Wikipedia

Job's tears

"Adlay" redirects here. For the Australian criminal youth subculture, seeEshay.

Job's tears/dʒoʊbz/(Coix lacryma-jobi), also known asadlayoradlay millet,is a tall grain-bearing perennialtropicalplantof the familyPoaceae(grass family). It is native toSoutheast Asiaand introduced to Northern China and India in remote antiquity, and elsewhere cultivated in gardens as anannual.It has been naturalized in the southern United States and theNew Worldtropics. In its native environment it is grown at higherelevationareas where rice and corn do not grow well. Job's tears are also commonly sold asChinese pearl barley,though truebarleybelongs to a completely different genus.

Job's tears
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Coix
Species:
C. lacryma-jobi
Binomial name
Coix lacryma-jobi
L.
Synonyms[1]
  • Coix agrestisLour.
  • Coix arundinaceaLam.
  • Coix chinensisTod.
  • Coix chinensisTod. ex Balansanom. illeg.
  • Coix exaltataJacq. ex Spreng.
  • Coix giganteaJ.Jacq.nom. illeg.
  • Coix lacrymaL.nom. illeg.
  • Coix ma-yuenRom.Caill.
  • Coix ouwehandiiKoord.
  • Coix ovataStokesnom. illeg.
  • Coix palustrisKoord.
  • Coix pendulaSalisb.nom. illeg.
  • Coix pumilaRoxb.
  • Coix stenocarpa(Oliv.) Balansa
  • Coix stigmatosaK.Koch & Bouché
  • Coix tubulosaHack.
  • Lithagrostis lacryma-jobi(L.) Gaertn.
  • Sphaerium lacryma(L.) Kuntzenom. illeg.
  • Sphaerium tubulosum(Warb.) Kuntze

There are two main varieties of the species, one wild and one cultivated. The wild variety,Coix lacryma-jobivar.lacryma-jobi,has hard-shelled pseudocarps—very hard, pearly white, oval structures used as beads for makingprayer beadsorrosaries,necklaces, and other objects. The cultivated varietyCoix lacryma-jobivar.ma-yuenis harvested as acerealcrop, has a soft shell, and is used medicinally in parts of Asia.

Nomenclature

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Job's tears may also be referred to under different spellings (Job's-tears,[2][3]Jobs-tears[4]). The crop is also known by other common names in English, such as adlay or adlay millet.[5][6]Other common names in English includecoix seed,[5][7]gromwell grass,[5]andtear grass.[5]

The seeds are known in Chinese asyìyǐ rén(Cây ý dĩ nhân),[8][7]whererénmeans "kernel", and also described in Latin assemen coicisorsemen coicis lachryma-jobiin pharmacopoeic literature.[7][9]

Taxonomy

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The species, native toSoutheast Asia,[10]was named byCarl Linnaeusin 1753 with theepithetas a Latin translation of the metaphoricaltearofJob.As of February 2015,four varieties are accepted by theWorld Checklist of Selected Plant Families:[11]

  • Coix lacryma-jobivar.lacryma-jobi
Widely distributed throughout theIndian subcontinenttopeninsular Malaysiaand Taiwan; naturalized elsewhere. Theinvolucresare ovoid, bony and glossy. It has hard shells and is used as beads in crafts.
  • Coix lacryma-jobivar.ma-yuen(Rom.Caill.)Stapf
South China to peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines.
The varietal name is eponymous after General Ma Yuen orMa Yuan(Mã viện) who according to legend learned of the plant's use when he was posted inCochin China(orTonkin,in what is now Vietnam), and brought the seeds back to China to be cultivated.[12][13][14]Theinvolucresare elliptical, striate and soft.
Assam to Yunnan (China) and Indochina. It is the smallest among the Indian species, with only 4mm in diameter of the seeds. It is used for ornament as well.
  • Coix lacryma-jobivar.stenocarpaOliv.
Eastern Himalayas to Indochina.

Job's tears—along withCoixin —was formerly placed in theMaydeae,now known to be polyphyletic.[Sch 1]It has cylindrical, longer than broadinvolucres.It is widely used as beads for ornaments.[15]

Morphology

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Job's tear is a monoecious grass which is broad-leaved, loose-growing, branched and robust. It can reach a height between 1.20 m to 1.80 m. Like all members of the genus, their inflorescences develop from a leaf sheath at the end of the stem and consist partly of hard, globular or oval, hollow, bead-like structures. Job's tear seeds differ in color, with the more soft-shelled seeds being light brown and the hard-shelled forms having a dark red pericarp.[16]

The hardened "shells" covering the seeds are technically the fruit-case orinvolucre(hardened bract),[17]with the bract also referred to as "capsule-spathe"[18]or "sheathing bract" by some past botanical works.[2]

These shells cover the bases of the flowers (inflorescences) which are male and female racemes/panicles; the male racemes project upright and consist of overlapping scale-like spikelets, with yellowstamensthat pop out in-between, and there are one or two yarn-like female racemes drooping from the base.[19][20]

Proteins

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Job's tears - as withCoixin general - produces its own variety ofα-zeinprolamins.These prolamins have undergone unusually rapid evolutionary divergence from closely related grasses, by way of copy-number changes.[Sch 2]

History

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Job's tears is native to Southeast Asian countries, namely India, Myanmar, China, and Malaysia.[21]Residue on pottery from aNeolithic(lateYangshao Culture) site in north-central China[a]shows that Job's tears, together with non-nativebarleyand other plants were used to brew beer as early as ca. 3000 BC.[b][22]

Job's tears were already introduced to Japan (and probably cultivated alongside rice) in the EarlyJōmon Period,corroborated by finds in Western Japan (Chūgoku region), e.g., from studies ofphytolithsin the Asanebana Shell Midden(Triều tẩm mũi bối trủng)(ca. 4000 BC) inOkayama Prefecture.[24][25]And further east in Japan, the plant has been found at theToro site,Shizuoka Prefecture dating to theYayoi Period.[26]

Remains of Job's tears have been found in archaeological sites in northeastern India, dating to around 1000 BC. It was introduced to the subtropical area in India from the east Himalayan belt.[27]A number of scholars support the view it has been in cultivation in India in the 2000–1000 BC period.[28][29]The wild varieties have hard-coated seeds. Job's tear was one of the earliest domesticated crops. Domestication makes the seed coat become softer and easier to cook.

In China, the current cultivation of Job's tears mainly occurs in Fu gian, Jiangsu, Hebei, and Liaoning provinces.[30]The cultivation of Job's tears spreads out to temperate areas in North and Northeast China.[citation needed]The shelled grains exported from China were erroneously declared through customs as "pearl barley",[31]and "Chinese pearl barley" remains an alternatecommon nameso that the grains are sold under such label inAsian supermarkets,even thoughC. lacryma-jobiis not closely related tobarley(Hordeum vulgare).[32][33]

Uses

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Crafts

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Job's Tears used to create natural healing remedies

The hard, white grains of Job's tears have historically been used asbeadsto make necklaces and other objects. The seeds are naturally bored with holes without the need to artificially puncture them.[18]

Strands of Job's tears are used as Buddhistprayer beadsin parts of India, Myanmar, Laos, Taiwan, and Korea according to Japanese researcher Yukino Ochiai who has specialized on the ethnobotanic usage of the plant.[34]They are also made into rosaries in countries such as the Philippines and Bolivia.[34]

East Asia

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Japan
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In Japan, the grains growing wild are calledjuzudama(Lần tràng hạt ngọc) ‘Buddhist rosary beads’), and children have made playthings out of them by stringing them into necklaces.[35]However,juzu-damawas a corruption ofzuzu-damaaccording to folkloristKunio Yanagita.[35]A type of Buddhist rosary calledirataka no juzu,which were hand-made by theyamabushiascetics practicingshugendōtraining, purportedly used a large-grain type known asoni-juzudama(Quỷ lần tràng hạt ngọc) ‘oni(ogre) rosary beads’.[36][37]Although this was published as a separate variety,C. lacryma jobivar.maximaMakino,[36]it is now regarded as synonymous toC. lacryma jobivar.lacryma-jobiaccording to taxonomical databases (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families).[38]

It was contended by Edo Period scholarOno Ranzanthat the soft-shelled edible type calledshikoku-mugiwas not introduced into Japan until theKyōho era(1716–1736), as opposed to a hard-shelled edible type calledchōsen-mugi(lit. ‘Korean wheat’) which needed to be beaten in order to crack and thresh them.[39][c]This type has been published as a separate species,C. agrestisin the past,[41]but this is now recognized also as a synonym ofC. lacryma jobivar.lacryma-jobi.[42][d]Thus Japanese consumption of the crop attested in pre-Kyōho literature presumably used this hard-shelled type in the recipe.[43][e]

Yanagita contended that the use of the beads predated the introduction of Buddhism into Japan (552/538 CE).[f][35]And the plant has not only been found at sites dating to approximately this period at theKuroimine Site,[44]but in Jomon period sites dating to several millennia BC.[24]

Ocean Road hypothesis
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Yanagita in his Ocean Road hypothesis argues that the pearly glistening seeds were regarded as simulating or substituting forcowrie shells,which were used as ornaments and currency throughout Southern China and Southeast Asia in antiquity, and he argued both items to be part of cultural transmission into Japan from these areas.[45][g]

Later scholars have pursued the validity of the thesis. Yanagita had reproduced a distribution map of the usage of ornamental cowries throughout Asia (compiled byJ. Wilfrid Jackson),[46]and Japanese ethnologistKeiji Iwata[ja]alluded to a need for a distribution map of ornamental Job's tears, for making comparison therewith.[47][48]

Mainland Southeast Asia

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Thailand and Myanmar
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TheAkha peopleand theKaren peoplewho live in the mountainous regions around the Thai-Myanmar border grow several varieties of the plant and use the beads to ornament various handicraft.[h][49]The beads are used strictly only on women's apparel among the Akha, sewn onto headwear, jackets, handbags, etc.; also, a variety of shapes of beads are used.[50][i]The beads are used only on the jackets of married women among the Karen, and the oblong seeds are exclusively selected,[52]some example has been shown from the Karen inChiang Rai Provinceof Thailand.[50]

Strands of job's tears necklaces have also been collected from Chiang Rai Province, Thailand[53]and it is known the Karen people string the beads into necklaces,[51]such necklaces in use also in the formerKarenni States(currentKayah Stateof Burma), with the crop being known by the namecheik(var.kyeik,kayeik,kyeit) inBurmese.[54][52]Job's tears necklace has been collected also fromYunnan Province,China,[53]which has a population of Akha-Hanipeople and other minorities, but theWa peopleof Yunnan also used the plant seeds (tɛ kao;lit. ‘fruit-Coix’) sewn onto fabrics and bags, etc.[55]

The Wa people and other minorities like theTaungyoethnic group use the beads in apparel inShan State,Myanmar.[56]

Insular Southeast Asia

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Borneo
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Various indigenous Bornean tribes such as theKelabit peopleofSarawakstate (and North Kalimantan, Indonesia), theKadazandusun peopleandMurut peopleofSabahstate all use the plant beads as ornament.[51]In theKadazandusun language,the plant is calleddalai.[57]TheKayanof Borneo also use job's tears to decorate clothing and war dress.[58]

Philippines
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Job's tears (Tagalog:tigbí) are otherwise known by many local names in the Philippines (e.g.Bikol:adláiinVisayaIslands).[59][60]The beads strung together have sometimes been used asrosaries,[59][34]or made into bead curtains[59](e.g. theTboli peopleon Mindanao[61]), or woven into baskets and other vessels.[59]

Americas

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The plant was known ascalandulain Spanish, and the hards seeds were strung together as beads or into rosaries in parts ofNew Spain,e.g., Puerto Rico.[62][63]

In both theEastern Band of Cherokee Indiansand theCherokee Nationin Oklahoma, the beads of Job's tears are called "corn beads" or "Cherokee corn beads" and have been used for personal adornment.[citation needed]

Food

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ThroughoutEast Asia,Job's tears are available in dried form and cooked as a grain. Job's tears grains are widely eaten as a cereal.[64]The cultivated varieties are soft-shelled, and can be easily cooked intogruels,etc.[65]Among the Zomi in Southeast Asia, miim festival (Job's tears festival) was held annually to pay tribute to the departed souls.[66]

Some of the soft-shelled types are easily threshed, producing sweet kernels.[65]The threshed (andpolished[67][68]) "kernels" orren(Chinese:Cây ý dĩ nhân;pinyin:yiyi ren;Wade–Giles:i i jen) are used intraditional Chinese Medicine[69](seeinfra).[j]

The threshed grains are generally spherical, with a groove on one end, and polished white in color.[70]InJapanunpolished grains are also sold, and marketed asyūki hatomugi(‘organic job's tears’).[70]

InCambodia,where it is known asskuay(ស្គួយ), the seeds are not much used as a grain,[71]but used as part of herbal medicine and as an ingredient in desserts. InThailand,it is often consumed in teas and other drinks, such assoy milk.[citation needed]

It is also a minor cereal crop and fodder in Northeastern India.[72]

The grains of Job's tear can be used the same way as rice. It can be eaten cooked or even raw, as it has a slightly sweet taste. Further, the grains can be used for the production of flour. Job's tear grains can be processed in the same machine as rice. For the soft hulls, it is enough to press them over a sieve. The advantage of Job's tear over rice is that the grains do not need to be polished, as is the case with rice. Through this process, the rice loses its vitamins. This makes Job's tear a valuable food for undernourished populations in rural areas.[16]

Beverages and soups

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InKorean cuisine,a thick drink calledyulmu cha(율무차, literally "Job's tears tea" ) is made from powdered Job's tears.[70]A similar drink, calledyi ren gian g( ý nhân tương ), also appears inChinese cuisine,and is made by simmering whole polished Job's tears in water and sweetening the resulting thin, cloudy liquid with sugar. The grains are usually strained from the liquid but may also be consumed separately or together.[citation needed]

In Japan, the roasted kernels are brewed intohatomugi cha(ハトムギ trà),literally a "tea".[73]This is drunk for medicinal value and not for enjoyment, as it does not suit the average consumer's taste, but a more palatable brew is obtained by roasting seeds that have been germinated, which reduces the distinctive strong odor.[73][k]

In southern China, Job's tears are often used intong sui( nước đường ), a sweet dessert soup. One variety is calledching bo leungin Cantonese (Chinese:Sâm bổ lượng;pinyin:qing bu liang), and is also known assâm bổ lượnginVietnamese cuisine.[70][73]There is also a braised chicken dishyimidunji(Chinese:Bo bo hầm gà = bo bo hầm kê).[75]

Alcoholic beverages

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In both Korea and China,distilled liquorsare also made from the grain. OneKorean liquoris calledokroju(옥로주; hanja:NgọcLộRượu), which is made from rice and Job's tears. The grains are also brewed into beers in northeast India and other parts of southeast Asia.[28]

Traditional medicine

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Job's tears are used with otherherbsintraditional Chinese medicine[76]orfolk medicine.[77]

The plant is noted in an ancient medical textHuangdi Neijing(5th–2nd centuries BCE) attributed to the legendary Huangdi (Yellow Emperor), but fails to be noticed in the standard traditionalmateria medicareferenceBencao Gangmu( Bản Thảo Cương Mục )(16c.).[9]

Cultivation requirements

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Soil and climate requirement

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It is generally grown in sunny, fertile, well-drained fields with sandyloamsoil.[78]Adlay likes mild, cool and humid climate. It does not adapt to hot and muggy climate, has low cold tolerance, and is very intolerant of drought. Black-shelled adlay is suitable for planting in areas with altitudes of 800 to 1,000 m; dwarf adlay varieties are suitable for planting in low altitude areas.[78]

Seedbed requirements and sowing

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Soaking seeds withdisinfectanthas a positive influence ongerminationrate.[79]

Planting can be done when the ground temperature is above 12 °C. And if it is not frost, sowing should be done as early as possible to lengthen the required days to emergence and days toanthesis.[80]Adlay sowing is divided into strip sowing and hole sowing. The strip sowing refers to the uniform sowing of seeds in trenches with a spacing of about 50 cm and a depth of 4–5 cm. Hole sowing refers to sowing seeds in holes 3–5 cm deep, with 3-4 seeds per hole.[81]

Cultivation management

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Control the number of seedlings per hole when the seedlings have 3-4 true leaves, and leave 2-3 well-grown plants in each hole.

Tillageat least 3 times during the whole crop growth. The 1st tillage is to be done when the seedlings are 5–10 cm high and needs to be cleaned of weeds to promote tillering. The second tillage is done when the seedlings are 15–20 cm high. The 3rd plowing is done when the seedlings are 30 cm high, combined with fertilizer and soil cultivation to promote root growth and prevent collapse.[81]

Production

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Growth and development

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It is an annual crop but it can be a perennial when allowed to developratoon.Adlay is propagated by seeds at the start of rain. The germination occurs as early as 7 days after sowing. It takes 5 to 5.5 months to flower and mature. The average height can reach over 90 cm at harvest.[82]The application of N fertilizer can significantly improve the yield of adlay.[83]

Drought is a major stress for adlay growth and development. The lack of moisture will cause impaired germination and poor establishment. During the growth and maturation stage, water deficits will reduce the leaf area index and lead to barrenness,[84]which negatively affects photosynthesis and dry matter production.

Harvest and post-harvest operations

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When nearly 80% of adlay grains turn brown, thepaniclewill be harvested by cutting the stems and leaving three nodes above the ground. The harvest period varies with the different varieties and local environment.[85]Because of the uneven height and grain distribution, the use of machines for harvesting is limited and harvesting has been done by hand in many regions in Southeastern Asia.[86]Then the harvested panicles arethreshedby hand or using atreadle thresher.Formanual threshing,it is normally used when the harvested grains are at lower moisture content and easily shatter. Threshed grains are sun dried or placed in drying facilities where they utilize forced warm air to gradually reduce the moisture content to 14%[87]suited to storage before the adlay moves to themillingprocess. The adlay can be consumed as grains and flour after being milled through corn and rice mill. The milling recovery is about 60%[85]depending on the cultivars.

The yield is harvested in early October and is easily influenced by the weather. If there is dry and hot wind in the initial phase, the pollen loses its vitality, therefore can’t be pollinated. This leads to hollow seeds, which results in yield reduction in light cultivars and zero yield in heavy cultivars.[88] Early maturing varieties are sown in early March, middle maturing varieties are sown from late March to early April, and late maturing varieties are sown from late April to early May. Sowing should be early rather than late. If sowing is too late, it will affect the yield and even the seeds can not mature after autumn.[16]

Nutritional value

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The seeds of Job's tears are protein-rich and nutrient-dense. High indietary fibre,zincandcalcium.[21]They containmicronutrients like thiamine,riboflavin,vitamin E,andniacin.[citation needed]They cover 8 types ofamino acidsfor human consumption.

Nutrients Percentage by mass
Carbohydrates 65%
Protein 14%
Fat 5%
Crude fiber 3%
Calcium 0.07%
Phosphorus 0.242%
Iron 0.001%

Starch and protein

Job's tears contain high amount ofstarch(58%).[89]The seeds are used as ingredients to make soup, porridge, flour and pastries. It is common to grind seeds into powder form to make pastries. Two major methods are used to isolate starch: alkaline steeping method and steeping withsodium metabisulfite(Na2S2O5), an antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. Job's tears also contain edible protein (14.8%), which can be extracted through an alkaline extraction method and a salt extraction method.[89]

Fatty acids

Job's tears contain mostly unsaturatedfatty acids.[30]The four main fatty acids, (oleic acid,linoleic acid,palmitic acid,andstearic acid) are extracted via three methods: solvent processes,supercritical fluid extractionand ultrasonic-assisted extraction.[89]

Pests

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Job's tear is less subject to attacks oflocuststhan rice and corn.[16] Insect pests include:[90]

It is susceptible toleaf blight.[91]

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  • An unripened head of Job's Tears
  • C. lacryma-jobiplant with flowers and fruit in Nepal
  • Job's tears grains
  • Yulmu-cha(Job's tears tea) from Korea
  • Yulmu-bap(Job's tears rice) from Korea
  • Illustration ofCoix lacryma-jobifrom the Japanese encyclopediaSeikei Zusetsu(1804)
  • C. lacryma-jobiseeds in a necklace prepared in the Zulu tradition
  • Coix lacryma-jobi-MHNT

Explanatory notes

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  1. ^in Mijaya (Mễ gia nhai) village,Shaanxi Province.
  2. ^The finds occurred in aBanpoIVtypestratum which was dated to 3400–2900 BC, which the scholars place in the late Yangshao period (Yangshao Period defined as 5000–2900 BC).
  3. ^Ranzan actually gave this type undertōmugialiaschōsen-mugi,but this is confusing, since later writers such as Mizumasa Furukawa (1928–1977) wrote thatshikoku-mugiandtōmugiwere the same.[40]
  4. ^Researcher Seiji Koyama identifies thechōsen-mugi(‘Korean wheat’) asC. lacryma jobivar.koreana,[9]but that variety name is not registered at theWCSPF.[11]
  5. ^Koyama gives several examples, including theNōgyō zensho[ja](Genroku 10 or1697), which states Job's tears (yokui) can be eaten as gruel, or as blended grain incooked rice,or as dumplings (dango).[43]The recipe for theokoshi-gome[ja]snack in theRyōri monogatari[ja](Kaei20,1643) does not use rice but roasted cracked grains of job's tears (yokuinin) instead, mixed with sugar and molded into shape.[43]
  6. ^§3: "Sau に Đông Bắc の イタコ の lần tràng hạt や, アイヌ の cổ sức くびかざりなどを thấy るようになって, ジュズとは hô びながらも ta 々 の thật tựa ていた の は, もっと cổ phong な, また quốc phong なも の だったことに tâm づいたことである. Later [as an adult] I saw the bead-necklaces of theitakoshamanesses and theAinunecklaces, and realized that what we were pretend-playing with [as children] were, even though we called themjuzu[like Buddhist rosaries], much older and more native to the land. "
  7. ^He posited that the name of the seeds (variant nametsushi-damaortsushi-tama) was rooted in the ancient wordtsushiyawhose precise meaning he deduced to be 'cowries'. However this was guesswork "founded on really the faintest clue thành に u な ám chỉ の thượng に trúc かれている", and he admitted there is no attestation totsushiyaor words similar used in the sense of ‘jewel shells’in any ancient texts.
  8. ^The Akha people are also found inYunnan Provincein China, but Ochiai (2010) only speaks of usage in "the south side of China" (p. 6), and exhibits a photo of Yunnan Province bead necklace on the map (pp. 4–5) without identifying the ethnic group.
  9. ^It has been noted that the Akha use cowries shells as ornaments also, even though they are a mountainous people. The shells fromBangkokwere being obtained throughOverseas Chinesemiddlemen.[51]
  10. ^Although this stringent distinction may not be followed in literature, for example,yi yi renmay be used as the term for the fruit overall rather than the polished endosperm.[8]
  11. ^It is unclear what is meant by the coffee-like drink brewed from roasted seeds that is distinguished from the "tea" which some sources describe but do not specify by any name.[74]Thehatomugi kōhī( "jobs tears coffee" ) apparently refers to coffee dripped with hatomugi tea instead of plain hot water.
  1. ^p.331, "Maize andTripsacumwere previously grouped with a number of other grasses that have monoecious flowering patterns — the most widely known being Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) — into the Maydeae (74); however, molecular data revealed that this grouping was polyphyletic (61). "
  2. ^p.335, "Clusters of locally duplicated genes can also expand and contract rapidly, as shown by investigation of the 22-kDa α zein gene families in maize, sorghum, and coix, which appear to have experienced independent copy-number amplifications since the divergence of these three species (107)."

References

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  1. ^The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species,retrieved6 August2017
  2. ^abHitchcock, A. S.(20 March 1920)."The Genera of Grasses of the United States with Special Reference to the Economic Species".Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture(772): 22, 287–288.
  3. ^BSBI List 2007(xls).Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland.Archived fromthe original(xls)on 2015-06-26.Retrieved2014-10-17.
  4. ^Hitchcock, A. S.(February 1951) [May 1935].Manual of the Grasses of the United States.Miscellaneous Publication, no. 200. Agnes Chase (rev.). Washington, D. C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture. pp. 789–790.
  5. ^abcdLim (2013),p. 243.
  6. ^"Coix lacryma-jobi".Germplasm Resources Information Network.Agricultural Research Service,United States Department of Agriculture.
  7. ^abcHitchcock, A. S.(2003).Management of Cancer with Chinese Medicine.Agnes Chase (rev.). Donica Publishing. p. 364.ISBN9781901149043.
  8. ^abCoyle, Meaghan; Liu, Junfeng (2019).Evidence-based Clinical Chinese Medicine - Volume 16: Atopic Dermatitis.World Scientific. p. 332.ISBN9789811206139.
  9. ^abcKoyama (1996),p. 63.
  10. ^Taylor, G.D. (Autumn 1953). "Some crop distributions by tribes in upland Southeast Asia".Southwestern Journal of Anthropology.9(3). University of New Mexico: 296–308.doi:10.1086/soutjanth.9.3.3628701.JSTOR3628701.S2CID129989677.
  11. ^ab"Search forCoix lacryma-jobi".World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Retrieved2015-02-01.
  12. ^Simoons (2014),p. 82.
  13. ^Watt (1904),p. 194.
  14. ^Namba, Tsuneo[in Japanese];Fukuda (1980).Genshoku wakanyaku zukanMàu gốc cùng hán dược đồ giam(in Japanese). Vol. 1. Hoikusha. p. 132.
  15. ^Jain, S. K.; Banerjee, Deb Kumar (January 1974)."Preliminary observations on the ethnobotany of the genusCoix".Economic Botany.28(1): 38–42.Bibcode:1974EcBot..28...38J.doi:10.1007/BF02861377.ISSN0013-0001.S2CID32324938.
  16. ^abcdSchaaffhausen, Reimar v. (1 July 1952)."Adlay or job's tears—A cereal of potentially greater economic importance"(PDF).Economic Botany.6(3): 216–227.Bibcode:1952EcBot...6..216S.doi:10.1007/BF02985062.S2CID33268153.
  17. ^Christopher, J.; Mini, L.S.; Omanakumari, N. (1995). "Cytological evidence for the hybrid origin of Coix taxon (2n = 32)".Caryologia.48(2): 181.doi:10.1080/00087114.1995.10797328.
  18. ^abWatt (1904),p. 191.
  19. ^Mudaliyar, C. Tadulinga; Rangachari, K. (2019)."16 Coix".A Handbook of Some South Indian Grasses.Good Press. pp. 178–179.
  20. ^Ochiai (2010),p. 1.
  21. ^abCorke, H.; Huang, Y.; Li, J.S. (2016),"Coix: Overview",Encyclopedia of Food Grains,Elsevier, pp. 184–189,doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394437-5.00008-5,ISBN9780123947864,retrieved2022-11-13
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