Wikipedia

Johnston Atoll

Johnston Atollis anunincorporated territoryof the United States, under the jurisdiction of theUnited States Air Force(USAF). The island is closed to public entry, and limited access for management needs is only granted by a letter of authorization from the USAF. A special use permit is also required from theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS) to access the island by boat or enter the waters surrounding the island, which are designated as aNational Wildlife Refugeand part of thePacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument.The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge extends from the shore out to 12 nautical miles, continuing as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System out to 200 nautical miles. The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument extends from the shore out to 200 nautical miles.

Johnston Atoll
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Annotated satellite image of Johnston Atoll
Annotated satellite image of Johnston Atoll
Johnston Atoll is located in North Pacific
Johnston Atoll
Johnston Atoll
Location in the North Pacific Ocean
Coordinates:16°44′13″N169°31′26″W/ 16.73694°N 169.52389°W/16.73694; -169.52389
CountryUnited States
StatusUnorganized, unincorporated territory
Claimed by U.S.March 19, 1858
Named forCaptain Charles James Johnston,HMSCornwallis
Government
• TypeAdministered as aNational Wildlife Refuge
• BodyUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service
• SuperintendentLaura Beauregard,Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument
Area
• Total
1.03 sq mi (2.67 km2)
•EEZ157,389 sq mi (407,635 km2)
Highest elevation
(Sand Island)
30 ft (10 m)
Lowest elevation
(Pacific Ocean)
0 ft (0 m)
Population
(2008)
• Total
0
Time zoneUTC−10(Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone)
Geocode127
ISO 3166 codeUM
Websitefws.gov/refuge/Johnston_Atoll/

The isolatedatollhas been under the control of theU.S. militarysince 1934.[1]During that time, it was variously used as a naval refueling depot,[2]anairbase,[3]a testing site fornuclear[4]andbiological weapons,[5]a secret missile base,[6]and a site for the storage and disposal ofchemical weapons[7]andAgent Orange.[8]Those activities left the area environmentally contaminated. The USAF completed remediating the contamination in 2004 and performs only periodic monitoring today.[9]

The island is home to thriving communities of nesting seabirds and has significant marine biodiversity. USAF and USFWS teams conductenvironmental monitoringand maintenance to protect the native wildlife.[10]In the 21st century, one ecological problem wasyellow crazy antsthat were killing seabirds, but by the 2020s these were eradicated.

The atoll originally consisted of two islands, Johnston and Sand island surrounded partially by a coral reef. Over the 20th century, those two islands were expanded, and two new islands, North (Akau) and East (Hikina) were created mostly by coral dredging. A long airstrip was built on Johnston, and there are also various channels through the coral reef.

Geography

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Johnston Atoll is located between the Marshall Islands and the Hawaiian Islands.


Johnston Atoll is a 1,300-hectare (3,200-acre) atoll in theNorth Pacific Ocean,located about 750nautical miles(1,390km;860mi) southwest of the island ofHawaiʻi,and is grouped as one of theUnited States Minor Outlying Islands.[11]The atoll, which is located on acoral reefplatform, has four islands. Johnston Island and Sand Island are both enlarged natural features, whileAkau(North) andHikina(East) are twoartificial islandsformed by coraldredging.[11]By 1964, dredge and fill operations had increased the size of Johnston Island to 596 acres (241 ha) from its original 46 acres (19 ha), increased the size of Sand Island from 10 to 22 acres (4.0 to 8.9 ha), and added the two new islands, North and East, of 25 and 18 acres (10.1 and 7.3 ha) respectively.[12]

Johnston Island has been significantly increased in size through coral dredging.

The four islands compose a total land area of 2.67 square kilometers (1.03 square miles).[11]Due to the atoll's tilt, much of the reef on the southeast portion has subsided. But even though it does not have an encircling reef crest, the reef crest on the northwest portion of the atoll does provide for a shallowlagoon,with depths ranging from 3 to 10 m (10 to 33 ft).

The climate is tropical but generally dry. Northeasttrade windsare consistent. There is little seasonal temperature variation.[11]With elevation ranging from sea level to 5 m (16 ft) at Summit Peak, the islands contain some low-growing vegetation and palm trees on mostly flat terrain, and no natural freshwater resources.[11]

Areas (ha)
Island 1942 1964 (final)
Johnston Island 19 241
Sand Island 4 9
North (Akau) Island N/A 10
East (Hikina) Island N/A 7
Total land area 23 267
Johnston Atoll 13,000 13,000

Climate

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Johnston Atoll has ahot semi-arid climate(Köppen:BSh;Trewartha:BSha). It is a dry atoll with just over 26 inches (660 mm) of annual rainfall.[13]

Climate data for Johnston Atoll (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1953–2003)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °F (°C) 90
(32) 		89
(32) 		90
(32) 		90
(32) 		91
(33) 		100
(38) 		101
(38) 		100
(38) 		95
(35) 		95
(35) 		96
(36) 		89
(32) 		101
(38)
Mean maximum °F (°C) 87.3
(30.7) 		87.2
(30.7) 		87.7
(30.9) 		88.6
(31.4) 		89.7
(32.1) 		92.2
(33.4) 		92.4
(33.6) 		92.8
(33.8) 		92.3
(33.5) 		91.3
(32.9) 		89.2
(31.8) 		87.5
(30.8) 		93.5
(34.2)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 83.8
(28.8) 		84.1
(28.9) 		84.4
(29.1) 		85.6
(29.8) 		87.1
(30.6) 		88.9
(31.6) 		89.4
(31.9) 		89.9
(32.2) 		89.7
(32.1) 		88.2
(31.2) 		85.8
(29.9) 		84.5
(29.2) 		86.8
(30.4)
Daily mean °F (°C) 78.6
(25.9) 		78.7
(25.9) 		78.9
(26.1) 		79.9
(26.6) 		81.3
(27.4) 		83.0
(28.3) 		83.6
(28.7) 		84.1
(28.9) 		83.9
(28.8) 		82.9
(28.3) 		81.0
(27.2) 		79.5
(26.4) 		81.3
(27.4)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 73.4
(23.0) 		73.4
(23.0) 		73.4
(23.0) 		74.2
(23.4) 		75.5
(24.2) 		77.1
(25.1) 		77.8
(25.4) 		78.4
(25.8) 		78.1
(25.6) 		77.5
(25.3) 		76.2
(24.6) 		74.6
(23.7) 		75.8
(24.3)
Mean minimum °F (°C) 69.1
(20.6) 		69.8
(21.0) 		69.2
(20.7) 		70.7
(21.5) 		71.9
(22.2) 		73.8
(23.2) 		73.9
(23.3) 		74.3
(23.5) 		74.4
(23.6) 		73.5
(23.1) 		71.7
(22.1) 		69.8
(21.0) 		67.1
(19.5)
Record low °F (°C) 63
(17) 		64
(18) 		65
(18) 		65
(18) 		68
(20) 		69
(21) 		70
(21) 		70
(21) 		71
(22) 		68
(20) 		63
(17) 		62
(17) 		62
(17)
Averageprecipitationinches (mm) 1.75
(44) 		1.23
(31) 		2.79
(71) 		1.74
(44) 		1.02
(26) 		0.83
(21) 		1.52
(39) 		1.93
(49) 		2.91
(74) 		3.98
(101) 		3.90
(99) 		2.73
(69) 		26.33
(669)
Average precipitation days(≥ 0.01 inch) 11.2 8.9 12.2 12.0 10.0 10.4 12.2 11.9 14.3 16.0 12.7 13.9 145.7
Source: NOAA[14]

Wildlife

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Butterflyfishswim in Johnston Atoll corals

About 300 species offishhave been recorded from the reefs and inshore waters of the atoll. It is also visited bygreen turtlesandHawaiian monk seals.The possibility ofhumpback whalesusing the waters as a breeding ground has been suggested, albeit in small numbers and with irregular occurrences.[15]Many othercetaceanspossibly migrate through the area, includingCuvier's beaked whales.[16]

Birds

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Juvenile Red-footed booby seabird on Johnston Island, 2012
Great Frigate seabirds on Johnston

Seabird species recorded as breeding on the atoll includeBulwer's petrel,wedge-tailed shearwater,Christmas shearwater,white-tailed tropicbird,red-tailed tropicbird,brown booby,red-footed booby,masked booby,great frigatebird,spectacled tern,sooty tern,brown noddy,black noddy,andwhite tern.It is the world's largest colony of red-tailed tropicbirds, with 10,800 nests in 2020.[17]It is visited bymigratoryshorebirds,including thePacific golden plover,wandering tattler,bristle-thighed curlew,ruddy turnstoneandsanderling.[18]The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as anImportant Bird AreabyBirdLife Internationalfor itsseabirdcolonies.[19]

Flora

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The first list of plants cataloged on Johnston Atoll was published inVascular Plants of Johnston and Wake Islands(1931), based on the Tanager Expedition (1923) collections. Three species were described:Lepturus repens,Boerhavia diffusa,andTribulus cistoides.In the 1940s, when the island was used for aviation activities for the war,Pluchea odoratawas introduced fromHonolulu.[20]

History

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Early history

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Johnston and Sand island when it was a bird reserve

The first Western record of the atoll was on September 2, 1796, when the Boston-based AmericanbrigSallyaccidentally grounded on a shoal near the islands. The ship's captain, Joseph Pierpont, published his experience in several American newspapers the following year, accurately portraying Johnston and Sand Island along with part of the reef. Still, he did not name or lay claim to the area.[21]The islands were not officially named untilCaptainCharles J. Johnston of theRoyal NavalshipHMSCornwallissighted them on December 14, 1807.[22]The ship's journal recorded: "on the 14th [December] made a new discovery, viz. two very low islands, in lat. 16° 52′ N. long. 190° 26′ E., having a dangerous reef to the east of them, and the whole not exceeding four miles in extent".[23]

In 1856, the United States enacted theGuano Islands Act,which allowed US citizens to take possession of uninhabited and unclaimed[24]islands containingguanodeposits. Under this act, William Parker and R. F. Ryan chartered the schoonerPalestinespecifically to find Johnston Atoll. They located guano on the atoll on March 19, 1858. They proceeded to claim the island as U.S. territory.[25]That same year,S. C. Allen,sailing on theKalamaunder a commission fromKing Kamehameha IVof Hawaiʻi, sailed to Johnston Atoll, removed the American flag, and claimed the atoll for theKingdom of Hawaii(June 14–19, 1858).[24]Allen named the atoll "Kalama" and the nearby smaller island "Cornwallis."[26][27]

Returning on July 22, 1858,[24]the captain of thePalestineagain hoisted the American flag to re-assert US sovereignty over the island. On July 27, however, the "derelict and abandoned" atoll was declared part of the domain of Kamehameha IV.[27]On its July visit, however, thePalestineleft two crew members on the island to gatherphosphate.Later that year, Kamehameha revoked the lease granted to Allen when he learned the atoll had been claimed previously by the United States.[25]However, this did not prevent the Hawaiian Territory from making use of the atoll or asserting ownership.

In 1872, Parker's widow sued for title to the island based on her husband's development work there. The US Attorney General denied that claim because Parker had sold his share several years before.[28]

By 1890, the atoll's guano deposits had been almost entirely depleted (mined out) by U.S. interests operating under the Guano Islands Act. In 1892,HMSChampionsurveyed and mapped the island to determine its suitability as a telegraph cable station. (This investigation was dropped when it was decided to run the cable viaFanning Island).[24]On January 16, 1893, the HawaiianLegationat London convened a diplomatic conference over this temporary occupation of the island. However, the Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown the following day (January 17). By 1898, the United States had taken possession,[29]and a US Territorial Government was established. On September 11, 1909, this office leased Johnston Atoll to a private citizen, Max Schlemmen of Honolulu, for agricultural purposes. The lease stipulated planting of coconut trees, and that "lessee will not allow use of explosives.. in the water immediately adjacent.. for the purposes of killing or capturing fish.. lessee will not allow destruction or capturing of birds.."[24]The lessee soon abandoned the project, however, and on August 9, 1918, the lease was reassigned to a Honolulu-based Japanese fishing company. A sampan carried a work party to the island; they built a wood shed on the SE coast of the larger island and ran a smalltramlineup the slope of the low hill to facilitate the removal of guano. Neither the quantity nor the quality of the guano was sufficient to cover the cost of gathering it, and the project was soon abandoned.[27]

National Wildlife Refuge since 1926

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USSTanagerwith members of the 1923Tanager Expedition

TheTanager Expeditionwas a joint expedition sponsored by theU.S. Department of Agricultureand theBishop MuseumofHawaii,which visited the atoll in 1923. The expedition to the atoll consisted of two teams accompanied by destroyer convoys, with the first departing Honolulu on July 7, 1923, aboard theUSSWhippoorwill,which conducted the first survey of Johnston Island in the 20th century. Aerial survey and mapping flights over Johnston were conducted with aDouglas DT-2floatplanecarried on her fantail, which was hoisted into the water for takeoff. July 10–22, 1923, the atoll was recorded in a pioneeringaerial photographyproject. TheUSSTanagerleft Honolulu on July 16 and joined up with theWhippoorwillto complete the survey and then traveled to Wake Island to complete surveys there.[30]Tents were pitched on the southwest beach of fine white sand, and a thorough biological survey was made. Hundreds of sea birds of a dozen kinds were the principal inhabitants, together with lizards, insects, and hermit crabs. The reefs and shallow water abounded with fish and other marine life.[27]

USSWhippoorwill

On June 29, 1926, byExecutive Order4467,PresidentCalvin CoolidgeestablishedJohnston Island Reservationas a federal bird refuge and placed it under theU.S. Department of Agriculture,as a "refuge and breeding ground for native birds."[31]Johnston Atoll was added to theUnited States National Wildlife Refugesystem in 1926, and renamed theJohnston Island National Wildlife Refugein 1940.[32]The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect the tropical ecosystem and the wildlife that it harbors.[33]However, the Department of Agriculture had no ships, and theUnited States Navywas interested in the atoll for strategic reasons, so withExecutive Order6935on December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed the islands under the "control and jurisdiction of theSecretary of the Navyfor administrative purposes ", but subject to use as a refuge and breeding ground for native birds, under theUnited States Department of the Interior.

On February 14, 1941, PresidentFranklin RooseveltissuedExecutive Order8682to create naval defense areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established the "Johnston Island Naval Defensive Sea Area", encompassing the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Johnston Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Johnston unless authorized by theSecretary of the Navy.

Aerial photos of Sand island in 1964 for thePacific Ocean Biological Survey Program

In 1990, two full-time U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel, a Refuge Manager and a biologist, were stationed on Johnston Atoll to handle increased biological, contaminant, and resource conflict activities.[34]

After the military mission on the island ended in 2004, the atoll was administered by thePacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex.The outer islets and water rights were managed cooperatively by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with some of the actual Johnston Island land mass remaining under the control of theUnited States Air Force(USAF) for environmental remediation and theDefense Threat Reduction Agency(DTRA) for plutonium cleanup purposes. However, on January 6, 2009, under the authority of section 2 of theAntiquities Act,thePacific Remote Islands Marine National Monumentwas established by PresidentGeorge W. Bushto administer and protect Johnston Island along with six other Pacific islands.[35]Thenational monumentincludes Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge within its boundaries and contains 696 acres (2.82 km2) of land and over 800,000 acres (3,200 km2) of water area.[36]The Administration of PresidentBarack Obamain 2014 extended the protected area to encompass the entireExclusive Economic Zone,by banning all commercial fishing activities. Under a 2017 review of all national monuments extended since 1996, then-Secretary of the InteriorRyan Zinkerecommended permitting fishing outside the 12-mile limit.[37]

Military control 1934–2004

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On December 29, 1934, PresidentFranklin D. RooseveltwithExecutive Order6935transferred control of Johnston Atoll to theUnited States Navyunder the 14th Naval District, Pearl Harbor, to establish anair station,and also to theUnited States Department of the Interiorto administer the bird refuge. In 1948, the USAF assumed control of the atoll.[1]

Video ofRichard Nixon's visit to Johnston Atoll in 1969

During theOperation Hardtacknuclear test series from April 22 to August 19, 1958, the administration of Johnston Atoll was assigned to the Commander ofJoint Task Force 7.After the tests were completed, the island reverted to the command of the US Air Force.[38]

From 1963 to 1970, the Navy'sJoint Task force 8and theAtomic Energy Commission(AEC) held joint operational control of the island during high-altitude nuclear testing operations.[citation needed]

In 1970, operational control was handed back to the Air Force until July 1973, whenDefense Special Weapons Agencywas given host-management responsibility by theSecretary of Defense.[citation needed]Over the years, sequential descendant organizations have been the Defense Atomic Support Agency (DASA) from 1959 to 1971, theDefense Nuclear Agency(DNA) from 1971 to 1996, and the Defense Special Weapons Agency (DSWA) from 1996 to 1998. In 1998, Defense Special Weapons Agency and selected elements of the Office of Secretary of Defense were combined to form theDefense Threat Reduction Agency(DTRA).[39]In 1999, host-management responsibility transferred from the Defense Threat Reduction Agency once again to the Air Force until the Air Force mission ended in 2004 and the base was closed.[citation needed]

Sand Island seaplane base

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Aerial approach to the former base on Johnston Island (top). The ship channel is visible as a darker blue area starting at left and continuing up around the right side of Johnston Island, with Sand Island on the near side (bottom).

In 1935, personnel from the US Navy'sPatrol Wing Twocarried out some minor construction to develop the atoll for seaplane operation. In 1936, the Navy began the first of many changes to enlarge the atoll's land area. They erected some buildings and a boat landing on Sand Island and blasted coral to clear a 3,600 feet (1,100 m) seaplane landing.[3]Several seaplanes made flights from Hawaii to Johnston, such as that of a squadron of six aircraft in November 1935.

In November 1939, civilian contractors commenced further work on Sand Island to allow the operation of one squadron of patrol planes with tender support. Part of the lagoon was dredged, and the excavated material was used to make a parking area connected by a 2,000-foot (610 m) causeway to Sand Island. Three seaplane landings were cleared, one 11,000 feet (3,400 m) by 1,000 feet (300 m) and two cross-landings each 7,000 feet (2,100 m) by 800 feet (240 m) and dredged to a depth of 8 feet (2.4 m). Sand Island had barracks built for 400 men, a mess hall, an underground hospital, a radio station, water tanks, and a 100 feet (30 m) steel control tower.[3]In December 1943 an additional 10 acres (4.0 hectares) of parking was added to the seaplane base.[3]

On May 26, 1942, aUnited States NavyConsolidated PBY-5 Catalinawrecked at Johnston Atoll. The Catalina pilot made a normal power landing and immediately applied the throttle for take-off. At about 50 knots, the plane swerved to the left and continued into a violent waterloop. The plane's hull was broken open, and the Catalina sank immediately.[40]

After the war, on March 27, 1949, aPBY-6A Catalinahad to make a forced landing during a flight fromKwajaleinto Johnston Island. The plane was damaged beyond repair, and the crew of 11 was rescued nine hours later by a Navy ship, which sank the plane using gunfire.[41]

In 1958, a proposed support agreement for Navy Seaplane operations at Johnston Island was under discussion, though it was never completed because a requirement for the operation failed to materialize.[34]

Airfield

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Main article:Johnston Island Air Force Base
Map of Johnston Atoll from a 1970 atlas

By September 1941, construction of anairfieldon Johnston Island commenced. A 4,000-by-500-foot (1,220 by 150 m) runway was built with two 400-man barracks, two mess halls, a cold-storage building, an underground hospital, a fresh-water plant, shop buildings, and fuel storage. The runway was complete by December 7, 1941, though in December 1943, the99th Naval Construction Battalionarrived at the atoll and proceeded to lengthen the runway to 6,000 feet (1,800 m).[3]The runway was lengthened and improved as the island was enlarged.

DuringWorld War II,Johnston Atoll was used as a refueling base for submarines and also as an aircraft refueling stop for American bombers transiting the Pacific Ocean, including theBoeing B-29Enola Gay.[2]By 1944, the atoll was one of the busiest air transport terminals in the Pacific.Air Transport Commandaeromedical evacuation planes stopped at Johnston en route to Hawaii. FollowingV-J Dayon August 14, 1945, Johnston Atoll saw the flow of men and aircraft coming from the mainland into the Pacific turn around. By 1947, over 1,300 B-29 andB-24bombers had passed through theMarianas,Kwajalein,Johnston Island, andOahuen route toMather Fieldand civilian life.

Following World War II,Johnston Atoll Airportwas used commercially byContinental Air Micronesia,touching down between Honolulu andMajuro.When the aircraft landed, soldiers surrounded the aircraft, and passengers were not allowed to leave the aircraft.Aloha Airlinesalso made weekly scheduled flights to the island carrying civilian and military personnel. In the 1990s, there were flights almost daily. Some days saw up to three arrivals.[42]Just before movement of the chemical munitions to Johnston Atoll, the Surgeon General, Public Health Service, reviewed the shipment and the Johnston Atoll storage plans. His recommendations caused the Secretary of Defense to issue instructions in December 1970 to suspend missile launches and all non-essential aircraft flights. As a result, Air Micronesia's service was immediately discontinued, and missile firings were terminated, except for two 1975 satellite launches deemed critical to the island's mission.[34]

There were many times when the runway was needed for emergency landings for civil and military aircraft. When the runway was decommissioned, it could no longer be a potential emergency landing place when planning flight routes across the Pacific Ocean. As of 2003, the airfield at Johnston Atoll consisted of an unmaintained closed single 9,000 feet (2,700 m) asphalt/concrete runway 5/23, a parallel taxiway, and a large paved ramp along the southeast side of the runway.[42]

World War II 1941–1945

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Main article:Shelling of Johnston and Palmyra

In February 1941, Johnston Atoll was designated a Naval Defensive Sea Area and Airspace Reservation. On the day the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941,USSIndianapoliswas out of her home port ofPearl Harborto make a simulated bombardment at Johnston Island. Japan's strike at Pearl Harbor occurred as the ship was unloading marines, civilians, and stores on the atoll.[43]On December 15, 1941, the atoll was shelled outside the reef by a Japanese submarine, which had been part of the attack on Pearl Harbor eight days earlier. Several buildings, including the power station, were hit, but no personnel were injured.[3]: 159 Additional Japanese shelling occurred on December 22 and 23, 1941. On all occasions, Johnston Atoll's coastal artillery returned fire, driving off the sub.

In July 1942, the civilian contractors at the atoll were replaced by 500 men from the5th and 10th Naval Construction Battalions,who expanded the fuel storage and water production at the base and built additional facilities. The 5th Battalion departed in January 1943.[3]: 159 In December 1943, the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at the atoll. It proceeded to lengthen the runway to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) and add 10 acres (4.0 ha) of parking to the seaplane base.[3]: 160 

Coast Guard mission 1957–1992

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Main article:LORAN-C transmitter Johnston Island
Sand Island in 1990 (foreground) with the U.S. Coast Guard LORAN Station.

On January 25, 1957, theDepartment of Treasurywas granted a 5-year permit for theUnited States Coast Guard(USCG) to operate and maintain aLong Range Aid to Navigation(LORAN) transmitting station on Johnston Atoll. Two years later, in December 1959, the Secretary of Defense approved the Secretary of the Treasury's request to use Sand Island for U.S. Coast Guard LORAN A and C station sites. The USCG was granted permission to install a LORAN A and C station on Sand Island to be staffed by U.S. Coast Guard personnel through June 30, 1992. The permit for a LORAN station to operate on Johnston Island was terminated in 1962. On November 1, 1957, a new United States Coast GuardLORAN-Astation was commissioned. By 1958, the Coast Guard LORAN Station at Johnston Island began transmitting on a 24-hour basis, thus establishing a new LORAN rate in the Central Pacific. The new rate between Johnston Island andFrench Frigate Shoalsgave a higher order of accuracy for fi xing positions in the steamship lanes from Oahu, Hawaii, to Midway Island. In the past, this was impossible in some areas along this important shipping route. The original U.S. Coast Guard LORAN-A Station on Johnston Island ceased operations on June 30, 1961, when the new station on nearby Sand Island began transmitting using a larger 180-foot antenna.

The LORAN-C station was disestablished on July 1, 1992, and all Coast Guard personnel, electronic equipment, and property departed that month. Buildings on Sand Island were transferred to other activities. LORAN whip antennas on Johnston and Sand Islands were removed, and the 625-foot LORAN tower and antenna were demolished on December 3, 1992. The LORAN A and C stations and buildings on Sand Island were then dismantled and removed.[44][45]

National nuclear weapon test site 1958–1963

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See also:Operation Fishbowl,Operation Dominic,andOperation Hardtack I

Successes

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Between 1958 and 1975, Johnston Atoll was used as an American nationalnuclear testsite for atmospheric and extremelyhigh-altitude nuclear explosionsinouter space.In 1958, Johnston Atoll was the location of the two "Hardtack I" nuclear tests firings. One conducted August 1, 1958, was codenamed "Hardtack Teak",and one conducted August 12, 1958, was codenamed" Orange. "Both tests detonated 3.8-megatonhydrogen bombslaunched to high altitudes by rockets from Johnston Atoll.

Johnston Island was also used as the launch site of 124sounding rocketsgoing up as high as 1,158 kilometers (720 miles). These carried scientific instruments andtelemetryequipment, either in support of thenuclear bombtests or in experimentalantisatellitetechnology.[46][6]

Array ofsounding rocketswith instruments for making scientific measurements of high-altitude nuclear tests during liftoff preparations in the Scientific Row area on Johnston Island

EightPGM-17 Thormissiles deployed by theU.S. Air Force(USAF) were launched from Johnston Island in 1962 as part of "Operation Fishbowl,"a part of"Operation Dominic"nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific. The first launch in" Operation Fishbowl "was a successful research and development launch with nowarhead.In the end, "Operation Fishbowl" produced four successful high-altitude detonations: "Starfish Prime,""Checkmate,""Bluegill Triple Prime,"and"Kingfish."In addition, it produced one atmospheric nuclear explosion,"Tightrope."

On July 9, 1962, "Starfish Prime" had a 1.4-megatonexplosion, using aW49warhead at an altitude of about 400 kilometers (250 miles). It created a very brief fireball visible over a wide area, plus bright artificial auroras visible in Hawaii for several minutes. "Starfish Prime" also produced anelectromagnetic pulsethat disrupted someelectric powerandcommunication systemsin Hawaii. It pumped enough radiation into theVan Allen beltsto destroy or damage sevensatellitesin orbit.

The final Fishbowl launch that used a Thor missile carried the "Kingfish" 400-kiloton warhead up to its 98-kilometer (61 mi) detonation altitude. Although it was officially one of the Operation Fishbowl tests, it is sometimes not listed among high-altitude nuclear tests because of its lower detonation altitude. "Tightrope" was the final test of Operation Fishbowl and detonated on November 3, 1962. It launched on anuclear-armed Nike-Herculesmissile and was detonated at a lower altitude than the other tests:

"At Johnston Island, there was an intense white flash. Even with high-density goggles, the burst was too bright to view, even for a few seconds. A distinct thermal pulse was felt on bare skin. A yellow-orange disc was formed, and transformed itself into a purple doughnut. A glowing purple cloud was faintly visible for a few minutes."[47]The nuclear yield was reported in most official documents as "less than 20kilotons."One report by theU.S. governmentreported the yield of the "Tightrope" test as ten kilotons.[48]Seven sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island in support of theTightropetest, and this was the final American nuclear atmospheric test.

Failures

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Nuclear-armed Thor missile explodes and burns on the launch pad at Johnston Island during the failed "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test, July 25, 1962

The "Fishbowl" series included four failures, all deliberately disrupted by range safety officers when the missiles' systems failed during launch and were aborted. The second launch of the Fishbowl series, "Bluegill",carried an active warhead. Bluegill was" lost "by a defective range safety tracking radar and had to be destroyed 10 minutes after liftoff, even though it probably ascended successfully. The subsequent nuclear weapon launch failures from Johnston Atoll caused severe contamination to the island and surrounding areas withweapons-gradeplutoniumandamericiumthat remains an issue to this day.

The failure of the "Bluegill" launch created in effect adirty bombbut did not release the nuclear warhead's plutonium debris onto Johnston Atoll as the missile fell into the ocean south of the island and was not recovered. However, the "Starfish", "Bluegill Prime", and "Bluegill Double Prime" test launch failures in 1962 scattered radioactive debris over Johnston Island contaminating it, the lagoon, and Sand Island with plutonium for decades.[38][7]

Johnston Island Launch Emplacement One (LE1) after a Thor missile launch failure and explosion contaminated the island with plutonium during the Operation "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test, July 1962

"Starfish",a high altitude Thor launched nuclear test scheduled for June 20, 1962, was the first to contaminate the atoll. The rocket with the 1.45-megaton Starfish device (W49 warhead and theMK-4re-entry vehicle) on its nose was launched that evening, but the Thor missile engine cut out only 59 seconds after launch. The range safety officer sent a destruct signal 65 seconds after launch, and the missile was destroyed at approximately 10.6 kilometers (6.6 miles) altitude—the warhead high explosive detonated in a 1-point safe fashion, destroying the warhead without producing nuclear yield. Large pieces of the plutonium-contaminated missile, including fragments of the warhead, booster rocket, engine, re-entry vehicle, and missile parts, fell back on Johnston Island. More wreckage, along with plutonium contamination, was found on nearby Sand Island.

"Bluegill Prime,"the second attempt to launch the payload, which failed last time, was scheduled for 23:15 (local) on July 25, 1962. It, too, was a genuine disaster and caused the most severe plutonium contamination on the island. The Thor missile carried one pod, two re-entry vehicles, and theW50nuclear warhead. The missile engine malfunctioned immediately after ignition, and the range safety officer fired the destruct system while the missile was still on the launch pad. The Johnston Island launch complex was demolished in the subsequent explosions and fire, which burned through the night. The launch emplacement and portions of the island were contaminated with radioactive plutonium spread by the blast, fire, and wind-blown smoke.

Inspection of Thor rocket engine remains on Johnston Island after failure of "Bluegill Prime" nuclear test attempt, July 1962

Afterward, the Johnston Island launch complex was heavily damaged and contaminated with plutonium. Missile launches and nuclear testing halted until the radioactive debris was dumped, soils were recovered, and the launch emplacement rebuilt. Before tests could resume, three months of repairs, decontamination, and rebuilding of the LE1 and the backup pad LE2 were necessary. To continue with the testing program, U.S. troops were sent in to do a rapid cleanup. The troops scrubbed down the revetments and launch pad, carted away debris, and removed the top layer of coral around the contaminated launch pad. The plutonium-contaminated rubbish was dumped in the lagoon, polluting the surrounding marine environment. Over 550 drums of contaminated material were dumped in the ocean off Johnston from 1964 to 1965. At the time of the Bluegill Prime disaster, a bulldozer and grader scraped the top fill around the launch pad. It was then dumped into the lagoon to make a ramp so the rest of the debris could be loaded onto the landing craft to be dumped into the ocean. An estimated 10 percent of the plutonium from the test device was in the fill used to make the ramp. Then, the ramp was covered and placed into a 25 acres (100,000 m2) landfill on the island during 1962 dredging to extend the island. The lagoon was again dredged in 1963–1964 and used to expand Johnston Island from 220 to 625 acres (89 to 253 ha), recontaminating additional portions of the island.

PGM-17 Thor missile at Johnston Island

On October 15, 1962, the "Bluegill Double Prime"test also misfired. During the test, the rocket was destroyed at a height of 109,000 feet after it malfunctioned 90 seconds into the flight. U.S. Defense Department officials confirm that the rocket's destruction contributed to the radioactive pollution on the island.

In 1963, the U.S. Senate ratified theLimited Test Ban Treaty,which contained a provision known as "Safeguard C". Safeguard C was the basis for maintaining Johnston Atoll as a "ready to test" above-ground nuclear testing site should atmospheric nuclear testing ever be deemed necessary again. In 1993, Congress appropriated no funds for the Johnston Atoll "Safeguard C" mission, ending it.

Anti-satellite mission 1962–1975

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Main article:Program 437

Program 437 turned thePGM-17 Thorinto an operational anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon system, a capability that was kept top secret even after it was deployed. The Program 437 mission was approved for development by U.S. Secretary of DefenseRobert McNamaraon November 20, 1962, and based at the atoll. Program 437 used modified Thor missiles that had been returned from deployment in Great Britain and was the second deployed U.S. operational nuclear anti-satellite operation. Eighteen more suborbital Thor launches took place from Johnston Island from 1964 to 1975 in support of Program 437. In 1965–1966, four Program 437 Thors were launched with 'Alternate Payloads' for satellite inspection. This was an elaboration of the system to allow visual verification of the target before destroying it. These flights may have been related to the late 1960s Program 922, a non-nuclear version of Thor with infrared homing and a high-explosive warhead. Thors were active near the two Johnston Island launch pads after 1964. However, partly because of theVietnam War,in October 1970, the Department of Defense transferred Program 437 to standby status as an economic measure. TheStrategic Arms Limitation Talksled toAnti-Ballistic Missile Treatythat prohibited 'interference with national means of verification', which meant that ASATs were not allowed, by treaty, to attack Soviet spy satellites. Thors were removed from Johnston Atoll and were stored in mothballed war-reserve condition atVandenberg Air Force Basefrom 1970 until the anti-satellite mission of Johnston Island facilities ceased on August 10, 1974. The program was officially discontinued on April 1, 1975, when any possibility of restoring the ASAT program was finally terminated. Eighteen Thor launches in support of the Program 437 Alternate Payload (AP) mission took place from Johnston Atoll's Launch emplacements.[6] Two Thor missiles were launched from the Island in late 1975, months after the "officially discontinued" date.

Baker–Nunn satellite tracking camera station

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See also:Project Space TrackandUnited States Space Surveillance Network

TheSpace Detection and Tracking Systemor SPADATS[49]was operated byNorth American Aerospace Defense Command(NORAD) along with theU.S. Air Force Spacetrack system,TheNavy Space Surveillance SystemandCanadian Forces Air Defense CommandSatellite Tracking Unit.TheSmithsonian Astrophysical Observatoryalso operated a dozen 3.5 tonBaker-Nunn Camerasystems (none at Johnston) for cataloging of artificial satellites. The U.S. Air Force had ten Baker-Nunn camera stations worldwide, mostly from 1960 to 1977, with a phase-out beginning in 1964.[50]

The Baker-Nunn space camera station was constructed on Sand Island. It was functioning by 1965.[34]USAF 18th Surveillance Squadronoperated the Baker-Nunn camera at a station built along the causeway on Sand Island until 1975 when a contract to operate the four remaining Air Force stations was awarded toBendix Field Engineering Corporation.In about 1977, the camera at Sand Island was moved toDaegu,South Korea.[27]Baker-Nunn were rendered obsolete with the Initial Operational Capability of 3 GEODSS optical tracking sites at Daegu, Korea;Mount Haleakala,Maui andWhite Sands Missile Range.A fourth site was operational in 1985 atDiego Garcia,and a proposed fifth site in Portugal was canceled. The Daegu, Korea site was closed due to encroaching city lights. GEODSS tracked satellites at night, though theMIT Lincoln Laboratorytest site, co-located with Site 1 at White Sands, did track asteroids in the daytime as proof of concept in the early 1980s.[50]

Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center

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See also:SAMOS (satellite)andMid-air retrieval
A USAFJC-130aircraft retrieving a SAMOS film capsule

Satellite and Missile Observation System Project(SAMOS-E) or "E-6" was a relatively short-lived series ofUnited Statesvisualreconnaissance satellitesin the early 1960s. SAMOS was also known by the unclassified terms Program 101 and Program 201.[51]The Air Force program was used as a cover for the initial development of theCentral Intelligence Agency'sKey Hole(includingCoronaandGambit) reconnaissance satellites systems.[52]Imaging was performed with film cameras and television surveillance from polarlow Earth orbitswith film canisters returning via capsule and parachute withmid-air retrieval.SAMOS was first launched in 1960 but not operational until 1963, with all of the missions being launched from Vandenberg AFB.[53]

Corona film capsule recovery sequence. Credit: CIA Directorate of Science and Technology

During the early months of the SAMOS program, it was essential not only to hide the Corona and GAMBIT technical efforts under a screen of SAMOS activity but also to make the orbital vehicle portions of the two systems resemble one another in outward appearance. Thus, some of the configuration details of SAMOS were decided less by engineering logic than by the need to camouflage GAMBIT. Hence, theoretically, a GAMBIT could be launched without alerting many people to its real nature. Problems relative to tracking networks, communications, and recovery were resolved with the decision in late February 1961 to use Johnston Island as the program's film capsule descent and recovery zone.[54] On July 10, 1961, work was initiated on four buildings of the Johnston Island Recovery Operations Center for theNational Reconnaissance Office.Men from the Johnston Atoll facility would recover the parachuting film canister capsules with a radar-equippedJC-130aircraft by capturing them in the air with a specialized recovery apparatus.[55] The recovery center was also responsible for collecting the radioactive scientific data pods dropped from missiles following launch andnuclear detonation.[56]

Biological warfare test site 1965–1968

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See also:Project SHAD,Project 112,andDeseret Test Center

The atoll was subject to large-scale bioweapons testing over four years starting in 1965. The American strategic tests of bioweapons were as expensive and elaborate as the tests of the first hydrogen bombs atEniwetok Atoll.They involved enough ships to have made the world's fifth-largest independent navy. One experiment involved several barges with hundreds ofrhesus monkeys.It is estimated that one jet with bioweapon spray "would probably be more efficient at causing human deaths than a ten-megaton hydrogen bomb."[5]

In the lead-up to biological warfare testing in the Pacific underProject 112andProject SHAD,a new virus was discovered during the Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program by teams from the Smithsonian's Division of Birds aboard aUnited States Armytugboatinvolved in the program. Initially, the effort's name was the Pacific Ocean Ornithological Project; however, it was changed once someone noted the natural acronym "POOP".[57]First isolated in 1964 thetick-borne virus was discovered inOrnithodoros capensisticks, found in a nest ofcommon noddy(Anous stolidus) at Sand Island, Johnston Atoll. It was designatedJohnston Atoll Virusand is related to influenza.[58]

In February, March, and April 1965, Johnston Atoll was used to launch biological attacks against U.S. Army and Navy vessels 100 miles (160 km) south-west of Johnston island in vulnerability, defense, and decontamination tests conducted by theDeseret Test Centerduring Project SHAD under Project 112. Test DTC 64-4 (Deseret Test Center) was initially called "RED BEVA" (Biological EVAluation), though the name was later changed to "Shady Grove", likely for operational security reasons. The biological agents released during this test includedFrancisella tularensis(formerly calledPasteurella tularensis) (Agent UL), the causative agent oftularemia;Coxiella burnetii(Agent OU), the causative agent ofQ fever;andBacillus globigii(Agent BG).[59]During Project SHAD,Bacillus globigiiwas used to simulate biological warfare agents (such asanthrax), because it was then considered a contaminant with little health consequence to humans; however, it is now considered a human pathogen.[60]Ships equipped with the E-2 multi-head disseminator andA-4C aircraftequipped with Aero 14B spray tanks released live pathogenic agents in nine aerial and four surface trials in phase B of the test series from February 12 to March 15, 1965, and in four aerial trials in phase D of the test series from March 22 to April 3, 1965.[59]

According to Project SHAD veteran Jack Alderson, who commanded the Army tugs, area three at Johnston Atoll was located at the most downwind part of the island and consisted of a collapsibleNissen hutfor weapons preparation and some communications.[61]

Chemical weapon storage 1971–2001

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In 1970, Congress redefined the island's military mission as the storage and destruction of chemical weapons. TheUnited States Armyleased 41 acres (17 ha) on the atoll to store chemical weapons held inOkinawa,Japan. Johnston Atoll became a chemical weapons storage site in 1971, holding about 6.6 percent of the U.S. militarychemical weaponarsenal.[7]The chemical weapons were brought from Okinawa underOperation Red Hatwith the re-deployment of the267th Chemical Company.They consisted of rockets, mines, artillery projectiles, and bulk 1-ton containers filled withSarin,Agent VX,vomiting agent, and blister agent such asmustard gas.Chemical weapons fromWest Germanyand World War II era weapons from theSolomon Islandswere also stored on the island after 1990.[62]Chemical agents were stored in the high-security Red Hat Storage Area (RHSA) which included hardened igloos in theweapon storage area,the Red Hat building (#850), two Red Hathazardous wastewarehouses (#851 and #852), an open storage area, and security entrances and guard towers.

Some of the other weapons stored at the site were shipped from U.S. stockpiles in West Germany in 1990. These shipments followed a 1986 agreement between the U.S. and West Germany to move the munitions.[63]Merchant ships carrying the munitions left West Germany underOperation Golden PythonandOperation Steel Boxin October 1990 and arrived at Johnston Island November 6, 1990. Although the ships were unloaded within nine days, the unpacking and storing of munitions continued into 1991.[64]The remainder of the chemical weapons was a small number of World War II era weapons shipped from the Solomon Islands.[65]

Agent Orange storage 1972–1977

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LeakingAgent OrangeBarrels in storage at Johnston Atoll, circa 1973
See also:Operation Pacer IVYandAgent Orange § Johnston Atoll

Agent Orangewas brought to Johnston Atoll fromSouth VietnamandGulfport, Mississippiin 1972 underOperation Pacer IVY.It was stored on the northwest corner of the island known as the Herbicide Orange Storage site, dubbed the "Agent Orange Yard". The Agent Orange was eventually destroyed duringOperation Pacer HOon the Dutch incineration shipMTVulcanusin the Summer of 1977.[8]TheU.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) reported that 1,800,000 gallons of Herbicide Orange were stored at Johnston Atoll and that an additional 480,000 gallons stored at Gulfport, Mississippi, was brought to Johnston Atoll for destruction.[66]Leaking barrels during storage, and spills during re-drumming operations, contaminated both the storage area and the lagoon with herbicide residue and its toxic contaminant2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin.[67][68]

Chemical weapon demilitarization mission 1990–2000

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Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) building
Main article:JACADS

The Army'sJohnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System(JACADS) was the first full-scale chemical weapons disposal facility. Built to incinerate chemical munitions on the island, planning started in 1981, construction began in 1985, and it was completed five years later. Following construction and facility characterization, JACADS began operational verification testing (OVT) in June 1990. From 1990 until 1993, the Army conducted four planned periods of Operational Verification Testing (OVT), required by Public Law 100–456. OVT was completed in March 1993, demonstrating that the reverse assembly incineration technology was adequate and that JACADS operations met all environmental parameters. The transition to full-scale operations started in May 1993, but the facility did not begin full-scale operations until August 1993.

All of the chemical weapons once stored on Johnston Island were demilitarized, and the agents incinerated at JACADS, with the process completed in the year 2000. Later, the destruction of legacy hazardous waste material associated with chemical weapon storage and cleanup was completed. JACADS was demolished by 2003, and the island was stripped of its remaining infrastructure and environmentally remediated.[62]

Closure and remaining structures

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Johnston Atoll as seen from the ISS in 2006. (South is up in this image)

In 2003, structures and facilities, including those used in JACADS, were removed, and the runway was marked closed. The last flight out for official personnel was June 15, 2004. After this date, the base was completely deserted, with the only structures left standing being the Joint Operations Center (JOC) building at the east end of the runway, chemical bunkers in the weapon storage area, and at least oneQuonset hut.[69]

Built in 1964, the JOC is a four-floor concrete and steel administration building for the island that has no windows and was built to withstand acategory IVtropical cycloneas well as atmospheric nuclear tests. The building remains standing but was gutted entirely in 2004 during anasbestos abatementproject. All doors of the JOC except one have been welded shut. The ground floor has a side building attached that serves as a facility for decontamination. It contains three long snaking corridors and 55 shower heads one could walk through during decontamination.[70]

Rows of bunkers in the Red Hat Storage Area remain intact; however, an agreement was established between the U.S. Army and EPA Region IX on August 21, 2003, that the Munitions Demilitarization Building (MDB) at JACADS would be demolished and the bunkers in the RHSA used for disposal of construction rubble and debris. After placement of the debris inside the bunkers, they were secured, and the entries were blocked with a concrete block barrier (a.k.a. King Tut Block) to prevent access to the bunker interior.[34]

Contamination and cleanup

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Over the years, leaks of Agent Orange, as well as chemical weapon leaks in the weapon storage area, occurred where caustic chemicals such assodium hydroxidewere used to mitigate toxic agents during cleanup. Larger spills of nerve and mustard agents within the MCD at JACADS also took place. The EPA cited small releases of chemical weapon components from JACADS. Multiple studies of the Johnston Atoll environment and ecology have been conducted, and the atoll is likely the most studied island in the Pacific.[34]

Studies at the atoll on the effect ofPCBcontamination in reefdamselfish(Abudefduf sordidus) demonstrated thatembryonicabnormalities could be used as a metric for comparing contaminated and uncontaminated areas.[71]Some PCB contamination in the lagoon was traced to Coast Guard disposal practices ofPCB-ladenelectrical transformers.

In 1962, plutonium pollution following three failed nuclear missile launches was heaviest near the destroyed launch emplacement, in the lagoon offshore of the launch pad, and near Sand Island. The contaminated launch site was stripped, and the debris gathered and buried in the island's 1962 expansion. A comprehensive radiological survey was completed in 1980 to record transuranic contamination from the 1962 THOR missile aborts. The Air Force also initiated research on methods to remove dioxin contamination from soil resulting from leakage of the stored herbicide Agent Orange.[34]Since then, U.S. defense authorities have surveyed the island in a series of studies.

Contaminated structures were dismantled and isolated within the former Thor Launch Emplacement No. 1 (LE-1) as a start for the cleanup program. About 45,000 tons of soil contaminated with radioactive isotopes was collected and placed into a fenced area covering 24 acres (9.7 ha) on the island's north. The area was known as the Radiological Control Area and heavily contaminated with highly radioactive Plutonium.[38][72]The Pluto Yard is on the site of the LE1 where the 1962 missile explosion occurred, and also where a highly contaminated loading ramp was buried that was made for loading plutonium contaminated debris onto small boats that was dumped at sea. Remediation included a plutonium "mining" operation called the Johnston Atoll Plutonium Contaminated Soil Cleanup Project. The collected radioactive soil and other debris were buried in a landfill created within the former LE-1 area from June 2002 through November 11, 2002. Remediation at the Radiation Control Area included the construction of a 61-centimeter-thick cap of coral sealing the landfill. Permanent markers were placed at each corner of the landfill to identify the landfill area.[34]

After closing

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Sooty terns in flight, 2019
Dog searches for crazy ants, 2021

The atoll was placed up for auction via the U.S.General Services Administration(GSA) in 2005 before it was withdrawn. The stripped Johnston Island was briefly offered for sale with several deed restrictions in 2005 as a "residence or vacation getaway," with potential usage for "eco-tourism" by the GSA's Office of Real Property Utilization and Disposal. The proposed sale included the unique postal zip code 96558, formerly assigned to the Armed Forces in the Pacific. The proposed sale did not include running water, electricity, or activation of the closed runway. The details of the offering were outlined on GSA's website and in a newsletter of the Center for Land Use Interpretation as unusual real estate listing # 6384, Johnston Island.[73][74]

On August 22, 2006, Johnston Island was struck byHurricane Ioke.The eastern eye-wall passed directly over the atoll, with winds exceeding 100 mph (160 km/h). Twelve people were on the island when the hurricane struck, and part of a crew was sent to deliver a USAF contractor who sampled groundwater contamination levels. All 12 survived, and one wrote a first-hand account of taking shelter from the storm in the JOC building.[70]

On December 9, 2007, the United States Coast Guard swept the runway at Johnston Island of debris and used the runway in the removal and rescue of an ill Taiwanese fisherman toOahu,Hawaii.The fisherman was transferred from the Taiwanese fishing vesselSheng Yi Tsai No. 166to the Coast Guard buoy tenderKukuion December 6, 2007. The fisherman was transported to the island, and then picked up by a Coast GuardHC-130 Herculesrescue plane fromKodiak, Alaska.[75]

Since the base was closed, the atoll has been visited by many vessels crossing the Pacific, as the deserted atoll has a strong lure due to the activities once performed there. Visitors have blogged about stopping there during a trip or have posted photos of their visits.[76]

In 2010, a Fish and Wildlife survey team identified a swarm ofAnoplolepisants that had invaded the Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. Thecrazy antsthreatened vital seabird colonies and needed eradication.[77]The "Crazy Ant Strike Team" project was led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, who achieved a 99% reduction in ant numbers by 2013. The team camped in a bunker previously used as a fallout shelter and office.[9][78]Full eradication of the species from the atoll was achieved in 2021.[79]

Demographics

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Historical population
YearPop.±%
19701,007—
1980327−67.5%
1990173−47.1%
20001,100+535.8%
2004396−64.0%
2005361−8.8%
200640−88.9%
202010−75.0%

Johnston Atoll has never had any indigenous inhabitants. However, during the late part of the 20th century, averages of about 300 American military personnel and 1,000 civilian contractors were present at any given time.[11]Today, it is uninhabited except for a handful of workers with the Crazy Ant Strike Team project, who live on the island for six months at a time with little outside contact.[10]

The primary means of transportation to this island was the airport, which had a paved military runway, or by ship via a pier and ship channel through the atoll's coral reef system. The islands were wired with 13 outgoing and 10 incoming commercial telephone lines, a 60-channel submarine cable, 22 DSN circuits by satellite, anAutodinwith standard remote terminal, a digital telephone switch, theMilitary Affiliated Radio System(MARS station), a UHF/VHF air-ground radio, and a link to the Pacific Consolidated Telecommunications Network (PCTN) satellite.Amateur radiooperators occasionally transmitted from the island, using the KH3call-signprefix.[27]The United States Undersea Cable Corporation was awarded contracts to lay underwater cables in the Pacific. A cable called "Wet Wash C" was laid in 1966 between Makua, Hawaii, and the Johnston Island Air Force Base.USNSNeptunesurveyed the route and laid 769 nautical miles (1,424 km; 885 mi) of cable and 45 repeaters. The Simplex Wire and Cable Company manufactured these cables, with the repeaters being supplied by Felten and Guilleaume. In 1993, a satellite communication ground station was added to augment the atoll's communications capability.

Johnston Atoll's economic activity was limited to providing services to American military and contractor personnel on the island. The island was regularly resupplied by ship or barge, and all foodstuffs and manufactured goods were imported. The base had six 2.5-megawatt electrical generators using diesel engines. The runway was also available to commercial airlines for emergency landings (a fairly common event). It was a regular stop on Continental Micronesia airline's "island hopper" service for many years between Hawaii and the Marshall Islands.

There were no official license plates issued for use on Johnston Atoll. U.S. government vehicles were issued U.S. government license plates, and private vehicles retained the plates from which they were registered. According to reputable license plate collectors, some Johnston Atoll license plates were created as souvenirs and have even been soldonlineto collectors, but they were not officially issued.[80][81]

Areas

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Site Location Alternative name
Red Hat Storage AreaArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′24″N169°32′21″W/ 16.7234°N 169.5393°W/16.7234; -169.5393(Red Hat Storage Area) "Red Hat Area"
Radiological Control AreaArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′49″N169°32′14″W/ 16.7303°N 169.5371°W/16.7303; -169.5371(Radiological Control Area) "Pluto' Yard" (Plutonium Yard)
Site Herbicide Orange Storage SiteArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′49″N169°32′09″W/ 16.7304°N 169.5359°W/16.7304; -169.5359(Herbicide Orange Storage Site) Agent Orange Yard
Joint Operations Center buildingArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine(JOC) 16°44′08″N169°31′24″W/ 16.7355°N 169.5233°W/16.7355; -169.5233(Joint Operations Center building) JOC
Scientific RowArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′29″N169°32′24″W/ 16.7246°N 169.5399°W/16.7246; -169.5399(Scientific Row)
Runway 5/23 (closed)ArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′38″N169°32′18″W/ 16.7271°N 169.5384°W/16.7271; -169.5384(Runway 5/23 (closed))
Navy PierArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°44′09″N169°31′40″W/ 16.7359°N 169.5279°W/16.7359; -169.5279(Navy Pier)
Wharf Area and Demilitarization Zone LArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°44′03″N169°31′52″W/ 16.7342°N 169.5310°W/16.7342; -169.5310(Wharf Area and Demilitarization Zone L)
Hama PointArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′49″N169°31′16″W/ 16.7304°N 169.5212°W/16.7304; -169.5212(Hama Point)
Bunker buildings 746 through 761ArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°43′30″N169°32′12″W/ 16.7250°N 169.5367°W/16.7250; -169.5367(Bunker buildings 746 through 761)
Southwest Area 16°43′15″N169°32′40″W/ 16.7209°N 169.5444°W/16.7209; -169.5444(Southwest Area)
Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) buildingArchivedJanuary 29, 2015, at theWayback Machine 16°44′8″N169°31′31″W/ 16.73556°N 169.52528°W/16.73556; -169.52528(Board on Army Science and Technology (BAST) building)

Launch facilities

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Component Location
Johnston Island LC1Redstonelaunch complex. Pad 1 16°44′11″N169°31′20″W/ 16.7365°N 169.5222°W/16.7365; -169.5222(LC2 Redstone launch complex Pad 2)
Johnston Island LC2 Redstone launch complex. Pad 2 16°44′13″N169°31′21″W/ 16.7369°N 169.5226°W/16.7369; -169.5226(LC2 Redstone launch complex Pad 2)
Johnston Island HAD23Tomahawk Sandialaunch complex. HAD Launcher 23 16°44′15″N169°31′33″W/ 16.7375°N 169.5258°W/16.7375; -169.5258(HAD23 launch complex)
Johnston Island UL6Sandhawklaunch complex. Universal Launcher 6 16°44′15″N169°31′33″W/ 16.7374°N 169.5257°W/16.7374; -169.5257(UL6 launch complex)
Johnston Island LE1Thor-Deltalaunch complex. Launch Emplacement 1 16°43′44″N169°32′23″W/ 16.7288°N 169.5398°W/16.7288; -169.5398(LE1 launch complex)
Johnston Island LE2 Thor-Delta launch complex. Launch Emplacement 2 16°43′44″N169°32′23″W/ 16.7288°N 169.5398°W/16.7288; -169.5398(LE2 launch complex)
Johnston Island S Johnston IslandOperation Dominicsouth launchers 16°44′13″N169°31′26″W/ 16.7370°N 169.5240°W/16.7370; -169.5240(south launchers)

See also

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References

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  • This article incorporatespublic domain materialfrom websites or documents of theUnited States Government.
  • This article incorporatespublic domain materialfromThe World Factbook.CIA.
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