Japanese new religionsarenew religious movementsestablished in Japan. In Japanese, they are calledshinshūkyō(Tân tôn giáo)orshinkō shūkyō(Mới phát tôn giáo).Japanese scholars classify all religious organizations founded since the middle of the 19th century as "new religions"; thus, the term refers to a great diversity and number of organizations. Most came into being in the mid-to-late twentieth century and are influenced by much older traditional religions includingBuddhismandShinto.Foreign influences includeChristianity,theBible,and the writings ofNostradamus.[1][2][3]
Before World War II
editIn the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of theEdo period,known as theBakumatsuperiod, some new religious movements appeared. Among them wereTenrikyo,Kurozumikyo,andOomoto,sometimes calledNihon Sandai Shinkōshūkyō('Japan's three large new religions') or "old new religions", which were directly influenced byShinto(thestate religion) andshamanism.[1]
The social tension continued to grow during theMeiji period,affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditionalsyncreticismbetween Shinto and Buddhism ended and Shinto became thenational religion.Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions.
The Japanese government was very suspicious towards these religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe during the early 20th century, particularly from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth ofJapanese nationalismandState Shintowere closely linked. Under the Meiji regimelèse-majestéprohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism, arresting some members and leaders ofShinshūkyō,includingOnisaburo Deguchiof Oomoto andTsunesaburō Makiguchiof Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (nowSoka Gakkai), who typically were charged with violation oflèse-majestéand thePeace Preservation Law.
After World War II
editBackground
editAfter Japan was defeated in World War II, its government and policy changed radically duringoccupationby Allied troops. The official status ofState Shintowas abolished, and Shinto shrines became religious organizations, losing government protection and financial support. Although theOccupation Army (GHQ)practiced censorship of all types of organizations, specific suppression ofShinshūkyōended.
GHQ invited many Christian missionaries from the United States to Japan, throughDouglas MacArthur'sfamous call for 1,000 missionaries. Missionaries arrived not only from traditional churches, but also from some modern denominations, such asJehovah's Witnesses.The Jehovah's Witnesses missionaries were so successful that they have become the second largest Christian denomination in Japan, with over 210,000 members (the largest isCatholicismwith about 500,000 members). In Japan, Jehovah's Witnesses tend to be considered a Christianity-basedShinshūkyō,not only because they were founded in the 19th century (as were other majorShinshūkyō), but also because of their missionary practices, which involve door-to-door visiting and frequent meetings.
Despite the influx of Christian missionaries, the majority ofShinshūkyōare Buddhist- or Shinto-related sects. Major sects includeRisshō Kōsei KaiandShinnyo-en.Major goals ofShinshūkyōinclude spiritual healing, individual prosperity, and social harmony. Many also hold a belief inApocalypticism,that is in the imminentend of the worldor at least its radical transformation.[2]Most of those who joinedShinshūkyōin this period were women from lower-middle-class backgrounds.[3]
Soka Gakkaihas a particular influence on politics since 1964, due to their affiliated party Komeito, laterNew Komeito.In 1999, it was estimated that 10 to 20 per cent of the Japanese population were members of aShinshūkyō.[3]
Influence
editAfter World War II, the structure of the state was changed radically. Prior to WWII, theNational Dietwas restricted and the real power lay with the executive branch, in which the prime minister was appointed by the emperor. Under the newConstitution of Japan,the Diet had the supreme authority for decision making in state affairs and all its members were elected by the people. Especially in theHouse of Councillors,one third of whose members were elected through nationwide vote, nationwide organizations found they could influence national policy by supporting certain candidates. MajorShinshūkyōbecame one of the so-called "vote-gathering machines" in Japan, especially for the conservative parties which merged into theLiberal Democratic Partyin 1955.
Other nations
editIn the 1950s, Japanese wives of American servicemen introduced the Soka Gakkai to the United States, which in the 1970s developed into theSoka Gakkai International(SGI). The SGI has steadily gained members while avoiding much of the controversy encountered by some other new religious movements in the US.[original research?]Well-known American SGI converts include musicianHerbie Hancockand singerTina Turner.[4]
In BrazilShinshūkyō,likeHonmon Butsuryū-shū,were first introduced in the 1920s among the Japanese immigrant population. In the 1950s and 1960s some started to become popular among the non-Japanese population as well.Seicho-no-Ienow has the largest membership in the country. In the 1960s it adopted Portuguese, rather than Japanese, as its language of instruction and communication. It also began to advertise itself as philosophy rather than religion in order to avoid conflict with theRoman Catholic Churchand other socially conservative elements in society. By 1988 it had more than 2.4 million members in Brazil, 85% of them not of Japanese ethnicity.[2]
Statistics
edit
| Name | Founder | Founded | 1954 | 1974 | 1990 | 2012 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nyorai-kyō (Như tới giáo) | Isson-nyorai Kino (1756–1826) | 1802 | 75,480 | 33,674 | 27,131 | 7,477 |
| Kurozumi-kyō(Hắc trụ giáo) | Munetada Kurozumi (1780–1850) | 1814 | 715,650 | 407,558 | 295,225 | 297,767 |
| Tenri-kyō(Thiên lý giáo) | Nakayama Miki(1798–1887) | 1838 | 1,912,208 | 2,298,420 | 1,839,009 | 1,199,652 |
| Honmon Butsuryū-shū(Bổn môn Phật lập tông) | Nagamatsu Nissen (1817–1890) | 1857 | 339,800 | 515,911 | 526,337 | 345,288 |
| Konko-kyō(Kim quang giáo) | Konkō Daijin (1814–1883) | 1859 | 646,206 | 500,868 | 442,584 | 430,021 |
| Maruyama-kyō (Hoàn sơn giáo) | Rokurōbei Itō (1829–1894) | 1870 | 92,011 | 3,200 | 10,725 | 11,057 |
| Oomoto(Đại bổn) | Nao Deguchi (1837–1918) Onisaburō Deguchi(1871–1948) |
1899 | 73,604 | 153,397 | 172,460 | 169,525 |
| Nakayama-Shingoshō-shū (Trung sơn thân ngữ chính tông) | Matsutarō Kihara (1870–1942) | 1912 | 282,650 | 467,910 | 382,040 | 295,275 |
| Honmichi(ほんみち) | Ōnishi Aijirō (1881–1958) | 1913 | 225,386 | 288,700 | 316,825 | 318,974 |
| En'ō-kyō (Yên ứng giáo) | Chiyoko Fukada (1887–1925) | 1919 | 71,654 | 266,782 | 419,452 | 457,346 |
| Reiyū-kai(Linh hữu sẽ) | Kakutarō Kubo (1892–1944) | 1924 | 2,284,172 | 2,477,907 | 3,202,172 | 1,412,975 |
| Nenpō-shinkyō (Niệm pháp chân giáo) | Ogura Reigen (1886–1982) | 1925 | 153,846 | 751,214 | 807,486 | 408,755 |
| Perfect Liberty Kyōdan(パーフェクト リバティー giáo đoàn) | Miki Tokuharu (1871–1938) Miki Tokuchika (1900–1983) |
(1925)[5] 1946 |
500,950 | 2,520,430 | 1,259,064 | 942,967 |
| Seichō-no-Ie(Sinh trưởng の gia) | Masaharu Taniguchi (1893–1985) | 1930 | 1,461,604 | 2,375,705 | 838,496 | 618,629 |
| Sōka Gakkai(Sang 価 học được) | Tsunesaburō Makiguchi(1871–1944) Jōsei Toda(1900–1958) |
1930 | 341,146 | 10,000,000 (claimed) | 12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars) | 12,000,000 (claimed) / 2 to 4,000,000 (scholars) |
| Sekai Kyūsei-kyō(Thế giới cứu thế giáo) | Mokichi Okada(1882–1955) | 1935 | 373,173 | 661,263 | 835,756 | 835,756 |
| Shinnyo-en(Đúng như uyển) | Shinjō Itō(1906–1956) | 1936 | 155,500 | 296,514 | 679,414 | 902,254 |
| Kōdō Kyōdan (Hiếu đạo giáo đoàn) | Shōdō Okano (1900–1978) | 1936 | 172,671 | 417,638 | 400,720 | 184,859 |
| Risshō Kōsei-kai(Nghiêm giảo thành sẽ) | Myōkō Naganuma(1889–1957) Nikkyō Niwano(1906–1999) |
1938 | 1,041,124 | 4,562,304 | 6,348,120 | 3,232,411 |
| Tenshō Kōtai Jingū-kyō(Thiên chiếu hoàng đại thần cung giáo) | Sayo Kitamura 1900–1967) | 1945 | 89,374 | 386,062 | 439,011 | 479,707 |
| Zenrin-kyō (Thiện lân giáo) | Tatsusai Rikihisa (1906–1977) | 1947 | 404,157 | 483,239 | 513,321 | 132,286 |
| Ōyama Nezunomikoto Shinji Kyōkai (Núi lớn ねず の mệnh thần kỳ giáo hội) | Sadao Inaii (1906–1988) | 1948 | 59,493 | 826,022 | ||
| Bussho Gonenkai Kyōdan(Phật sở hộ niệm sẽ giáo đoàn) | Kaichi Sekiguchi (1897–1961) Sekiguchi Tomino (1905–1990) |
1950 | 352,170 | 1,210,227 | 2,196,813 | 1,277,424 |
| Myōchikai Kyōdan(Diệu trí sẽ giáo đoàn) | Mitsu Miyamoto (1900–1984) | 1950 | 515,122 | 673,913 | 962,611 | 709,849 |
| Byakkō Shinkō-kai (Bạch quang thật hoành sẽ) | Masahisa Goi (1916–1980) | 1951 | 500,000 | |||
| Agon-shū(A hàm tông) | Seiyū Kiriyama (1921–) | 1954 | 500 | 206,606 | 353,890 | |
| Reiha-no-Hikari Kyōkai (Linh sóng ánh sáng) | Hase Yoshio (1915–1984) | 1954 | 761,175 | |||
| Jōdoshinshū Shinran-kai (Tịnh thổ Chân Tông thân loan sẽ) | Kentetsu Takamori (1934–) | 1958 | 100,000[6] | |||
| Sekai Mahikari Bunmei Kyōdan(Thế giới thật quang văn minh giáo đoàn) | Kōtama Okada(Yoshikazu Okada) (1901–1974) | 1959 | 97,838 | |||
| Honbushin (ほんぶしん) | Ōnishi Tama (1916–1969) | 1961 | 900,000[6] | |||
| God Light Association Sōgō Honbu (GLA tổng hợp bản bộ) | Shinji Takahashi (1927–1976) | 1969 | 12,981 | |||
| Shinji Shūmei-kai(Thần từ tú minh sẽ) | Mihoko Koyama (1910–2003) | 1970 | 1988: 440,000[6] | |||
| Nihon Seidō Kyōdan (Nhật Bản thánh Đạo giáo đoàn) | Shōkō Iwasaki (1934–) | 1974 | 69,450 | |||
| Extra-Sensory-Perception Kagaku Kenkyūjo (ESP khoa học viện nghiên cứu) | Katao Ishii (1918–) | 1975 | 16,000[6] | |||
| Sūkyō Mahikari(Sùng giáo thật quang) | Yoshikazu Okada(1901–1974) | 1978 | 501,328 | |||
| Ho No Hana(Pháp の hoa tam pháp hành) | Hōgen Fukunaga (1945–) | 1980 | 70,000[6] | |||
| Yamato-no-Miya (Đại cùng chi cung) | Tenkei Ajiki (1952–) | 1981 | 5,000[6] | |||
| World Mate (ワールドメイト) | Seizan Fukami (1951–) | 1984 | 30,000[6] | 72,000 | ||
| Happy Science(Hạnh phúc の khoa học) | Ryūhō Ōkawa(1956–2023) | 1986 | 1989: 13,300 1991: 1,527,278[6] |
1,100,000 | ||
| Aum Shinrikyo(オウム chân lý giáo) | Shōkō Asahara(1955–2018) | 1987 (−2000) | 2005: 1,650 | 2018: 1,950[7] |
Data for 2012 is from theAgency for Cultural Affairs.[8]
See also
edit- Chinese new religions
- Buddhism in Japan
- Buddhist modernism
- New religious movement
- Religion in Japan
- Shinto sects and schools(only some on the list count asShinshūkyō)
- Shūkyō nisei
References
edit- ^abEllwood & Shimazono 2005.
- ^abcPeter B. Clarke,1999, "Japanese New Religious Movements in Brazil: from ethnic to 'universal' religions",New Religious Movements: challenge and response,Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors,RoutledgeISBN0415200504
- ^abcEileen Barker,1999, "New Religious Movements: their incidence and significance",New Religious Movements: challenge and response,Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell editors,RoutledgeISBN0415200504
- ^Eugene V. Gallagher, 2004,The New Religious Movement Experience in America,Greenwood Press,ISBN0313328072,pages 120–124
- ^The (1925) date refers to the Hito-no-Michi Kyōdan, the mother organization of Perfect Liberty Kyōdan
- ^abcdefghMost of the statistics in these charts are from the 1991 edition of the Shūkyō Nenkan (Religion Yearbook, Tokyo: Gyōsei). Numbers marked with this footnote are from other sources[citation needed]reporting the organizations‘ own membership statistics around 1990.
- ^"オウム chân lý giáo đối sách ( cảnh sát sảnh )".25 July 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 25 July 2011.Retrieved6 July2018.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).bunka.go.jp.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 August 2014.Retrieved11 January2022.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
Bibliography
edit- Clarke, Peter B.(1999)A Bibliography of Japanese New Religious Movements: With Annotations.Richmond, Vi: Curzon.ISBN9781873410806.OCLC 246578574.
- Clarke, Peter B. (2000).Japanese New Religions: In Global Perspective.Richmond, Vi: Curzon.ISBN9780700711857.OCLC 442441364.
- Clarke, Peter B., Somers, Jeffrey, editors (1994). Japanese New Religions in the West, Japan Library/Curzon Press, Kent, UK.ISBN1-873410-24-7.
- Dormann, Benjamin (2012). Celebrity Gods: New Religions, Media, and Authority in Occupied Japan, University of Hawaiʻi Press.ISBN0824836219.
- Dormann, Benjamin (2005). “New Religions through the Eyes of Ōya Sōichi, 'Emperor' of the Mass Media”,in:Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture,29, pp. 54–67.
- Dormann, Benjamin (2004). “SCAP's Scapegoat? The Authorities, New Religions, and a Postwar Taboo”,in:Japanese Journal of Religious Studies31/1: pp. 105–140.
- Ellwood, Robert S., Jr.(1974).The Eagle and the Rising Sun: Americans and the New Religions of Japan.Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Ellwood, Robert S.(2008).Introducing Japanese Religion.World Religions Series. London; New York: Routledge.ISBN0-4157-7425-X.
- Ellwood, Robert S.;Shimazono, Susumu (2005) [1987]."New Religious Movements: New Religious Movements in Japan".In Lindsay Jones (ed.).Encyclopedia of Religion: 15-volume Set.Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, Mi: Macmillan Reference USA – viaEncyclopedia.
- Hardacre, Helen.(1988).Kurozumikyo and the New Religions of Japan.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.ISBN0-691-02048-5.
- Hardacre, Helen(1993)."The New Religions, Family, and Society in Japan".InMarty, Martin E.;Appleby, R. Scott(eds.).Fundamentalisms and Siciety: Reclaming the Sciences, the Family, and Education.The Fundamentalism Project,2. Chicago, Il; London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 294–310.ISBN0-226-50880-3.
- Kisala, Robert (2001). “Images of God in Japanese New Religions”,in:Bulletin of the Nanzan Institute for Religion & Culture,25, pp. 19–32.
- Shimazono, Susumu (2004).From Salvation to Spirituality: Popular Religious Movements in Modern Japan.Japanese Society Series. Melbourne, Vic.: Trans Pacific Press.ISBN978-1-8768-4312-0.
- Staemmler, Birgit & Ulrich Dehn, eds.Establishing the Revolutionary: An Introduction to New Religions in Japan.Munster: LIT, 2011.ISBN978-3-643-90152-1.
- Wilson, Bryan R. and Karel Dobbelaere. (1994).A Time to Chant.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-827915-9.