an approximate date of a vessel by comparing the composition and motifs with those on tiles.

Dishes

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  Dish with peacocks and flowers, c. 1575
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  Dish with asazleaf and flowers, c. 1575
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  Dish with plain rim, late 16th – early 17th century
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  Dish with a prunus tree reserved in white on a green ground, c. 1585
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  Dish with plain rim, 1580–1600
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  Dish with animals in reserve on a green background, c. 1580–1585

Other objects

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  Pitcher with flower decoration, c. 1560–1570
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  Tankard with cypresses and flowers, c. 1560
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  Tankard with ships, c. 1575–1585
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  Mosque lamp, c. 1580–1585
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  Ewer, last quarter 16th century
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  Bottle with roses, carnations and other flowers, c. 1560–1580
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  Lidded bowl decorated with cypresses, tulips and carnations, c. 1560–1580
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  Spherical hanging ornament, c. 1575–1585

Decline (1600–1700)

Towards the end of the 16th century there was a marked decline in the quality of the pottery produced in İznik.This has been linked to the loss of patronage by the Ottoman court and with the imposition of fixed prices in a period of inflation.Another important factor was that from the middle of the 16th century increasing quantities of Chinese porcelain were imported into Turkey. The İznik craftsmen failed to compete with the high quality imports and instead produced pottery with crudely painted rustic designs.Although the Chinese imports did not compete with locally produced tiles, there was little new imperial building and therefore little demand. Even when the court required tiles such as for the mausoleum ofAhmed Ibuilt between 1620 and 1623, the low prices led to a drop in the living standards of the potters. They responded by finding new markets outside the Ottoman imposed price system. Tiles were exported to Cairo where they were used to decorate theAksunkur Mosquewhich was remodelled by Ibrahim Agha in 1651–1652.Tiles were also exported to Greece where in 1678 theMonastery of the Great LavraonMount Athoswas decorated with polychrome tiles inscribed with Greek lettering.Nevertheless, there was a decline in the volume of pottery produced and by the mid-17th century only a few kilns remained.The last dated pottery are dishes with crudeuncial Greekinscriptions from 1678.

• 
  Dish with a ship, c. 1625–1650
• 
  Dish with a pagoda like building and anuncial Greekinscription, dated 1666
• 
  Dish with riderless horse, early 17th century
• 
  Dish withsazleaves and scale pattern, 17th century

Pottery vessels that combine traditional Iznik designs with modern themes are now produced for the tourist trade in Kütahya.

See also

• Chinese influences on Islamic pottery

Sources

• "Abū'l-Qāsim's treatise on ceramics".Iran.
• Allan, J.W. (1973)."Abū'l-Qāsim's treatise on ceramics".Iran.11:111–120.doi:10.2307/4300488.JSTOR4300488.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-23.Retrieved2011-09-04.
• Atasoy, Nurhan;Raby, Julian (1989). Petsopoulos, Yanni (ed.).Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Turkey.London: Alexandria Press.ISBN978-1-85669-054-6.
• Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992) [1989].Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction.Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-09626-4.
• Carswell, John (2006) [1998].Iznik Pottery.London: British Museum Press.ISBN978-0-7141-2441-4.
• Denny, Walter B. (1976). "Ceramic revetments of the mosque of the Ramazan Oğlu in Adana".IVème congrès international d'art turc: Aix-en-Provence, 10-15 septembre 1971.Études historiques (Université Provence), no 3. Éditions de l'Université de Provence. pp. 57–65.ISBN978-2-85399-015-8.
• Denny, Walter B. (2004).Iznik: the Artistry of Ottoman Ceramics.London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-51192-3.
• Goodwin, Godfrey (2003) [1971].A History of Ottoman Architecture.London: Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-27429-3.
• Necipoğlu, Gülru(1990)."From International Timurid to Ottoman: a change of taste in sixteenth-century ceramic tiles".Muqarnas.7:136–170.doi:10.2307/1523126.JSTOR1523126.
• Necipoğlu, Gülru(2005).The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire.London: Reaktion Books.ISBN978-1-86189-253-9.
• Lane, Arthur (1957a). "The Ottoman pottery of Isnik".Ars Orientalis.2:247–281.JSTOR4629039.
• Lane, Arthur (1957b).Later Islamic pottery: Persia, Syria, Egypt, Turkey.London: Faber and Faber.OCLC1646726.

Further reading

• Akar, Azade (1988).Treasury of Turkish designs: 670 motifs from Iznik pottery.New York: Dover.ISBN978-0-486-25594-1.
• Colomban, P.; Milande, V.; Le Bihan, L. (2004). "On-site Raman analysis of Iznik pottery glazes and pigments".Journal of Raman Spectroscopy.35(7): 527–535.arXiv:cond-mat/0612375.Bibcode:2004JRSp...35..527C.doi:10.1002/jrs.1163.S2CID7543087.
• Denny, Walter B. (2005)."Dispersed Ottoman unified-field tile panels".Benaki Museum Journal.4, 2004: 149–157.ISSN2407-9502.
• Denny, Walter B. (2006). "Dispersed Ottoman repeating-pattern İznik tiles". In Parzymies, Anna (ed.).Studies in Oriental Art and Culture in Honour of Professor Tadeusz Majda.Warsaw: Dialog. pp. 169–190.ISBN978-83-89899-39-2.
• François, Véronique (1997)."Les ateliers de céramique byzantine de Nicée/Iznik et leur production (Xe-début XIVe siècle)".Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique(in French).121(1): 411–442.doi:10.3406/bch.1997.1637.
• Henderson, J.; Raby, J. (1989). "The technology of fifteenth century Turkish tiles: an interim statement on the origins of the Iznik industry".World Archaeology: Ceramic Technology.21(1): 115–132.doi:10.1080/00438243.1989.9980094.JSTOR124488.
• Mason, R.B.; Tite, M.S. (1994). "The beginnings of Islamic stonepaste technology".Archaeometry.36(1): 77–91.doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1994.tb01066.x..
• Maury, Charlotte (2012)."À propos de la vaisselle peinte sous glaçure d'époque ottomane à Damas: identification, description, datation".Bulletin d'Études Orientales(in French).61(61): 507–543.doi:10.4000/beo.1051.
• Paynter, S.; Okyar, F.; Wolf, S.; Tite, M.S. (2004)."The production technology of Iznik pottery – a reassessment".Archaeometry.46(3): 421–437.doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2004.00166.x.
• Queiroz Ribeiro, Maria (2009).Iznik Pottery and Tiles in the Calouste Gulbenkian Collection.Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation.ISBN978-972-8848-58-3.
• Tite, M.S. (1989). "Iznik pottery: an investigation of the methods of production".Archaeometry.31(2): 115–132.doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.1989.tb01008.x.

External links

• Timeline of the main developments in Iznik pottery,Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-23,retrieved2011-09-10
• Photographs of Iznik tiles in Istanbul taken by Dick Osseman