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Juniper

For other uses, seeJuniper (disambiguation).

Junipersareconiferoustrees and shrubs in thegenusJuniperus(/dʒuːˈnɪpərəs/joo-NIP-ər-əs)[1]of the cypress familyCupressaceae.Depending on thetaxonomy,between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widelydistributedthroughout theNorthern Hemisphereas far south as tropicalAfrica,including theArctic,parts of Asia, andCentral America.[not in body]The highest-known juniper forest occurs at an altitude of 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) in southeasternTibetand the northernHimalayas,creating one of the highesttree lineson earth.[2]

Juniper
Utah juniper(Juniperus osteosperma) inNevada, United States
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Cupressales
Family: Cupressaceae
Subfamily: Cupressoideae
Genus: Juniperus
L.
Type species
Juniperus communis
Species

See text

Synonyms
  • ArceuthosAntoine & Kotschy
  • OxycedrusCarrière
  • SabinaMiller
  • SabinellaNakai
  • Thujiaecarpusvon Trautvetter

Description

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Cones and leaves ofJuniperus communis

Junipers vary in size and shape from talltrees,20–40 metres (66–131 feet) tall, to columnar or low-spreadingshrubswith long, trailing branches. They areevergreenwith needle-like and/or scale-likeleaves.They can be eithermonoeciousordioecious.The femaleseed conesare very distinctive, with fleshy,fruit-like coalescing scales which fuse together to forma berrylike structure(galbulus),4–27 millimetres (3⁄16–1+1⁄16inches) long, with one to 12 unwinged, hard-shelledseeds.In some species, these "berries" are red-brown or orange, but in most, they are blue; they are often aromatic and can be used as aspice.The seed maturation time varies between species from 6 to 18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to the otherCupressaceae,with 6 to 20 scales.

Inhardiness zones7 through 10, junipers can bloom and releasepollenseveral times each year. Different junipers bloom in autumn, while most pollinate from early winter until late spring.[3]

Detail ofJuniperus chinensisshoots, with juvenile (needle-like) leaves (left), adult scale leaves, and immature male cones (right)

Many junipers (e.g.J. chinensis,J. virginiana) have two types of leaves; seedlings and some twigs of older trees have needle-like leaves5–25 mm (3⁄16–1 in) long, on mature plants the leaves are overlapping like (mostly) tiny scales, measuring2–4 mm (3⁄32–5⁄32in). When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, with adult foliage in full sunlight. Leaves on fast-growing 'whip' shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult.

In some species (e.g.J. communis,J. squamata), all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, with no scale leaves. In some of these (e.g.J. communis), the needles are jointed at the base, while in others (e.g.J. squamata), the needles merge smoothly with the stem. The needle leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle. This can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses (Cupressus,Chamaecyparis) and other related genera are soft and not prickly.

Junipers aregymnosperms,which means they have seeds, but no flowers or fruits. Depending on the species, the seeds they produce take 1–3 years to develop. The impermeable coat of the seed keeps water from getting in and protects the embryo when dispersed. It can also result in a longdormancythat is usually broken by physically damaging the seed coat. Dispersal can occur from being swallowed whole by frugivores and mammals. The resistance of theseed coatallows it to be passed down through the digestive system without being destroyed along the way. These seeds last a long time, as they can be dispersed long distances over the course of a few years.[4]

Classification

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Juniper needles, magnified. Left,J. communis(Juniperussect.Juniperus,needles 'jointed' at base). Right,J. chinensis(Juniperussect.Sabina,needles merging smoothly with the stem, not jointed at base)
Cones and seeds

Sections

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The genus has been divided into sections in somewhat different ways. A system based onmolecular phylogeneticdata from 2013 and earlier used three sections:[5]

  • SectionCaryocedrus– 1 species with large, blue, woody, 3-seeded cones; native to the Mediterranean
  • SectionJuniperus– 14 species with blue or red seed cones, often with 3 seeds; 12 species native to theeastern hemisphere,one endemic to North America, and one species,J. communis,circumboreal
  • SectionSabina– about 60 species with variously coloured seed cones with 1 to 13 seeds; species about equally divided between the eastern and western hemispheresJuniperussect.Sabinawas further divided into clades.[5]

A new classification of gymnosperms published in 2022 recognised the sections as three separate genera:Arceuthosfor sectionCaryocedrus,Sabinafor sectionSabina,andJuniperussensu strictofor sectionJuniperus.[6]

Species

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Phylogeny ofJuniperus[7][8]
section

J. drupaceade Labillardière

Caryocedrus
section

J. cedrusWebb & Berthelot 1848

J. oxycedrusvon Linné

J. rigidavon Siebold & Zuccarini

J. taxifoliaHooker & Arn.

J. communisvon Linné

Juniperus
section

J. flaccidavon Schlechtendal

J. standleyiSteyermark

J. monticolaMartínez

J. osteosperma(Torrey) Little

J. occidentalisHooker

J. gamboanaMartínez

J. deppeanaSteud.

J. asheiBuchholz

J. monosperma(Engelmann) Sarg.

J. coahuilensis(Martínez) Gaussen ex Adams

J. pinchotiiSudworth

J. angosturanaAdams

J. comitanaMartínez

J. pseudosabinaFisch. & von Meyer

J. tibeticaKom.

J. pingiiCheng ex Cheng

J. przewalskiiKom.

J. saltuariasaltuaria Rehder & Wilson

J. convalliumRehder & Wilson

J. indicaBertoloni

J. coxiiJackson

J. recurvaBuchanan-Hamilton ex Don

J. komaroviiFlorin

J. squamataBuchanan-Hamilton ex Don

J. phoeniceavon Linné

J. proceraHochst. ex Endlicher

J. thuriferavon Linné

J. procumbens(von Siebold ex Endlicher) Miquel

J. gausseniiCheng

J. chinensisvon Linné

J. microsperma(Cheng & Fu) Adams

J. blancoiMartínez

J. horizontalisMoench

J. semiglobosaRegel

J. sabinavon Linné

J. bermudianavon Linné

J. graciliorPilger

J. saxicolaBritton & Wilson

J. virginianavon Linné

J. scopulorumSarg.

J. barbadensisvon Linné

Sabina

Juniperussect.Caryocedrus

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Cones with three seeds fused together; needles with two stomatal bands. One species:[9]

Juniperussect.Juniperus

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Needle-leaf junipers; the adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base. Species:[citation needed]

Juniperussect.Sabina

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Scale-leaf junipers; adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those ofCupressusspecies, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base (including in the few that have only needle-like leaves; see below right).

Old World species
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Avenue ofJuniperus chinensis
Juniperus phoeniceaonEl Hierro,Canary Islands
New World species
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Juniperus grandisin the easternSierra Nevada,Rock Creek Canyon, California
Juniperus virginianain October laden with ripe cones

Additional species

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As of April 2022,Plants of the World Onlineaccepts the following additional species to those listed above:[12]

Ecology

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Juniper plants thrive in a variety of environments. The junipers fromLahaulvalley can be found in dry, rocky locations planted in stony soils. Grazing animals and the villagers are rapidly using up these plants. There are several important features of the leaves and wood of this plant that cause villagers to cut down these trees and make use of them.[13]Additionally, thewestern juniperplants, a particular species in the juniper genus, are found inwoodlandswhere there are large, open spaces. Junipers are known to encompass open areas so that they have more exposure to rainfall.[4]Decreases in fires and a lack of livestock grazing are the two major causes of western juniper takeover. This invasion of junipers is driving changes in the environment. For instance, the ecosystem for other species previously living in the environment and farm animals has been compromised.[14]When junipers increase in population, there is a decrease in woody species like mountain bigsagebrushandaspen.Among the juniper trees themselves, there is increased competition, which results in a decrease in berry production.[15]Herbaceous cover decreases, and junipers are often mistaken for weeds. As a result, several farmers have thinned the juniper trees or removed them completely. However, this reduction did not result in any significant difference on wildlife survival. Some small mammals found it advantageous to have thinner juniper trees, while cutting down the entire tree was not favorable.[16][17]

Some junipers are susceptible toGymnosporangiumrust disease and can be a serious problem for those people growingappletrees, an alternatehostof the disease.

Juniper is the exclusive food plant of thelarvaeof somemoths and butterflies,includingBucculatrix inusitata,juniper carpet,Chionodes electella,Chionodes viduella,juniper pug,andpine beauty.Those of thetortrix mothCydia duplicanafeed on the bark around injuries orcanker.

Cultivation

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Juniperus×pfitzeriana‘Gold Coast’

Junipers are among the most popular conifers to be cultivated asornamentalsubjects for parks and gardens. They have been bred over many years to produce a wide range of forms, in terms of colour, shape and size. They include some of the dwarfest (miniature) cultivars. They are also used forbonsai.Some species found in cultivation include:

Toxicity

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In drier areas, juniper pollen easily becomes airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs. This pollen can also irritate the skin and cause contact dermatitis.[citation needed]Cross-allergenic reactions are common between juniper pollen and the pollen of all species ofcypress.[3]

Monoecious juniper plants are highly allergenic, with anOgren Plant Allergy Scale(OPALS) rating of 9 out of 10.[citation needed]Completely male juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 10[citation needed],and release abundant amounts of pollen. Conversely, all-female juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered "allergy-fighting".[3]

Uses

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Juniperus communiswood pieces, with aU.S. pennyfor scale, showing the narrowgrowth ringsof the species
Plymouth Ginfactory, United Kingdom

Ethnic and herbal use

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Most species of juniper are flexible and have a high compression strength-to-weight ratio.[18]This has made the wood a traditional choice for the construction of hunting bows among some of theNative American culturesin theGreat Basinregion.[19]These bow staves are typically backed with sinew to provide tension strength that the wood may lack.[18]

Ancient Mesopotamians believed that juniper oil could be used to ward off theevil eye.[20]

Embalming vessels in the burial chambers from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara have shown the usage of Juniper oil/tar.[21]

SomeIndigenous peoples of the Americasuse juniper intraditional medicine;for instance theDineh (Navajo),who use it fordiabetes.[22]Juniper ash has also been historically consumed as a source ofcalciumby the Navajo people.[23][24]

Juniper is traditionally used inScottishfolkloric andGaelic Polytheistsainingrites, such as those performed atHogmanay(New Year), where the smoke of burning juniper, accompanied by traditional prayers and other customary rites, is used to cleanse, bless, and protect the household and its inhabitants.[25]

Local people in Lahaul Valley present juniper leaves to their deities as a folk tradition. It is also useful as a folk remedy for pains and aches, as well asepilepsyandasthma.They are reported to collect large amounts of juniper leaves and wood for building and religious purposes.[13]

General use

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Further information:Juniper berry

Juniper berries are a spice used in a wide variety of culinary dishes and are best known for the primary flavoring ingin(and responsible for gin's name, which is a shortening of the Dutch word for juniper,jenever). A juniper-based spirit is made by fermenting juniper berries and water to create a "wine" that is then distilled. This is often sold as a juniper brandy in eastern Europe. Juniper berries are also used as the primary flavor in the liquorjenever.Juniper berry sauce is often a popular flavoring choice forquail,pheasant,veal,rabbit,venison,and other game dishes.

A tea can be made from the young twigs.[26]Twigs or needles are used to flavour the traditional Finnish junperbeer,sahtias well.

Dense and rot resistant, the irregular trunks of junipers have been used as fence posts and firewood. Stands that produce enough wood for specialty uses generally go under the common name "cedar",[27]includingJuniperus virginiana,the "red cedar" that is used widely in cedar drawers and closets.[28]The lack of space or a hyphen between the words "red" and "cedar" is sometimes used to indicate that this species is not a true cedar (Cedrus).[29]

Juniper in weave is a traditionalcladdingtechnique used in Northern Europe, e.g. atHavrå,Norway.[30]

Juniper berries aresteam distilledto produce anessential oilthat may vary from colorless to yellow or pale green.[31]Some of its chemical components areterpenoidsandaromatic compounds,such ascadinene,asesquiterpene.[32]

References

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  1. ^Sunset Western Garden Book,1995: 606–607
  2. ^Hampe, Hampe; Petit, Re´my J. (2010). "Cryptic forest refugia on the 'Roof of the World'".New Phytologist.185(1): 5–7.doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03112.x.hdl:10261/64089.PMID20088971.
  3. ^abcOgren, Thomas (2015).The Allergy-Fighting Garden.Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. pp. 131–133.ISBN978-1-60774-491-7.
  4. ^abChamber, J.C.; Vander Wall, S.B.; Schupp, E.W. (1999). "Seed and seedling ecology of pinon and juniper species in the pygmy woodlands of western North America".The Botanical Review.65(1): 1–38.Bibcode:1999BotRv..65....1C.doi:10.1007/bf02856556.S2CID38377131.
  5. ^abAdams, Robert P. & Schwarzbach, Andrea E. (2013)."Phylogeny ofJuniperususing nrDNA and four cpDNA regions "(PDF).Phytologia.95(2): 179–187.Retrieved2022-04-22.
  6. ^Yang, Yong; Ferguson, David Kay; Liu, Bing; Mao, Kang-Shan; Gao, Lian-Ming; Zhang, Shou-Zhou; Wan, Tao; Rushforth, Keith; Zhang, Zhi-Xiang (2022)."Recent advances on phylogenomics of gymnosperms and a new classification".Plant Diversity.44(4): 340–350.Bibcode:2022PlDiv..44..340Y.doi:10.1016/j.pld.2022.05.003.PMC9363647.PMID35967253.
  7. ^Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; Yang, Ying-Ying; Yang, Jun-Bo; Yang, Zhi-Yun; Hu, Yi; Ma, Hong; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Li, De-Zhu; Smith, Stephen A.; Yi, Ting-Shuang; et al. (2021)."Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms"(PDF).Nature Plants.7(8): 1015–1025.Bibcode:2021NatPl...7.1015S.bioRxiv10.1101/2021.03.13.435279.doi:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4.PMID34282286.S2CID232282918.
  8. ^Stull, Gregory W.; et al. (2021)."main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre".Figshare.doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  9. ^Uckele, Kathryn A.; Adams, Robert P.; Schwarzbach, Andrea E. & Parchman, Thomas L. (2021)."Genome-wide RAD sequencing resolves the evolutionary history of serrate leafJuniperusand reveals discordance with chloroplast phylogeny ".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.156:107022.Bibcode:2021MolPE.15607022U.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2020.107022.PMID33242585.S2CID227182680.
  10. ^Adams, R.P., Al-Farsi, A. & Schwarzbach, A.E. (2014). Confirmation of the southern-most population of Juniperus seravschanica in Oman by DNA sequencing of nrDNA and four cpDNA regions Phytologia 96: 218-224.
  11. ^Adams, Robert."Phytologia (April 2010) 92(1)"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-07-21.
  12. ^"JuniperusL. "Plants of the World Online.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Retrieved2022-04-22.
  13. ^abRawat, Yashwant S.; Everson, Colin S. (2012-10-01). "Ecological status and uses of juniper species in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley, North-western Himalaya, India".Journal of Mountain Science.9(5): 676–686.Bibcode:2012JMouS...9..676R.doi:10.1007/s11629-012-2274-0.ISSN1672-6316.S2CID129730525.
  14. ^Belsky, A. Joy (1996). "Viewpoint: Western Juniper Expansion: Is It a Threat to Arid Northwestern Ecosystems?".Journal of Range Management.49(1): 53–59.doi:10.2307/4002725.hdl:10150/644347.JSTOR4002725.S2CID55314700.
  15. ^Miller, Richard F.; Svejcar, Tony J.; Rose, Jeffrey A. (2000). "Impacts of Western Juniper on Plant Community Composition and Structure".Journal of Range Management.53(6): 574–585.doi:10.2307/4003150.hdl:10150/643810.JSTOR4003150.
  16. ^Bombaci, Sara; Pejchar, Liba (2016)."Consequences of pinyon and juniper woodland reduction for wildlife in North America".Forest Ecology and Management.365:34–50.Bibcode:2016ForEM.365...34B.doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.01.018.
  17. ^Gallo, Travis; Stinson, Lani T.; Pejchar, Liba (2016). "Pinyon-juniper removal has long-term effects on mammals".Forest Ecology and Management.377:93–100.Bibcode:2016ForEM.377...93G.doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.029.
  18. ^abHamm, Jim (March 2001).Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 2.Lyons Press. p. 117.ISBN1585740861.
  19. ^Millar CI, Smith KT (2017)."Reconsidering the process for bow-stave removal from juniper trees in the Great Basin"(PDF).Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology.37(2): 125–131.
  20. ^Elliott, John H. (11 November 2015).Beware the Evil Eye Volume 1: The Evil Eye in the Bible and the Ancient World—Introduction, Mesopotamia, and Egypt.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9781498273657.
  21. ^Rageot, Maxime; Hussein, Ramadan B.; Beck, Susanne; Altmann-Wendling, Victoria; Ibrahim, Mohammed I. M.; Bahgat, Mahmoud M.; Yousef, Ahmed M.; Mittelstaedt, Katja; Filippi, Jean-Jacques; Buckley, Stephen; Spiteri, Cynthianne; Stockhammer, Philipp W. (2023-02-01)."Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming".Nature.614(7947): 287–293.Bibcode:2023Natur.614..287R.doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05663-4.ISSN1476-4687.PMC9908542.PMID36725928.
  22. ^McCabe, Melvina; Gohdes, Dorothy; Morgan, Frank; Eakin, Joanne; Sanders, Margaret; Schmitt, Cheryl (2005)."Herbal therapies and diabetes among Navajo Indians"(PDF).Diabetes Care.28(6): 1534–1535.doi:10.2337/diacare.28.6.1534-a.PMID15920089.
  23. ^Christensen, Nedra K; Sorenson, ANN W; Hendricks, Deloy G; Munger, Ronald (1998). "Juniper Ash as a Source of Calcium in the Navajo Diet".Journal of the American Dietetic Association.98(3): 333–4.doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(98)00077-7.PMID9508018.
  24. ^Ballew, Carol; White, Linda L.; Strauss, Karen F.; Benson, Lois J.; Mendlein, James M.; Mokdad, Ali H. (1997-10-01)."Intake of Nutrients and Food Sources of Nutrients among the Navajo: Findings from the Navajo Health and Nutrition Survey".The Journal of Nutrition.127(10): 2085S–2093S.doi:10.1093/jn/127.10.2085s.ISSN0022-3166.PMID9339174.
  25. ^McNeill, F. Marian (1961). "X Hogmany Rites and Superstitions".The Silver Bough, Vol.3: A Calendar of Scottish National Festivals, Halloween to Yule.Glasgow: William MacLellan. p. 113.ISBN978-0-948474-04-0.
  26. ^The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants.United States Department of the Army.New York:Skyhorse Publishing.2009. p. 63.ISBN978-1-60239-692-0.OCLC277203364.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  27. ^Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977].Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees(field guide ed.). Seattle:Mountaineers Books.pp. 177, 179–180.ISBN978-1-68051-329-5.OCLC1141235469.
  28. ^"Eastern Red Cedar".MDC Discover Nature.Missouri Department of Conservation.Retrieved15 July2019.
  29. ^"Cedars - Trees of Reed".Retrieved15 July2019.
  30. ^Berge, Bjørn (2009).The Ecology of Building Materials(2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-85617-537-1.
  31. ^Cantrell, Charles L.; Zheljazkov, Valtcho D.; Carvalho, Camila R.; Astatkie, Tess; Jeliazkova, Ekaterina A.; Rosa, Luiz H. (9 September 2014). Chang, Ing-Feng (ed.)."Dual Extraction of Essential Oil and Podophyllotoxin from Creeping Juniper (Juniperus horizontalis) ".PLOS ONE.9(9): e106057.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j6057C.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106057.ISSN1932-6203.PMC4159210.PMID25203255.
  32. ^"Final report on the safety assessment ofJuniperus communisextract, Juniperus oxycedrus extract, Juniperus oxycedrus tar,Juniperus phoeniceaextract, andJuniperus virginianaextract ".Int J Toxicol.20(Suppl 2): 41–56. 2001.doi:10.1080/10915810160233758.PMID11558640.S2CID40114722.

Further reading

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