Jihad

For other uses, seeJihad (disambiguation).

Jihad(/dʒɪˈhɑːd/;Arabic:جِهَاد,romanized:jihād[dʒiˈhaːd]) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim.In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform withGod's guidance, such as aninternal struggleagainst evil in oneself, efforts to build a good Muslim community (ummah), and struggle to defendIslam.In non-Muslim societies, the term is most oftenassociated with offensive warfareandviolence.

Jihadis classified into inner ( "greater" )jihad,which involves a struggle against one's own passions and impulses, and outer ( "lesser" )jihad,which is further subdivided intojihadof the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) andjihadof the sword (warfare).Much of Muslim opinion considers innerjihadto have primacy over outerjihad,although many Western scholars disagree. The analysis of a large survey from 2002 reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions ofjihadheld by Muslims around the world, ranging fromrighteous livingandpromoting peacetofighting against the opponents of Islam.

The wordjihadappears frequently in theQur'anreferring to both religious and spiritual struggle and to war and physical struggle,often in the idiomatic expression "striving in the path of God(al-jihad fi sabilAllah)",conveying a sense of self-exertion.In thehadiths,jihadrefers predominantly to warfare. Greaterjihadrefers to spiritual and moral struggle, and has traditionally been emphasized inSufiandAhmadiyyacircles.The sense ofjihadas armed resistance was first used in the context ofpersecution faced by Muslims when Muhammad was at Mecca,when the community had two choices: further emigration (hijrah) orwar.The Qur'an justifies war in self-defense or in response to aggression towards other Muslims, however thesword verseshave historically been interpreted to renounce other verses and justify offensive war against unbelievers, forcibly convertingpolytheistic pagansduring theearly Muslim conquests.Aset of rules pertaining tojihadwere developed, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat, on killing animals such as horses, and on unnecessary destruction of enemy property.

In the twentieth century, the notion ofjihadlost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to ideological and political discourse.Whilemodernist Islamic scholarshave emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects ofjihad,someIslamistshave advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical texts.The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by variousinsurgentIslamic extremist,militantIslamist,andterroristindividuals and organizations.Today, the wordjihadis often used without religious connotations, like the Englishcrusade.

Etymology and literary origins

The termjihadis derived from theArabic rootjahada,meaning "to exert strength and effort, to use all means in order to accomplish a task". In its expanded sense, it can be fighting the enemies ofIslam,as well as adhering to religious teachings, enjoining good and forbidding evil.The peaceful sense of "efforts towards the moral uplift of society or towards the spread of Islam" can be known as "jihadof the tongue "or"jihadof the pen ", as opposed to"jihadof the sword ".It is used as a term infiqh(Islamic jurisprudence) mostly in the latter sense, while inSufismmostly in the sense of fighting thenafs al-ammara,which is thepsychological stateof succumbing to one's own desires.Spiritual and moraljihadis generally emphasized in pious and mystical circles.

The Hans WehrDictionary of Modern Written Arabicdefines the term as "fight, battle;jihad,holy war(against theinfidels,as a religious duty) ".However, given the range of meanings, it is incorrect to equate it simply with "holy war".The notion ofjihadhas its origins in the Islamic idea that the whole humankind will embrace Islam.In the Qur'an and in later Muslim usage,jihadis commonly followed by the expressionfi sabil illah,"in the path of God."Muhammad Abdel-Haleemstated that it indicates "the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and the conditions for the conduct of war and peace."

InModern Standard Arabic,the termjihadis used for a struggle for causes, both religious andsecular.It is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word "crusade"(as in" a crusade against drugs ").Jihadis used commonly in Arabic countries, in the neutral sense of "a struggle for a noble cause", as a unisex name given to children.Nonetheless,jihadis usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings trace to the Qur'an and the words and actions ofMuhammad.

Quran

Jihadis mentioned in four places in theQur'anas a noun, while its derived verb is used in twenty-four places.Mujahid,theactive participlemeaning "jihadist",is mentioned in two verses.In some of these mentions (seeAt-Tawbah9/41, 44, 81, 86), it is understood that the wordjihaddirectly refers to war, and in others,jihadis used in the sense of "the effort to live in accordance with Allah's will".Qur'anic exhortations tojihadhave beeninterpretedby Islamic scholars both in the combative and non-combative sense.Ahmed al-Dawoody wrote that there seventeen references to or derivatives ofjihadoccur altogether forty-one times in elevenMeccantexts and thirtyMedinanones, with 28 mentions related to religious belief or spiritual struggle and 13 mentions related to warfare or physical struggle.

Hadith

There are also manyhadiths(records of the teachings, deeds and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) aboutjihad,typically under the headings ofkitab al-jihad(book ofjihad) orfaza'il al-jihad(virtues ofjihad) inhadithcollections or as the subject of independent works.Of the 199hadithreferences tojihadin theBukharicollection ofhadith,all assume thatjihadmeans warfare.

Among reported sayings of Muhammad involvingjihadare:

The bestJihadis the word of Justice in front of the oppressive sultan.

— cited byIbn Nuhaasand narrated by Ibn Habbaan

and

The Messenger of Allah was asked about the bestjihad.He said: "The bestjihadis the one in which your horse is slain and your blood is spilled. "

— cited byIbn Nuhaasand narrated by Ibn Habbaan

Ibn Nuhaas cited ahadithfromMusnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal,where Muhammad stated that the highest kindjihadis "The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood" (Ahmed 4/144).Muhammad also said, “I cannot find anything” as meritorious asjihad;he further likenedjihadto “praying ceaselessly and fasting continuously”.Muhammad said that “if it were not a hardship for the Muslims, I would never idle behind from a raiding party going out to fight in the path of Allah.... I [would] love to raid in the path of Allah and be killed, to raid again and be killed, and to raid again and be killed”.Muhammad also said that "Lining up for battle in the path of Allah [jihad] is worthier than 60 years of worship".Muhammad claimed that any Muslim who refused to fight injihad“will be tortured like no other sinful human” in hell with confirmation from Qur'an 8:15-16.In anotherhadithMuhammad said, “the sword wipes away all sins” and “being killed in the path of Allah washes away impurity”.

According to anotherhadith,supporting one's parents is an example ofjihad.It has been reported that Muhammad considered performinghajjwell to be the bestjihadfor Muslim women.

Thehadithemphasizejihadas one of the means toParadise.All sins (except debt) would be forgiven for the one who dies in it.Participation injihadhad to be voluntary and intention must be pure, forjihadis only waged for the sake of God not for material wealth.On the contrary,jihadrequired man to put both his life and wealth at risk.Jihadis ranked as one of the highest good deeds; according to onehadithit is the third-best deed afterprayerand being good to one's parents.Onehadithexempts militaryjihadon men whose parents are alive, as serving one's parents is considered a superiorjihad.

Greater and lesserjihad

Tradition distinguishes the "greaterjihad"(inner struggle against sinful behavior) from the" lesserjihad"(military sense).Early Islamic thought considered non-violent interpretations ofjihad,especially for those Muslims who could not partake in warfare in distant lands.Most classical writings use the term "jihad"in the military sense.The tradition differentiating between the "greater and lesserjihad"is not included in any of the authoritative compilations of Hadith. In consequence, some Islamists dismiss it as not authentic.

The most commonly citedhadithfor "greaterjihad"is:

A number of fighters came toMuhammadand he said "You have come from the 'lesserjihad'to the 'greaterjihad'."The fighters asked" what is the greaterjihad?"Muhammad replied," It is the struggle against one's passions. "

This passage was cited inThe History of BaghdadbyAl-Khatib al-Baghdadi,an 11th-century Islamic scholar.This reference gave rise to the practice of distinguishing "greater" and "lesser"jihad.Islamic scholars such asIbn Hajar al-Asqalaniconsider thehadithto have a weakchain of transmission.

The concept has had "enormous influence" in Islamic mysticism (Sufism).

Ibn Hazmlists four kinds ofjihad fi sabilillah(struggle in the cause of God):

• Jihadof the heart(jihad bil qalb/nafs)is concerned with combattingthe deviland in the attempt to escape his persuasion to evil. This type ofjihadwas regardedas the greaterjihad(al-jihad al-akbar).
• Jihadby the tongue(jihad bil lisan)(alsojihadby the word,jihad al-qalam) is concerned with speaking the truth and spreading the word of Islam with one's tongue.
• Jihadby the hand(jihad bil yad)refers to choosing to do what is right and to combat injustice and what is wrong with action.
• Jihadby the sword(jihad bis saif)refers toqital fi sabilillah(armed fighting in the way of God, orholy war), the most common usage bySalafiMuslims and offshoots of theMuslim Brotherhood.

A relatedhadithtradition that has "found its way into popular Muslim literature",and which has been said to "embody the Muslim mindset" of theIslamic Golden Age(the period from the mid-8th century to mid-13th century following the relocation of theAbbasidcapital fromDamascustoBaghdad),is:

"The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr."

The belief in the veracity of thishadithwas a contributing factor in the efforts by successivecaliphsto subsidize translations of "Greek,HebrewandSyriacscience and philosophy texts ",and the saying continues to be heavily emphasised in certain Islamic traditions advocating intellectualism over violence, for example inTimbuktu,where it is central to one of two key lessons in the workTuhfat al-fudalaby 16th-centuryBerberscholarAhmed Baba.In general, however, fewer people today are aware of thehadith,which suffers from "a general lack of knowledge", according toAkbar Ahmed.

According to classical Islamic scholars likeIbn Qayyim al-Jawziyya,jihadis against four types of enemies: the lower self (nafs),Satan,the unbelievers, and the hypocrites. The first two types ofjihadare purely peaceful spiritual struggles. According to Ibn Qayyim, "Jihad against the lower self precedesjihadagainst external enemies. "Confirming the central importance of the spiritual aspect ofjihad,Ibn Taymiyyahwrote:

"Jihad against the lower self and whims is the foundation ofjihadagainst the unbelievers and hypocrites, for a Muslim cannot wagejihadagainst them unless he has wagedjihadagainst himself and his desires first, before he goes out against them. "

Engaging in the greaterjihaddoes not preclude engaging in the lesserjihad.Abd al-Qadir al-Jilanirecommended his followers to pursue both the greater and the lesserjihads.

At least one important contemporaryTwelverShiafigure,AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini,the leader of theIranian Revolutionand the founder of theIslamic Republic of Iran,wrote a treatise on the "GreaterJihad"(i.e., internal/personal struggle against sin).

Robert W. Schaefer discussedjihadandgazavatin the context of the Caucasus: "Gazavatwas thejihadof its day.Gazavatmeant putting yourself on the right path (what Muslims refer to as the lesserjihad) as well as expelling the invader (what is referred to as greaterjihad). "

Defensive and offensive lesserjihad

Classical scholars considered various justifications forjihad,including waging it defensively vs offensively. Scholarly opinions carried significant weight with Muslim leaders. Scholars paid more attention to conduct of war (jus in bello)than justification of war (jus ad bellum).The decision of when to wage war was often viewed as a political decision best left to political authorities.

Two justifications forjihadwere given: defensive war against external aggression, or an offensive or preemptive attack against an enemy state.According to the majority of jurists, thecasus belli(justifications for war) are restricted to aggression against Muslims,andfitna—persecution of Muslimsbecause of their religious belief.They hold that unbelief in itself is not a justification for war. These jurists therefore maintain that only combatants are to be fought; noncombatants such as women, children, clergy, the aged, the insane, farmers, serfs, the blind, and so on are not to be killed in war.Thus, the Hanafī Ibn Najīm stated: "the reason forjihādin our [the Hanafīs] view iskawnuhum harbā ‛alaynā[literally, their being at war against us]. "TheHanafījurists al-Shaybānī state that "although unbelief in God is one of the greatest sins, it is between the individual and his God the Almighty and the punishment for this sin is to be postponed to thedār al-jazā’,(the abode of reckoning, the Hereafter). "Al-Sarakhsī says something similar.Offensivejihadinvolved forays into enemy territory either for conquest, thus enlarging the Muslim political order, or to dissuade the enemy from attacking Muslim lands.

Shia andSunnitheories ofjihadare similar,except that Shias consider offensivejihadto be valid only under the leadership of theMahdi,who is currently believed to be inoccultationbut will return.However, defensivejihadis permissible in Shia Islam before the Mahdi's return.In fact, Shia scholars emphasized it was a religious duty for Shia to defend all Muslims (including Sunni Muslims) from outside invaders.

Rules of warfare

Main article:Rules of war in Islam

They might be our enemies but they are human beings. They consist of civil population comprising of women and children; how can one kill, loot and plunder them?

— Ali ibn Abi Talib,Najh Al-Balagha

Rules prohibit attacking or molesting non-combatants, including women, children under the age ofpuberty,elderly men, people with disabilities and those who are sick.Diplomats, merchants and peasants are similarly immune from being attacked.Monks are presumed to be non-combatants and thus have immunity; places of worship should not be attacked.Even if the enemy disregarded the immunity of noncombatants, Muslims could not respond in kind.However, these categories lose their immunity should they participate in fighting, planning, or supplying the enemy.Some jurists argued that immunity was more related to noncombatant status than being in a certain demographic class. For example,Muhaqqiq al-Hilliopined that only old men are only immune from being killed if they neither fight, nor take a role in military decision making.

Up until theCrusades,Muslim jurists disallowed the use ofmangonelsbecause the weapon killed indiscriminately with the potential of harming noncombatants. During the Crusades this ruling was reversed out of military need.Jurists grappled with the question of attacking an enemy that used women, children or Muslims ashuman shields.Most jurists held that it was permissible to attack the enemy in cases ofmilitary necessity,but steps should be taken to direct the attack towards combatants to avoid the human shield.Abu Hanifa argued that if Muslims stopped combat for fear of killing noncombatants, then such a rule would make fighting impossible, as every city had civilians.Mutilating the enemy dead is prohibited.

Two rulings on destruction of enemy property conflict. In one military battle, ProphetMuhammadordered the destruction of an enemy's palm trees as a means of ending a siege without bloodshed.By contrast,Abu Bakrprohibited destruction of trees, buildings and livestock.Most jurists did not allow unnecessary destruction of enemy property,but allowed it in cases of military necessity, such as destroying buildings in which the enemy is taking shelter.Some jurists allowed destruction if it would weaken the enemy or win the war.Many jurists cautioned against "unnecessary devastation", not just out of humanitarian concerns, but practical ones: it is more useful to capture an enemy's property than to destroy it.Islamic scholars prohibited killing animals, unless due to military necessity (such as killing horses in battle). This is because, unlike property, animals feel pain.

History

See also:List of expeditions of Muhammad

In pre-Islamic Arabia,Bedouinsraided enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils. According to some scholars (such as James Turner Johnson), while Islamic leaders "instilled into the hearts of the warriors the belief" injihad"holy war" andghaza(raids), the "fundamental structure" of this Bedouin warfare "remained,... raiding to collect booty".According toJonathan Berkey,the Qur'an's statements in support ofjihadmay have originally been directed against Muhammad's local enemies, the pagans of Mecca or the Jews of Medina, but these same statements could be redirected once new enemies appeared.According to scholar Majid Khadduri, it was the shift in focus to the conquest and spoils collecting of non-Bedouin unbelievers and away from traditional inter-Bedouin tribal raids, that may have made it possible for Islam to expand and to avoid self-destruction.

Classical

According toAl-Baqara 256"there is no compulsion in religion".The primary aim ofjihadas warfare is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of theIslamic state.There could be truces before this was achieved, but no permanent peace.One who died "on the path of God" was a martyr (shahid), whose sins were remitted and who secured "immediate entry to paradise".

According withBernard Lewis,"from an early date Muslim law laid down"jihadin the military sense as "one of the principal obligations" of both "the head of the Muslim state", who declaredjihad,and the Muslim community.According to legal historian Sadakat Kadri, Islamic jurists first developed classical doctrine ofjihad"towards the end of the eighth century", using the doctrine ofnaskh(that God gradually improved His revelations over the course of Muhammed's mission). They subordinated Qur'anic verses emphasizing harmony to the more "confrontational" verses of Muhammad's later years and linked verses on exertion (jihad) to those of fighting (qital).Muslims jurists of the eighth century divided the world into three divisions,dar al-Islam/dar al-‛adl/dar al-salam(house of Islam/house of justice/house of peace),dar al-harb/dar al-jawr(house of war/house of injustice, oppression), anddar al-sulh/dar al-‛ahd/dār al-muwada‛ah(house of peace/house of covenant/house of reconciliation).The eighth century juristSufyan al-Thawri(d. 778) headed whatKhadduricalled a pacifist school, which maintained thatjihadwas only a defensive war.He stated that the jurists who held this position, among whom he refers toHanafijuristsal-Awza‛i(d. 774) andMalik ibn Anas(d. 795), and other early jurists, "stressed that tolerance should be shown unbelievers, especially scripturaries and advised the Imam to prosecute war only when the inhabitants of thedar al-harbcame into conflict with Islam. "The duty ofJihadwas a collective one (fard al-kifaya). It was to be directed only by the caliph who might delay it when convenient, negotiating truces for up to ten years at a time.Within classicalIslamic jurisprudence,during the first few centuries after the prophet's death,jihadconsisted of wars against unbelievers,apostated,and was the only form of permissible warfare.Bernard Lewisstated that fighting rebels and bandits was legitimate, though not a form ofjihad,and that while the classical perception and presentation ofjihadwas warfare in the field against a foreign enemy, internaljihad"against an infidel renegade, or otherwise illegitimate regime was not unknown.")

However, some argue martyrdom is never automatic, because it is God's province to judge who is worthy of that designation.

Classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence often contained a section calledBook of Jihad,withrules governing the conduct of warcovered at great length. Such rules include treatment of nonbelligerents, women, children (also cultivated or residential areas),and division of spoils.Such rules offered protection for civilians.Spoils includeGhanimah(spoils obtained by actual fighting), andfai(obtained without fighting i.e. when the enemy surrenders or flees).

The first documentation of the law ofjihadwas written by 'Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i andMuhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani.(It grew out of debates that surfaced following Muhammad's death.) Although some Islamic scholars have differed on the implementation ofJihad,the consensus amongst them is thatjihadalways includes armed struggle against persecution and oppression.

BothIbn TaymiyyaandIbn Qayyimasserted thatMuhammadnever initiated hostilities and that all the wars he engaged in were primarily defensive. He never forced non-Muslims to Islam and upheld the truces with non-Muslims so long as they did not violate them. Ibn Taymiyya's views onJihadare explained in his treatise titledQāʿidah mukhtaṣarah fī qitāl al-kuffār wa muhādanatuhum wa taḥrīm qatlahum li mujarrad kufrihim.(An abridged rule on fighting the unbelievers and making truces with them, and the prohibition of killing them merely because of their unbelief). According to Ibn Taymiyya, human blood is inviolable by default, except "by right of justice". Although Ibn Taymiyya authorised offensiveJihad(Jihad al-Talab) against enemies who threaten Muslims or obstruct their citizens from freely accepting Islam, unbelief (Kufr) by itself is not a justification for violence, whether against individuals or stated. According to Ibn Taymīyah,jihadis a legitimate reaction to military aggression by unbelievers and not merely due to religious differences. Ibn Taymiyya wrote:

"As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought. Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war, as is practiced by the majority of scholars and is evident in the Book and Sunnah."

As important asjihadwas, it is not considered one of the "pillars of Islam".According to one scholar (Majid Khadduri,this is because the five pillars are individual obligations, butjihadis a "collective obligation" of the Muslim community meant to be carried out by the Islamic state. This was the belief of "all jurists, with almost no exception", but did not apply todefenseof the Muslim community from a sudden attack, in which casejihadwas an "individual obligation" of all believers, including women and children.

Scholars had previously claimed it was the responsibility of a centralized government to organizejihad.But this changed as the authority of theAbbasid caliphweakened.Al-Mawardiallowed local governors to wagejihadon the caliph's behalf. This decentralization ofjihadbecame especially pressing after the Crusades.Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulamiargued that all Muslims were responsible for waging wars of self-defense.Al-Sulami encouraged Muslim rulers from distant lands to assist Muslims who were under attack.

Classical Shia doctrine maintained defensivejihadwas always permissible, but offensivejihadrequired the presence of the Imam. An exception to this, during medieval times, was when the first Fatimid caliphAbdallah al-Mahdi Billahclaimed to be the representative of the Imam and claimed the right to launch offensivejihad.

After theMongol invasions,Shia scholarMuhaqqiq al-Hilliclaimed that defensive war was not just permissible but praiseworthy, even obligatory. If a Muslim could not take part in the defense then he should, at least, send material support. This remained the case even if the Muslims were ruled by an unjust ruler.

Early Muslim conquests

Main article:Early Muslim conquests

Age of theCaliphs

Expansion underMuhammad,622–632/A.H. 1–11

Expansion during theRashidun Caliphate,632–661/A.H. 11–40

Expansion during theUmayyad Caliphate,661–750/A.H. 40–129

In the early era that inspired classical Islam (Rashidun Caliphate) and lasted less than a century,jihadspread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic".The role of religion in these early conquests is debated. Medieval Arabic authors claimed the conquests were commanded by God, and presented them as orderly and disciplined, under the command of the caliph.Many modern historians question whether hunger anddesertification,rather thanjihad,was a motivating force in the conquests. HistorianWilliam Montgomery Wattargued, "Most of the participants in the [early Islamic] expeditions probably thought of nothing more than booty... There was no thought of spreading the religion of Islam."Similarly, Edward J. Jurji argues that the motivations of the Arab conquests were certainly not "the propagation of Islam....Military advantage, economic desires, [and] the attempt to strengthen the hand of the state and enhance its sovereignty...are some of the determining factors."Some recent explanations cite both material and religious causes in the conquests.

Post-classical usage

According to some authors,the more spiritual definitions ofjihaddeveloped sometime after the 150 years ofjihadwars and Muslim territorial expansion, and particularly after theMongol invaders sacked Baghdadand overthrew theAbbasid Caliphate.HistorianHamilton Gibbstated, "in the historic [Muslim] Community the concept ofjihadhad gradually weakened and at length it had been largely reinterpreted in terms of Sufi ethics. "notes that "despite the theoretical importance of the idea ofjihadin classical Islamic juristic thought ", by the time of the Abbasids, the concept was no longer central tostatecraft.

Rudolph Peters wrote that with the stagnation of Islamic expansionism, the concept ofjihadbecame internalized as a moral or spiritual struggle.Earlier classical works on fiqh emphasizedjihadas war for God's religion, Peters claimed. Later Islamic scholars like Ibn al-Amir al-San'ani,Muhammad Abduh,Rashid Rida,Ubaidullah Sindhi,Yusuf al-Qaradawi,Shibli Nomani,etc. emphasized the defensive aspect ofjihad,distinguishing between defensivejihad(jihad al-daf) and offensivejihad(jihad al-talaborjihadof choice ). They refuted the notion of consensus thatjihad al-talabwas a communal obligation(fard kifaya). In support of this view, these scholars referred to the works of classical scholars such asAl-JassasandIbn Taymiyyah.According to Ibn Taymiyya, the reason forjihadagainst non-Muslims is not their disbelief, but the threat they pose to Muslims. Citing Ibn Taymiyya, scholars including Rashid Rida, Al San'ani, and Qaradawi argued that unbelievers need not be fought unless they pose a threat to Muslims. Thus,jihadis obligatory only as defensive warfare to respond to aggression or "perfidy" against the Muslim community, and that the "normal and desired state" between Islamic and non-Islamic territories was one of "peaceful coexistence". This was similar to the Western "Just war"concept.Similarly 18th-century scholarMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhabdefinedjihadas a defensive military action to protect the Muslim community, and emphasized its defensive aspect in synchrony with later 20th century Islamic writers.Today, some Muslim authors only recognize as legitimate wars fought for the purpose of territorial defense as well as wars fought for the defense ofreligious freedom.

Ibn Taymiyyah's hallmark themes included the permissibility of overthrowing a ruler who is classified as an unbeliever due to a failure to adhere to Islamic law, the absolute division of the world intodar al-kufranddar al-Islam,labeling anyone not adhering to one's particular interpretation of Islam as an unbeliever, and the call for warfare againstNon-Muslims,particularly Jews and Christians.

Ibn Taymiyyah recognized "the possibility of ajihadagainst `heretical` and `deviant` Muslims withindar al-Islam.He identified as heretical and deviant Muslims anyone who propagated innovations (bida') contrary to the Qur'an and Sunna... legitimatedjihadagainst anyone who refused to abide by Islamic law or revolted against the true Muslim authorities. "He used a broad definition of what constituted aggression or rebellion against Muslims, which would makejihad"not only permissible but necessary."Ibn Taymiyyah paid careful attention to the questions of martyrdom and the benefits ofjihad:"It is injihadthat one can live and die in ultimate happiness, both in this world and in the Hereafter. Abandoning it means losing entirely or partially both kinds of happiness. "

Bernard Lewis stated that while most Islamic theologians in the classical period (750–1258 CE) understoodjihadto be a military endeavor,after Islamic conquest stagnated and the caliphate divided into smaller stated, "irresistible and permanentjihadcame to an end ". Asjihadbecame unfeasible it was "postponed from historic to messianic time."Even when theOttoman Empirecarried on a new holy war of expansion in the seventeenth century, "the war was not universally pursued". They made no attempt to recover Spain or Sicily.

By the 1500s, it had become accepted that the permanent state of relations betweendar al-Islamanddar al-harbwas that of peace.

Shah Ismailof theSafavid dynastytried to claim the right to wage offensivejihad,particularly against the Ottomans. However, Shia ulama did not permit that, maintaining the classical position that the true Imam could wage such a war. During the Qajar period, Shia ulama adopted the position that the Shah was responsible for national security. They authorized the Perso-Russian wars in the 19th century asjihad.

In the 18th century, theDurrani Empireunder the reigns ofAhmad Shah Durraniand his son and successor,Timur Shah Durrani,had declaredjihads against Sikh Misls in thePunjabregion, often to consolidate territory and continue Afghan their region, efforts under Ahmad Shah failed, while Timur Shah had succeeded.

Colonialism and modernism

TheFulani jihad statesof West Africa, c. 1830

When Europeans began to colonize the Muslim world,jihadwas one of the first responses.Emir Abdelkaderorganized ajihadin Algeria against French domination, tapping into existing Sufi networks.Other wars were often declared to bejihad:theSenussireligious order declaredjihadagainstItalian control of Libyain 1912, and the "Mahdi"inSudandeclaredjihadagainstBritishandEgyptiansin 1881.

Rashid RidaandMuhammad Abduhargued that peaceful coexistence should be the normal state between Muslim and non-Muslim stated, citing verses in the Qur'an that allowed war only in self-defense.However, this view left openjihadagainst colonialism, which was seen as an attack on Muslims.

Sayyid Ahmad Khanargued thatjihadwas limited to cases ofoppression,and since theBritish Rajallowedfreedom of religion,jihadagainst the British was unnecessary.Instead, Khan formulatedjihadas recoveringpast Muslim scientific progressto modernize the Muslim world.

A concept that played a role in anti-colonialjihad(or lack thereof) was the belief inMahdi.According to Islamiceschatology,a messianic figure named Mahdi will one day appear and restore justice on earth. This belief sometimes discouraged Muslims from conductingjihad,instead inducing them to wait. Such messages were circulated in Algeria to undermineEmir Abdelkader'sjihadagainst the French.Alternatively, this belief could be a powerful mobilizing force when someone proclaimed to be the Mahdi. Mahdist rebellions happened in India (1810), Egypt (1865) and Sudan (1881).

ChargingMahdist armyduring theBattle of Omdurmanin 1898

With theIslamic revival,a new "fundamentalist"movement arose, with different interpretations of Islam that increased emphasis onjihad.TheWahhabimovement that spread across theArabian peninsulastarting in the 18th century emphasizedjihadas armed struggle.TheFula jihadsin West Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries led to the establishment of various states, most notably theSokoto Caliphate.None of these movements were victorious.TheSokoto Caliphatelasted for a century until it was conquered by theBritishand incorporated intoColonial Nigeriain 1903.

When theOttomancaliphcalled for a "GreatJihad"Muslims against Allied powers during World War I,hopes and fears emerged that non-Turkish Muslims would side with Ottoman Turkey, but the appeal did not unite the Muslim world,and Muslims did not turn on their non-Muslim commanders in the Allied forces.(The war led to the end of the caliphate as the Ottoman Empire allied with the war's losers and surrendered. Post-war capitulations were overturned by secularistMustafa Kemal,who later abolished the caliphate.)

Prior to the Iranian revolution in 1922, Shiite clericMehdi Al-Khalissiissued afatwaprohibiting Iraqis from participating in the Iraqi elections, as the Iraqi government had been established by foreign powers. He later played a role in theIraqi revolt of 1920.Between 1918 and 1919 in the Shia holy city ofNajafthe League of the Islamic Awakening was established by religious scholars, tribal chiefs, and landlords who assassinated a British officer in the hopes of sparking a similar rebellion inKarbala.

During the revolt, Ayatollah Muhammad Taqi Shirazi, father ofMohammad al-Husayni al-Shiraziand grandfather ofSadiq Hussaini Shirazi,declared British rule impermissible and called forjihadagainst European occupations in the Middle East.

Post-colonialism

Main articles:IslamismandCriticism of Islamism

Islamismplayed an increasing role in the Muslim world in the 20th century, especially following theeconomic crises of the 1970s and 1980s.One of the first Islamist groups, theMuslim Brotherhood,emphasized physical struggle andmartyrdomin its creed: "God is our objective; the Qur'an is our constitution; the Prophet is our leader; struggle (jihad) is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations. "Hassan al-Bannaemphasizedjihadof the sword, and called on Egyptians tojihadagainst theBritish Empire, (the first influential scholar since the 1857 India uprising to do so).The group called forjihadagainstIsraelin the 1940s,and its Palestinian branch,Hamas,called forjihadagainst Israel during theFirst Intifada.

Modern Muslim thought had been focused on when to go to war (jus ad bellum), not paying much attention on conduct during war (jus in bello). This was because most Muslim theorists viewedinternational humanitarian lawas consistent with Islamic requirements. However, Muslims later discussed conduct during war in response toterroristgroups who targeted civilians.

According toRudolph F. PetersandNatana J. DeLong-Bas,the new "fundamentalist" movement brought a reinterpretation of Islam and their own writings onjihad.These writings tended to be less involved with the different of schools of Islamic law, or in solutions for all potential situations. "They emphasize more the moral justifications and the underlying ethical values of the rules, than the detailed elaboration of those rules." They also tended to ignore the distinction between Greater and Lesserjihadbecause it distracted Muslims "from the development of the combative spirit they believe is required to rid the Islamic world of Western influences".

Contemporary Islamic fundamentalists were often influenced by the ideas of Ibn Taymiyyah, and Egyptian journalistSayyid Qutb.

Sayyid Qutb,Islamist author and influential leader of the Muslim Brotherhood

Qutb preached in his bookMilestonesthatjihad,“is not a temporary phase but a permanent war...Jihadfor freedom cannot cease until the Satanic forces are put to an end and the religion is purified for God in toto.”Qutb focused on martyrdom andjihad,adding the theme of treachery and enmity towards Islam ofChristians and especially Jews.If non-Muslims were waging a "war against Islam",jihadagainst them was defensive, not offensive. He insisted that Christians and Jews weremushrikeen(not monotheists) because (he alleged) they gave their priests or rabbis "authority to make laws, obeying laws which were made by them [and] not permitted by God" and "obedience to laws and judgments is a sort of worship".

Later ideologue,Muhammad abd-al-Salam Faraj,departed from some of Qutb's teachings. While Qutb felt thatjihadwas a proclamation of "liberation for humanity" (in which humanity has the free choice between Islam and unbelief), Faraj sawjihadas a mean of conquering the world and reestablishing thecaliphate.Faraj legitimized lying, attacking by night (even accidentally killing innocents), and destroying trees of the infidel.His ideas influenced Egyptian Islamist extremist groups,andAyman al-Zawahiri,later the leader ofal-Qaeda.

During theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan,and although it was predominantlySunni,Afghanistan'sShiite populationtook arms against theCommunistgovernment and alliedSoviet forcesand the nation's Sunnis and were collectively referred to as the AfghanMujahideen.Shiite jihadists in Afghanistan were known as theTehran Eightand received support from theIranian governmentin fighting theCommunist Afghan governmentand allied Soviet forces in Afghanistan.

Terrorism

Many Muslims, including scholars likeal-QaradawiandSayyid Tantawi,denounced Islamic terrorist attacks againstcivilians,seeing them as contrary to rules ofjihadthat prohibit targetingnoncombatants.After theSeptember 11 attacksin 2001, the United States blamedSaudi ArabianOsama bin Ladenand theTalibaninAfghanistan,triggering bin Laden, who in turn on October 7 issued a televised message, declaring "Allah had blessed a vanguard group of Muslims, the spearhead of Islam, to destroy America." American and British forces were deployed around Afghanistan, andMullahMohammad Omar,also the Commander to the Faithful of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, in turn called the world's Muslims to join him injihad.

Abdullah Azzam

Main article:Abdullah Azzam

In the 1980sAbdullah Azzamadvocated wagingjihadagainst the "unbelievers".Azzam issued afatwacalling forjihadagainst theSoviet occupation of Afghanistan,declaring it an obligation for all able-bodied Muslims to repel invaders. His fatwa was endorsed by others, includingAbd al-Aziz ibn Baz.Azzam saw Afghanistan as the beginning ofjihadto repel unbelievers from many countries—thesouthern Soviet Republicsof Central Asia,Bosnia,thePhilippines,Kashmir,Somalia,Eritrea,Spain, and especially his home country of Palestine.The Soviet defeat in Afghanistan is said to have "amplified the jihadist tendency from a fringe phenomenon to a major force in the Muslim world."Many fighters returned to their home countries to continuejihad,participating in insurgencies and later creating a "transnational jihadist stream."

Azzam also argued for a broader interpretation of who it was permissible to kill, which may have influenced students such as bin Laden.He argued, based on his interpretation of thehadith,that it is a sin to not wage offensivejihadagainst theunbelieversinnon-Muslim lands,continuing until only those who submit to Islam remain; expelling unbelievers fromMuslim lands,contrastingly, is defensivejihad.In February 1998, bin Laden put a "Declaration of the World Islamic Front forJihadagainst the Jews and the Crusaders "in theAl-Quds al-Arabinewspaper.He later organised theSeptember 11 attacksagainst the United States.

Shia

InShia Islam,jihadis one of the tenPractices of the Religion(though not one of the five pillars). Traditionally,TwelverShi'a doctrine differed from that ofSunni Islamon the concept ofjihad,withjihadseen as a "lesser priority" in Shia theology and "armed activism" by Shias "limited to a person's immediate geography".

Because of their history of oppression, Shias also associatedjihadwith certain passionate features, notably in the remembrance ofAshura.Mahmoud M. Ayoubsays:

In Islamic traditionjihador the struggle in the way of God, whether as armed struggle, or any form of opposition of the wrong, is generally regarded as one of the essential requirements of a person's faith as a Muslim. Shi'î tradition carried this requirement a step further, makingjihadone of the pillars or foundations (arkan) of religion. If, therefore,Husayn's struggle against the Umayyad regime must be regarded as an act ofjihad,then, In the mind of devotees, the participation of the community in his suffering and its ascent to the truth of his message must also be regarded as an extension of the holy struggle of the Imam himself. Thehadithfrom which we took the title of this chapter stated this point very clearly.Ja'far al-Sadiqis said to have declared toal-Mufaddal,one of his closest disciples, 'The sigh of the sorrowful for the wrong done us is an act of praise (tasbih) [of God], his sorrow for us is an act of worship, and his keeping of our secret is a struggle (jihad) in the way of God'; the Imâm then added, 'Thishadithshould be inscribed in letters of gold'.

and

Hence, the concept ofjihad(holy struggle) gained a deeper and more personal meaning. Whether through weeping, the composition and recitation of poetry, showing compassion and doing good to the poor or carrying arms, the Shi'i Muslim saw himself helping the Imam in his struggle against the wrong (zulm) and gaining for himself the same merit (thawab) of those who actually fought and died for him. Theta'ziyah,in its broader sense the sharing of the entire life of the suffering family of Muhammad, has become for the Shi'i community the true meaning of compassion.

In theSyrian civil war,Shia and Sunni fighters wagedjihadagainst each other.In Yemen, theHouthiMovement used appeals tojihadas part of their ideology as well as their recruitment.

Islamic jurisprudence

Observers have noted the evolution in the rules ofjihad—from the original "classical" doctrine to that of 21st centurySalafi jihadism.According tolegal historianSadarat Kadri,during the last few centuries, incremental changes in Islamic legal doctrine (developed by Islamists who otherwise condemn anybid‘ah(innovation) in religion), "normalized" what was once "unthinkable"."The very idea thatMuslimsmight blow themselves up for God was unheard of before 1983, and it was not until the early 1990s that anyone anywhere had justified killing innocent Muslims who were not on a battlefield. "

The first or the "classical" doctrine ofjihadwhich was developed towards the end of the 8th century, emphasized thejihadof the sword (jihad bil-saif) rather than the "jihadof the heart ",but it contained many legal restrictions developed from interpretations of theQuranand theHadith,such as detailed rules involving "the initiation, the conduct, the termination" ofjihad,the treatment of prisoners, the distribution of booty, etc. Absent a sudden attack on theMuslim community,jihadwas not a "personal obligation" (fard ayn); instead it was a "collective one" (fard al-kifaya),which had to be discharged "in the way of God" (fi sabil Allah),and could only be launched by thecaliph,"whose discretion over its conduct was all but absolute."(This was designed in part to avoid incidents like theKharijia'sjihadagainst and killing ofCaliph Ali,oncethey deemedthathe was no longer a Muslim).Martyrdomresulting from an attack on the enemy with no concern for your own safety was praiseworthy, but dying by your own hand (as opposed to the enemy's) merited a special place inHell.The collective obligation tojihadis sometimes simplified as "offensivejihad"in Western texts.

Islamic theologianAbu Abdullah al-Muhajir has been identified as the key theorist andideologuebehind modern jihadist violence.His theological and legal justifications influencedAbu Musab al-Zarqawiofal-Qaedaas well as jihadi terrorist groups, includingISIS.Zarqawi used a manuscript of al-Muhajir's ideas at AQI training camps that were later deployed by ISIS, referred to asThe Jurisprudence of JihadorThe Jurisprudence of Blood.

The book has been described as rationalising "the murder of non-combatants" by Mark Towsend, citing Salah al-Ansari ofQuilliam,who noted: "There is a startling lack of study and concern regarding this abhorrent and dangerous textThe Jurisprudence of Bloodin almost all Western and Arab scholarship ".Charlie Winter ofThe Atlanticdescribes it as a "theological playbook used to justify the group's abhorrent acts".He stated:

Ranging from ruminations on the merits of beheading, torturing, or burning prisoners to thoughts on assassination, siege warfare, and the use of biological weapons, Muhajir's intellectual legacy is a crucial component of theliterary corpus of ISIS—and, indeed, whatever comes after it—a way to render practically anything permissible, provided, that is, it can be spun as beneficial to thejihad.[...] According to Muhajir,committing suicide to kill peopleis not only a theologically sound act, but a commendable one, too, something to be cherished and celebrated regardless of its outcome. [...] neither Zarqawi nor his inheritors have looked back, liberally using Muhajir's work to normalize the use of suicide tactics in the time since, such that they have become the single most important military and terrorist method—defensive or offensive—used by ISIS today. The way that Muhajir theorized it was simple—he offered up a theological fix that allows any who desire it to sidestep the Koranic injunctions against suicide.

PsychologistChris E. Stoutclaimed that jihadists regard their actions as "for the greater good"; that they are in a "weakened in the earth" situation that rendersterrorisma valid resort.

Usage

The term 'jihad' has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. According toJohn Esposito,it can simply mean striving to live a moral and virtuous life, spreading and defending Islam as well as fighting injustice and oppression, among other things.The relative importance of the two forms ofjihadis a matter of controversy. Rudoph Peters wrote that, in the contemporary world, traditionalist Muslims understandjihadfrom classical works onfiqh;modernist Muslimsregardjihadas ajust warininternational lawand emphasize its defensive aspects; and fundamentalists view it as an expansion of Islam and realization of Islamic ideals.David Cook wrote that Muslims understoodjihadin a military sense, in both classical and contemporary texts. Cook located the idea thatjihadis primarily non-violent in Sufi texts and the Western scholars who study them, or from Muslim apologists.Gallupstated that its surveys show that the concept ofjihadamong Muslims "is considerably more nuanced than the single sense in which Western commentators invariably invoke the term".

Muslim public opinion

AGalluppoll asked Muslims in eight countries to definejihad.In Lebanon, Kuwait, Jordan, and Morocco, the most frequent response was to "duty toward God", a "divine duty", or a "worship of God", with no military connotations. In Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and Indonesia, many of the responses includes "sacrificing one's life for the sake of Islam/God/a just cause" or "fighting against the opponents of Islam".Other common meanings of "jihad"in the Muslim world include" a commitment to hard work "," promoting peace ", and" living the principles of Islam ".The terminology was also applied to the fight forwomen's liberation.

Other struggles

Shia Muslim scholarMahmoud M. Ayoudstated, "The goal of truejihadis to attain a harmony between Islam (submission), iman (faith), and ihsan (righteous living). "Jihadis a process encompassing both individual andsocial reform,this is calledjihad fi sabil Allah( "struggle in the way of God" ), and can be undertaken following the Qur'an (jihad bi-al-qur'an).According to Ayoud the greatestjihadis the struggle of every Muslim against social, moral, and political evils. However, depending on social and political circumstances,jihadmay be regarded as a sixth fundamental obligation (farid) incumbent on the entire Muslim community (ummah) when their integrity is in danger, in this casejihadbecomes an "absolute obligation" (fard 'ayn), or when social and religious reform is gravely hampered. Otherwise it is a "limited obligation" (fard kifayah), incumbent upon those who are directly involved. These rules apply to armed struggle or "jihadof the sword ".

In modern times, Pakistani scholar and professorFazlur Rahman Malikused the term to describe the struggle to establish a "just moral-social order",while PresidentHabib BourguibaofTunisiaused it to describe the struggle for economic development in that country.

According to theBBC,a third meaning ofjihadis the struggle to build a good society.In a commentary of thehadithSahih Muslim,entitled al-Minhaj, themedieval IslamicscholarYahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawistated, "one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct ".

Scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas lists a number of types of "jihad"that have been proposed by Muslims:

• educationaljihad(jihad al-tarbiyyah);
• missionaryjihador calling the people to Islam (jihad al-da'wah)

Other "types" mentioned include:

• "Intellectual"jihad(similar to missionaryjihad).
• "Economic"jihad(doing good involving money such as spending within one's means, helping the "poor and the downtrodden" )Bourguiba usedjihadto describe the struggle for economic development.Iran has aMinistry of Jihad for Agriculture.
• Jihad Al-Nikah,orsexual jihad,"refers to women joining thejihadby offering sex to fighters to boost their morale ".The term originated from afatwabelieved to have been fabricated by the Syrian government to discredit its opponents, and the prevalence of this phenomenon has been disputed.

Usage by some non-Muslims

• TheUnited States Department of Justiceused variousad hocdefinitions ofjihadin indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:
  • "As used in this First Superseding Indictment,jihadis the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context,jihadrefers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, governments deemed to be enemies of the fundamentalist version of Islam. "
  • "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violentjihad'or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking. "in the indictment against several individuals includingJosé Padilla.
• Karen Armstrong:"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the wholejihador struggle ".
• Maxime Rodinson:"Jihadis a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle—two ingredients common to many ideological movements ".
• Benjamin R. Barberused the termjihadto point out the resistant movement by fundamentalist ethnic groups who want to protect their traditions, heritage and identity from globalization (which he refers to as 'McWorld').

Other groups

Ahmadiyya

Main article:Ahmadiyya view on Jihad

InAhmadiyyaIslam,jihadis primarily one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution.

Quranist

Quranistsdo not believe that the wordjihadmeans holy war. They believe it means to struggle, or to strive. They believe it can incorporate both military and non-military aspects. When it refers to the military aspect, it is understood primarily to be defensive warfare.

See also

• Ijtihad
• Islam and war
• Islamic military jurisprudence
• Jihadism and hip-hop
• Jihad Cool
• Religious war
• Milkhemet Mitzvah

References

Sources

• Al-Dawoody, Ahmed (2011).The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0230111608.
• "Djihad" in:The Encyclopaedia of Islam
• "Jihad".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 15 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 415.
• ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad(1398h).Kitab al-Tawhid, volume I of Mu'allafat al-Shaykh al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahahb(First ed.). Riyad: Jamiat al-Imam MUhammad bin Saudi al-Islamiyah.
• Khadduri, Majid (1955).War and Peace in the Law of Islam.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.Retrieved26 October2015.
• H.R.H. Prince, Ghazi Muhammad;Ibrahim, Kalin;Mohammad Hashim, Kamali(2013).War and Peace in Islam: The Uses and Abuses ofJihad(PDF).The Islamic Texts Society Cambridge.ISBN978-1903682838.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 July 2017.Retrieved5 May2016.
• Rudolph Peters(2015).Islam and Colonialism: The Doctrine ofJihadin Modern History.De Gruyter.
• Bonner, Michael (2006).Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-1400827381.
• Madigan, Daniel (2001). "Book". InMcAuliffe, Jane Dammen(ed.).Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00027.
• Sharon, Moshe(2004). "People of the Book". InMcAuliffe, Jane Dammen(ed.).Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān.doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00319.
• Vajda, Georges(1960–2007). "Ahl al-Kitāb". InBearman, P.;Bianquis, Th.;Bosworth, C.E.;van Donzel, E.;Heinrichs, W.P.(eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0383.

Further reading

• Amoretti, Biancamaria Scarcia(1974).Tolleranza e guerra santa nell'Islam.Firenze: Scuola aperta/Sansoni.
• Dajani-Shakeel, Hadia; Messier, Ronald A.; Ehrenkreutz, Andrew S. (1991).The Jihād and Its Times.Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, University of Michigan.ISBN978-0-932098-24-5.
• DeLong-Bas, Natana, ed. (1 May 2010).Jihad: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide.Oxford University Press, USA.ISBN978-0-19-980400-9.
• Firestone, Reuven(1999).Jihād: The Origin of Holy War in Islam.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-512580-1.
• Hashmi, Sohail H. (16 August 2012).Just Wars, Holy Wars, and Jihads: Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Encounters and Exchanges.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-975504-2.*John Kelsay:Just War and JihadNew York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
• Maher, Shiraz(2016).Salafi-Jihadism: The History of an Idea.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780190651121.
• Majumadāra, Suhāsa (1994).Jihād: The Islamic Doctrine of Permanent War.Voice of India.ISBN978-81-85990-19-4.
• Malik, S. K. (1986).The Qur'anic Concept of War(PDF).Himalayan Books.ISBN978-8170020202.
• "A Hanafi treatise on rebellion and ğihād in the Ottoman age (XVII c.)".Eurasian Studies.II(2): 215–26. December 2003.Retrieved8 October2024.
• McGregor, A. (2006)."Jihad and the Rifle Alone: 'Abdullah 'Azzam and the Islamist Revolution".Journal of Conflict Studies.23(2).
• Alfred Morabia,Le Ğihâd dans l'Islâm médiéval. "Le combat sacré" des origines au XIIe siècle,Albin Michel, Paris 1993
• Masood Ashraf Raja(2009). "Jihad in Islam: Colonial Encounter, the Neoliberal Order, and the Muslim Subject of Resistance".The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences.26(4): 25.
• Rothman, Norman C. (2018)."Jihad: Peaceful Applications for Society and the Individual".Comparative Civilizations Review.79(7).

External links

• Media related toJihadat Wikimedia Commons
• The dictionary definition ofjihadat Wiktionary
• Quotations related toJihadat Wikiquote
• Learning materials related toJihadat Wikiversity